Academic literature on the topic 'Discretionary salt'

AbstractObjectiveTo examine temporal trends and determinants of discretionary salt use in the USA.DesignMultiple logistic regression was used to assess temporal trends in discretionary salt use at the table and during home cooking/preparation, adjusting for demographic characteristics, using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2012. Prevalence and determinants of discretionary salt use in 2009–2012 were also examined.SettingParticipants answered salt use questions after completing a 24 h dietary recall in a mobile examination centre.SubjectsNationally representative sample of non-institutionalized US children and adults, aged ≥2 years.ResultsFrom 2003 to 2012, the proportion of the population who reported using salt ‘very often’ declined; from 18 % to 12 % for use at the table (P<0·01) and from 42 % to 37 % during home cooking (P<0·02). While one-third of the population reported never adding salt at the table, most used it during home cooking/preparation (93 %). Use of discretionary salt was least commonly reported among young children and older adults and demographic and health subgroups at risk of CVD.ConclusionsWhile most people reported using salt during home cooking/preparation, a minority reported use at the table. Reported ‘very often’ discretionary salt use has declined. That discretionary salt use is less common among those at risk of CVD suggests awareness of messages to limit Na intake.

(1) Background: The best method to assess discretionary salt intake in population surveys has not been established. (2) Methods: This secondary analysis compared three different methods of measuring sodium intake from discretionary salt in a convenience sample of 109 adults in New Zealand. Participants replaced their household salt with lithium-tagged salt provided by researchers over eight days. Baseline 24 h urine was collected, and two further 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recalls were collected between days six and eight. Discretionary salt was estimated from the lithium-tagged salt, focused questions in the 24 h dietary recall, and the ‘subtraction method’ (a combination of 24 h urine and 24 h dietary recall measures). (3) Results: Around one-third of estimates from the ‘subtraction method’ were negative and therefore unrealistic. The mean difference between 24 h dietary recall and lithium-tagged salt estimates for sodium from discretionary salt mean were 457 mg sodium/day and 65 mg/day for mean and median, respectively. (4) Conclusions: It is possible to obtain a reasonable estimate of discretionary salt intake from careful questioning regarding salt used in cooking, in recipes, and at the table during a 24 h recall process to inform population salt reduction strategies.

ABSTRACT Excess salt intake contributes to hypertension and increased cardiovascular disease risk. Efforts to implement effective salt-reduction strategies require accurate data on the sources of salt consumption. We therefore performed a systematic review to identify the sources of dietary salt around the world. We systematically searched peer-reviewed and gray literature databases for studies that quantified discretionary (salt added during cooking or at the table) and nondiscretionary sources of salt and those that provided information about the food groups contributing to dietary salt intake. Exploratory linear regression analysis was also conducted to assess whether the proportion of discretionary salt intake is related to the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of a country. We identified 80 studies conducted in 34 countries between 1975 and 2018. The majority (n = 44, 55%) collected data on dietary salt sources within the past 10 y and were deemed to have a low or moderate risk of bias (n = 75, 94%). Thirty-two (40%) studies were judged to be nationally representative. Populations in Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Guatemala, India, Japan, Mozambique, and Romania received more than half of their daily salt intake from discretionary sources. A significant inverse correlation between discretionary salt intake and a country's per capita GDP was observed (P &lt; 0.0001), such that for every $10,000 increase in per capita GDP, the amount of salt obtained from discretionary sources was lower by 8.7% (95% CI: 5.1%, 12%). Bread products, cereal and grains, meat products, and dairy products were the major contributors to dietary salt intake in most populations. There is marked variation in discretionary salt use around the world that is highly correlated with the level of economic development. Our findings have important implications for the type of salt-reduction strategy likely to be effective in a country.

Abstract Objectives This study aimed to examine changes in intake of discretionary foods and beverages following a personalized nutrition intervention using two national classifications for discretionary foods. Methods Participants were recruited into a 6-month RCT across seven European countries (Food4Me) and were randomized to receive generalized dietary advice (Control) or one of three levels of personalized nutrition advice (based on dietary, phenotypic and genotypic information). Dietary intake from a FFQ was used to determine change between baseline and month 6 in (i) % energy, % contribution to total fat, SFA, total sugars and salt and (ii) contribution (%) made by sweets and snacks to intake of total fat, SFA, sugars and salt from discretionary foods and beverages, defined by Food Standards Scotland (FSS) and the Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG). Results A total of 1270 adults (40.9 (SD 13.0) years; 57% female) completed the intervention. At month 6, percentage sugars from FSS discretionary items was lower in personalized nutrition vs control (19.0 ± 0.37 vs 21.1 ± 0.65; P = 0.005). Percentage energy (31.2 ± 0.59 vs 32.7 ± 0.59; P = 0.031), % total fat (31.5 ± 0.37 vs 33.3 ± 0.65; P = 0.021), SFA (36.0 ± 0.43 vs 37.8 ± 0.75; P = 0.034) and sugars (31.7 ± 0.44 vs 34.7 ± 0.78; P &lt; 0.001) from ADG discretionary items were lower in personalized nutrition vs control. The % contribution of sugars from sweets and snacks was lower in personalized nutrition vs control (19.1 ± 0.36 vs 21.5 ± 0.63; P &lt; 0.001). At 3 months, effects were consistent for ADG discretionary items, while there was no significant differences in personalized nutrition vs control for FSS discretionary items. Conclusions Compared with generalized dietary advice, personalized nutrition advice achieved greater reductions in intake of discretionary foods and beverages when the classification included all foods high in fat, added sugars and salt. Future personalized nutrition strategies may be used to target intake of discretionary foods and beverages. Funding Sources European Commission Food, Agriculture, Fisheries and Biotechnology Theme of the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development [265494]. KML is supported by a NHMRC Emerging Leadership Fellowship (APP1173803).

AbstractObjectiveTo measure total daily salt intake using 24 h urinary Na excretion within a sample of Victorian schoolchildren aged 5–13 years and to assess discretionary salt use habits of children and parents.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingCompleted within a convenience sample of independent primary schools (n9) located in Victoria, Australia.SubjectsTwo hundred and sixty children completed a 24 h urine collection over a school (34 %) or non-school day (66 %). Samples deemed incomplete (n18), an over-collection (n1) or that were incorrectly processed at the laboratory (n3) were excluded.ResultsThe sample comprised 120 boys and 118 girls with a mean age of 9·8 (sd1·7) years. The average 24 h urinary Na excretion (n238) was 103 (sd43) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 6·0 (sd2·5) g/d). Daily Na excretion did not differ by sex; boys 105 (sd46) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 6·1 (sd2·7) g/d) and girls 100 (sd41) mmol/24 h (salt equivalent 5·9 (sd2·4) g/d;P= 0·38). Sixty-nine per cent of children (n164) exceeded the recommended daily Upper Limit for Na. Reported discretionary salt use was common: two-thirds of parents reported adding salt during cooking and almost half of children reported adding salt at the table.ConclusionsThe majority of children had salt intakes exceeding the recommended daily Upper Limit. Strategies to lower salt intake in children are urgently required, and should include product reformulation of lower-sodium food products combined with interventions targeting discretionary salt use within the home.

This study investigated the gustatory threshold for salt and its relationship with dietary salt intake among hypertensive (n=54) and normotensive (n=54) subjects. Salt intake was evaluated through 24-hour urinary sodium excretion and self-reported measures (discretionary salt, Sodium- Food Frequence Questionnaire (Na-FFQ), and 24-hour recall). Detection and recognition thresholds were higher among hypertensive subjects, as well as the total sodium intake. Detection and recognition thresholds were positively related to discretionary salt and total intake of the group as whole. Hypertensive and normotensive subjects presented positive correlations between taste sensitivity and the different measures of salt intake. To conclude, a positive correlation exists between taste threshold and salt intake and both seem to be higher among hypertensive subjects. The combined use of methods of self-report and assessment of taste thresholds can be useful in health promotion and rehabilitation programs, by screening subjects at higher risk of elevated salt intake and the critical dietary behaviors to be targeted as well to evaluate the result of targeted interventions.

Abstract Objectives Accurate and precise estimates of discretionary salt (DS) intake are critical for designing salt fortification interventions and counseling on salt intake reduction. This study compared four methods of estimating DS intake among non-pregnant women of reproductive age (NPWRA) in northern India to inform the design of a trial of multiply-fortified salt. Methods Participants were NPWRA (18–49 y) in Punjab, India. Weighed food records (WFR), same-day duplicate diet (DD) composites, and samples of household (HH) salt were collected simultaneously from 100 women and repeated on a subset of 40. Sodium (Na) and iodine contents of the DD composites were analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)-Optical Emission Spectrometry and ICP-Mass Spectrometry. HH salt samples were also analyzed for iodine. Methods for estimating DS intake included: 1) WFR: DS consumed from recipes or added at time of consumption were weighed; 2) HH salt disappearance (HHSD): total DS used by HH on the observation day divided by number of HH members; 3) Sodium estimation (NaE): Na content of 40 replicate DD composites prepared without DS were subtracted from the Na content of the corresponding original DD and difference multiplied by the molar mass of NaCl; 4) Iodine method (IM): analyzed iodine content of milk and milk products and commercial snacks were subtracted from DD iodine content, and difference divided by the iodine content of the HH's salt sample. The relations between methods were explored using Pearson correlation and Bland Altman analyses. Results Mean ± SD intake of DS according to the WFR, HHSD, and NaE methods were 4.7 ± 1.8 g/d, 5.8 ± 3.3 g/d, and 4.1 ± 2.1 g/d, respectively. Results of IM are pending. Pearson correlation coefficients for DS intake estimates obtained from WFR vs. NaE and WFR vs. HHSD were 0.82 (p &lt; 0.001) and 0.48 (p &lt; 0.001), respectively. Mean ± SD bias (limits of agreement) were 0.68 ± 1.25 g/d (−1.77, 3.13) for WFR vs. NaE, and 1.8 ± 2.93 g/d (−4.56, 6.92) for HHSD vs. WFR methods. Conclusions Discretionary salt intake from WFR and NaE showed good agreement and are feasible to implement in field settings. Funding Sources Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Une consommation excessive de sel (NaCl) augmente considérablement le risque de maladies cardiovasculaires. Cependant, la consommation moyenne reste jusqu’à deux fois supérieure à la recommandation de l'OMS, qui est de 5 g par jour. La réduction de la consommation de sel est donc une priorité absolue pour prévenir les maladies non transmissibles telles que les maladies cardiovasculaires. Jusqu'à présent, l'industrie a déjà réussi à réduire les teneurs en sel de nombreux aliments commerciaux, mais la nécessité de poursuivre la réduction de la consommation de sel reste pressante. L'une des principales préoccupations est que les consommateurs augmentent leur consommation de Sel Discrétionnaire (SD) pour compenser la perte de goût, ce qui rendrait la reformulation des aliments moins efficace. Jusqu'à présent, l'utilisation du sel discrétionnaire a reçu peu d'attention et n'est pas clairement ciblée par les recommandations, bien qu'elle contribue significativement à la consommation globale de sel.Objectifs :Ce projet de thèse s'inscrit dans ce contexte ; il fait partie du projet global et multidisciplinaire Sal&Mieux (fondé par l'Agence Nationale de la Recherche), qui vise à identifier des leviers sur la façon d'optimiser l'utilisation du SD. Deux objectifs principaux ont été définis pour cette thèse : (i) mieux comprendre comment le SD interagit avec les matrices alimentaires, puis comment celui-ci est libérée dans la bouche en fonction de différentes pratiques d’assaisonnement ; (ii) identifier les conséquences en termes de goût salé et de la saveur ; le défi étant d'identifier les pratiques domestiques qui permettent d’optimiser un maximum l'utilisation du SD. L'hypothèse de base est que, selon le type d'aliment et les pratiques de salage, le SD interagit différemment avec la matrice alimentaire et est libéré dans la bouche selon divers schémas dynamiques qui déterminent la perception globale du goût salé.Méthodologie :Le travail de thèse était basé sur des approches expérimentales complémentaires suivant une voie transdisciplinaire. Premièrement, la Résonance Magnétique Nucléaire 23Na (RMN) et l'Imagerie Magnétique Nucléaire (IRM) ont été utilisées pour évaluer quantitativement l'interaction et la distribution du sodium pour une variété de matrices alimentaires (carottes, pâtes et poulet) et de pratiques de salage (moment de l'ajout de sel, forme des cristaux de sel, influence de l'ajout d'arôme). Deuxièmement, une évaluation sensorielle a été réalisée pour mettre en évidence les pratiques domestiques susceptibles d'améliorer la perception sensorielle du SD. En outre, la libération temporelle du sodium des produits alimentaires a également été contrôlée in vitro à l'aide d'un simulateur de bouche dédié.Résultats :Ce travail a permis de démontrer pour la première fois que la consommation discrétionnaire de sel pouvait être réduite grâce à certaines pratiques domestiques d'assaisonnement et ce pour une large gamme d'aliments réels. Nous avons observé que le salage après la cuisson, conduisait à une plus forte intensité salée par rapport au salage au début du processus de cuisson. Cette plus forte intensité du goût salé a été particulièrement observée lors de l'utilisation de sels commerciaux (sel de mer fin et fleur de sel). Nous avons démontré sur la matrice carotte que cette augmentation du goût salé était due à une distribution hétérogène du sel dans la matrice alimentaire lors du salage après cuisson. Cette distribution inhomogène induit une libération de sel très variable pendant la mastication, créant des pulse de sel qui sont connues pour renforcer le goût salé. Nous avons également démontré que l'utilisation d'arômes, dont certains disponibles au supermarché, pouvait renforcer l'intensité du goût salé d’aliments domestiques.En fin de compte, ces pratiques de salage peuvent contribuer de manière significative aux initiatives mondiales visant à réduire la consommation de sel
Excessive salt (NaCl) intake is known to increase dramatically the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). However, the average consumption is still twice the WHO recommendation of 5 g per day. Reducing salt intake is therefore a top priority to prevent non-communicable diseases such as CVDs. Thus far, the industry has already successfully lowered salt levels in many commercial foods but the need to pursue the reduction of salt intake remains pressing. A major concern is that consumers increase their use of discretionary salt (DS) to compensate for the loss of taste, which would make food reformulation less effective. The use of DS has received little attention so far and it is not clearly targeted by recommendations even though it contributes to salt intake.Objectives:This thesis project is anchored within this context; it is part of the global and multidisciplinary project Sal&Mieux (founded by the French ANR), which aims at identifying levers to be transferred in operational guidelines on how to optimize DS use. Two main objectives were defined for this PhD: (i) better understand how DS interacts with food matrices, then how it is released in the mouth depending on various seasoning practices; (ii) identify the consequences in terms of salty taste and flavor perception; the challenge being to identify the best domestic practices to optimize DS use. The core hypothesis is that, according to the type of food and the salting practices, DS interacts with the food matrix differently and is released in the mouth following various dynamic patterns that drive overall salty taste perception.Methodology:The thesis work was based on complementary experimental approaches following a transdisciplinary path. First, 23Na Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Magnetic Nuclear Imaging (MRI) were used to quantitatively evaluate the interaction and distribution of sodium for a variety of food matrices (carrots, pasta, and chicken) and salting practices (moment of salt addition, shape of salt crystals, influence of flavour addition). Second, sensory evaluation was performed to underline domestic practices that can increase sensory perception of DS. In addition, the temporal release of sodium from food products was also monitored in vitro using a dedicated mouth simulator.Results:This work demonstrated for the first time that discretionary salt consumption could be reduced by certain domestic seasoning practices, for a wide range of real foods. We observed that salting after cooking led to a higher saltiness intensity than salting at the beginning of the cooking process. This higher intensity of salty taste was particularly observed when using commercial salts (fine sea salt and fleur de sel). We demonstrated on the carrot matrix that this increase in salty taste was due to a heterogeneous distribution of salt in the food matrix during salting after cooking. This inhomogeneous distribution induces a highly variable release of salt during chewing, creating salt pulses that are known to enhance salty taste. We have also demonstrated that the use of flavourings, some of which are available in supermarkets, can reinforce the intensity of the salty taste of domestic foods.Ultimately, these salting practices can make a significant contribution to global initiatives to reduce salt consumption

Doctor Legum - LLD
This thesis concerns the tension that exists between the principles of certainty and freedom of contract (which includes the notion of contractual discretionary powers) and how this tension impacts on the requirement that agreement must be reached on the price and rental in contracts of sale and lease, respectively. The matter at issue is whether South African law should recognise the validity of contracts of sale at a reasonable price and lease and rental respectively, and/or at a unilaterally determined price or rental as suggested in an obiter dictum of the Supreme Court of Appeal in NBS Boland Bank v One Berg River Drive and Others; Deeb and Another v ABSA Bank Ltd; Friedman v Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd 1999 (4) SA 928 (SCA) and in an obiter dictum of the then Appellate Division in Genac Properties JHB (Pty) Ltd v NBC Administrators CC 1992 (1) SA 566 (AD). Currently, the law requires that the price (in the case of sale) or the rental (in the case of lease) must be certain, in the sense that it is either ascertained or objectively ascertainable. The price is ascertainable if there is agreement between the contractants on an external standard in light of which the price may be ascertained objectively without further reference to the contractants: Westinghouse Brake & Equipment (Pty) Ltd v Bilger Engineering (Pty) Ltd 1986 (2) SA 555 (A). The obiter dicta in the One Berg River and Genac cases suggest that an agreement to a reasonable price or rental or to unilaterally determined price or rental meets this requirement. The basis for both obiter dicta can be found in the principles of freedom and sanctity of contract that form the cornerstones of the South African law of contract. The conceptual framework of public policy forms the outer limits of both freedom and sanctity of contract. The thesis considers whether a development in South African law that recognises the validity of a contract of sale or lease at a price or rental determined unilaterally by a contractant or at a reasonable price or rental, respectively, is contrary to public policy as informed by the values embodied in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 iv and whether it would promote consensus and certainty, which are foundational principles of South African law of contract. Consideration is also be given to the question whether such a development is defensible in law, and desirable as a matter of policy and practice.

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter considers applications for sale of land held on trust, which are brought by third parties; typically creditors and trustees in bankruptcy of a beneficiary. The chapter explores the different legislation and rules that applies depending on whether the application is made by a creditor or a trustee in bankruptcy. In determining applications for the sale of a home, the court must have regard to the rights of those influenced by the sale under Art 8 European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Where the sale is discretionary, the courts have the opportunity to undertake a proportionality balance required to ensure compatibility of the sale with the ECHR. Where there is no discretion, however, questions of compatibility with the ECHR arise.

This chapter shows how mercy regularly modified punishment, albeit in ways that reinforced racial and social hierarchies in the early national period. As the state abolished slavery by increments, the use of pardons to banish slaves who had been found guilty of crimes allowed their sale to persist. Incursions into Indian territory were accompanied by efforts to impose state criminal law, and the use of pardons for non-treaty and treaty Indians gutted Native American sovereignty. The establishment of Newgate and Auburn state prisons created a new category of New Yorker: the inmate, sentenced to unprecedented periods of incarceration, whose hope of an early release depended on the governor’s prerogative to pardon.

Abstract This chapter deals with the remedies of seller and buyer other than termination. It focuses on remedies other than damages. The seller has a number of real remedies that can be exercised against the contract goods. These are listed in the Sale of Goods Act as the unpaid seller's lien, or right to withhold delivery where the property has not yet passed, the right of stoppage in transit, and the right of resale. The seller may also sue in debt for the price of the goods if the appropriate conditions are met; unlike the buyer's claim to specific performance, the subject of a discretionary award, the seller's claim is granted as of right in those cases where the seller meets the requirements of the Act. A buyer who has paid the price for goods that the seller does not deliver, or that are delivered and rightly rejected, will wish to recover the price as on a total failure of consideration. Specific performance is also available in exceptional cases, usually to a buyer in lieu of damages for non-delivery.