Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Directive 2000/60/EC'

The Savings Directive will enter in to force 1st of July 2005, after years of discussions about it. The Directive has caused some controversy and several proposals have been rejected.

The Savings Directive means that an individual who recieves savings income in the form of interest payment from another Member State will be taxed in his or hers State of residence. This will be achieved by an automatic exchange of information be-tween the Member States, concerning interest payments on savings. Some countries have opted out of the information exchange and will instead levy a withholding tax during a transitional period.

The free movement of capital became fully liberalized when articles 1 and 4 in Directive 88/361/EEC was given direct effect. Later the main provisions from that Directive were implemented in the EC Treaty. All restrictions on the free movement of capital are prohibited, according to article 56 EC. Exceptions to this free movement can be found in article 58 EC. One example of a possible justification is the right for Member States to apply tax law which distinguish between taxpayers who are not in the same situation with regard to their residence or with regard to the place where their capital is invested.

Certain fundamental principles have to be complied with, foremost the Principle of Proportionality and the Principle of Legal Certainty, to be able to justify a restriction on the free movement of capital.

If the Savings Directive is in breach of the free movement of capital according to article 56-60 EC, is analysed in this thesis. It is discussed whether the Directive constitutes a restriction and in that case which possible justifications there are.

Our conclusion is that the Savings Directive constitutes a restriction, in so far that it will likely dissuade residents from placing their capital in another Member State, because they will be taxed in their State of residence anyhow. However, this restriction is possible to justify according to article 58 (1) (b) EC. Therefore, the Savings Directive is not in breach of the free movement of capital.

Sparandedirektivet träder i kraft 1 juli 2005, efter många års diskussioner kring det och efter att flera förslag har röstats ner.

Sparandedirektivet innebär att en individ från en Medlemsstat som mottager ränteinkomst härrörande från sparande i ett annat Medlems land blir beskattad i Medlemsstaten där han eller hon bor. Detta skall ske genom automatiskt utbyte av information rörande ränteinkomster på besparingar mellan Medlemsstaterna. Några länder har fått dispans från informations utbytet under en viss tid och kommer då istället att påföra en källskatt.

Den fria rörligheten av kapital blev liberaliserad fullt ut i och med att artiklarna 1 och 4 i Direktiv 88/361/EEC gavs direkt effekt. Huvudbestämmelserna från det direktivet blev senare implementerade i EG fördraget. Enligt artikel 56 EG är alla restriktioner på fri rörlighet av kapital förbjudna. I artikel 58 EG hittas dock undantag till denna fria rörlighet. Ett exempel på en möjlig rättfärdigande grund för en restriktion är möjligheten för Medlemsstater att behandla individer skattemässigt olika beroende på var de är bosatta och beroende på var kapitalet är placerat.

För att kunna rättfärdiga en restriktion på den fria rörligheten av kapital måste också vissa grundläggande principer följas, framförallt proportionalitetsprincipen och principen om rättssäkerhet.

Denna uppsats utreder om Sparandedirektivet bryter mot den fria rörligheten av kapital uppställd i artiklarna 56-60 EG, genom att analysera om Direktivet utgör en restriktion och i så fall vilka rättfärdigandegrunder som är möjliga att använda.

Slutsatsen, baserat på vår utredning, blir att Sparandedirektivet utgör en restriktion på den fria rörligheten av kapital, eftersom det troligtvis kommer att avskräcka personer från att placera besparingar utomlands, då de kommer att bli beskattade i den stat de bor i alla fall. Restriktionen är dock möjlig att rättfärdiga genom 58 (1) (b) EG. Därför bryter Sparandedirektivet inte mot fri rörlighet av kapital.

The EU Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60 EC) provides numerous requirements, including achievement of good status of all water bodies by 2015. However, meeting this environmental target brings substantial costs. In justified cases, member states may request an extension of the deadline based on disproportionality of costs of meeting the WFD requirements. Definition of disproportionate costs must be based on economic analysis and on the WFD general requirements. This thesis provides a review of proportionate costs in the context of the WFD, identifies main requirements for its practical definition as an exemption and provides a review of foreign methodical approaches to define cost proportionality. It is clear that the Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and the Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) are most commonly used methods to determine the cost proportionality treshold. This thesis discuss the relevance of these methods to define cost proportionality to reach good status of water bodies. The thesis also provides methodology to assess cost proportionality based on modified CBA and analyses ecosystem services of water bodies. In addition, the thesis points out the methodological complications and uncertainties of suggested methodology. Main methodological issues are connected with definition of right scale of analysis and synergy effects of measures, analysis of costs and definition of suitable measures and analysis of benefits and quantification of ecosystem services of water bodies.

The growing demand for clean water has led to the adoption of the EU Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60 EC). New legislation has a major impact on the water management and the national economy and provides numerous requirements, including "good status" of all water bodies. The Framework Directive also implies the need for an economic analysis of the optimal process to achieve good status by using the cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA). The application of this method in water management is struggling with a number of methodological complications. One of the affected areas in the Czech Republic is the catchment of the Orlik Reservoir that faces excessive eutrophication. Eutrophication is caused by excessive introduction of phosphorus. The main sources of phosphorus are municipal wastewater, aquaculture and agriculture. As illustrated by professional research mentioned in this work and the actual processing of CEA of the catchment of the Orlik Reservoir, a wide range of methodological problems can be avoided by using appropriate tools. This thesis also presents that achieving of good status of the catchment would require annual cost of CZK 602 million. The most significant cost bearers are according to the CEA fisheries and municipalities.

Gli ecosistemi acquatici sono il comparto ambientale finale per molti contaminanti introdotti nell’ambiente, specialmente per quelli persistenti, provenienti da diverse attività antropiche. Gli organismi acquatici sono esposti simultaneamente a differenti classi di composti chimici e, la loro fisiologia può esserne affetta anche da basse concentrazioni ambientali che ne determinano un effetto a cascata drammatico sull’intero ciclo vitale delle stesse. Per identificare gli effetti ecotossicologici si devono scegliere delle variabili di studio che sono sensibili a cambiamenti di esposizione e quindi possono registrare informazioni a differenti livelli di organizzazione biologica (ad es.: comunità, specie, alterazioni cellulari, molecolari). Il presente lavoro ha come scopo di studiare biomarker biochimici e bioindicatori su invertebrati acquatici capaci di rispondere all’effetto dei contaminanti e predirne il rischio di tossicità, requisito fondamentale dell’attuale legislazione comunitaria ambientale. Questo lavoro, nell’ambito della Water Frame Directive (WFD), affronta questa tematica con diversi tipi di approccio per implementare un sistema di monitorizzazione efficiente. Lo SPEAR ad esempio è in grado di diagnosticare la contaminazione di ecosistemi acquatici da pesticidi operando a livello di comunità di invertebrati acquatici. Inoltre si sono presi in considerazione anche biomarker a livello cellulare in bivalvi (Tapes philipphinarum and Mya arenaria): attività enzimatiche coinvolti nelle risposte aerobiche (CCO) e antiossidative (SOD and CAT), risposte genotossicologiche come la frequenza dei micronuclei, e, infine, a livello di organismo, risposte di carattere comportamentale.
Aquatic ecosystems are the final sink for most of contaminants introduced in the environment, especially persistent organic pollutants coming from different human activities. Most of the freshwater and coastal organisms are exposed simultaneously to different classes of chemicals, and their physiology may be affected by toxic chemical even at low environmental concentrations with a cascade event on population dynamics. Identifying ecotoxicological effects requires descriptors that are sensitive to changes in exposure and thus can indicate information at different levels of biological organisation (i.e. communities, sub-individual level). The present work aims to investigate biochemical biomarkers and bioindicators in aquatic invertebrates able to detect biological effects and predict risk of toxicity, with a special focus paid to the requirements of current EU regulation. Therefore, the present work faced on different kinds of approach identified to be efficient tools within the context of the WFD requirements (Water Frame Directive, 2000/60/EC), for investigative and operational monitoring. Work include the SPEAR approach as trait based indicator descriptor of freshwater aquatic macroinvertebrates communities, able to diagnose pesticide contamination in aquatic ecosystems. Further diagnostic approaches in environmental status are included, as assay representing biological responses for different enzymes involved in the aerobic (CCO) and antioxidant responses, (SOD, and CAT), behavioural endpoints, and genotoxicity biomarker associated with micronuclei frequency in bivalve species (Tapes philipphinarum and Mya arenaria).

This paper tries to answer the question related to the implementation of one of Europe's most influential EU-directives, the Water Framework Directive. The Directive requires Member States to achieve good ecological potential and good surface water chemical status for bodies of water until year 2015. If the states cannot achieve those objectives within this period, then there may be grounds for exemptions from the requirement to prevent further deterioration of to achieve good status under specific conditions. One of those conditions could be that, the completing the improvements within the timescale would be disproportionately expensive. Question which is examined in this paper is, what criteria would be most appropriate for determining the disproportionate costs. Based on the review of most WFD-related studies and EU legislation are selected criteria, which should be used for the assessment of the disproportionate costs.

Following the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) integrated catchment management plans must be prepared for all river basins, in order to achieve 'good ecological status' (GES) in all EU waters. This concept is a broader measure of water quality than the chemical and biological measures, which were previously dominant in EU water policy. The Directive also calls for a consideration of the economic costs and benefits of improvements to ecological status in catchment management plans, along with the introduction of full social cost pricing for water use. In this thesis, the primary focus is on the use of the Choice Experiment (CE) method. The CE method is reviewed and then used to estimate the value of improvements in a number of components of ecological status on two Irish waterways (the Boyne and the Suir). Apart from CE method another stated preference approach to environmental valuation is also considered; the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). This thesis determines what value the targeted population of the two catchments place on the nonmarket economic benefits of moves towards GES by employing both approaches and various model specifications, while the applicability of Benefit Transfer (BT) method is also assessed under different tests. In addition, the design of the questionnaire used in the survey stage of the research, offered the possibility of investigating issues related to the effect of cognitive ability and psychometric factors on choice. Respondents with discontinuous preferences are identified and analysis is conducted to investigate the implications of not accounting for these preferences. Finally, due to experiencing protesting behaviour by a proportion of the sampling population an attempt is made to investigate the parameters that contributed to this inclination.

The thesis examines the effectiveness of acquis communautaire on anti-discrimination with a focus on the Roma minority in the EU accession state - Hungary. Therefore, it critically evaluates the European Union’s (EU) competence in terms of monitoring and enforcement of relevant legislation, such as the Race Equality Directive 2000/43/EC (RED), which is central to the research question. The thesis argues that the EU needs to demonstrate a firmer grip on this issue along with a consistent application of its legislation including the RED under the acquis communautaire in order to have a visible impact on the ground. The scenario is compounded by the implementation and enforcement mechanisms of Hungary despite having an elaborate legal and policy framework for minority protection. The doubt on the ‘political will’ of both the EU and Hungary emerged repeatedly throughout the thesis, which signifies the relative weight of the topic. An empirical study conducted through expert interviews in Hungary supplemented the existing data and enabled to identify the ‘causal factors’ behind the implementation and enforcement issues of policy and legislation under the auspices of the RED. The thesis concludes that legislation will prove to be impracticable; unless and until societal dialogue can be established, especially between the minority and the majority at a local level. Thus, there is scope for making recommendations in line with the identified ‘causal factors’ from interdisciplinary perspectives in the context of the competences of both the EU and Hungary.

The management of water resources and waste water varies between the countries of the EU. For many years, a large part of the water in Europe has been contaminated by, among other things, insufficiently treated waste water and emissions from agriculture. The EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC and the Urban Waste Water Directive 91/271/EEC are intended to harmonize fresh-water management and waste water management within the whole EU, aiming at safeguarding drinking water of good quality and a high quality of all water within the EU today and in the future. There are however some problems concerning the waste-water directive. One problem is the huge investment needed in Slovakia to fulfil the demands of the waste-water directive for waste-water management in larger communities (with more than 2000 inhabitants). Many waste-water treatment plants need to be upgraded or built, and in addition a large part of the households in eastern Slovakia are not yet connected to a municipal water-supply and waste-water collecting system (including waste-water treatment). Subsidies from the EU’s structural funds are needed for Slovakia to fulfil the requirements of the waste-water directive. Because this directive only applies to larger communities, smaller communities and private sewage are not affected by the directive and therefore, in general, not eligible for financial funding from EU. Financial funding, however, is needed for addressing inadequate sewage in small communities with poor socioeconomic and municipal financial resources. For water protection to be effective, it is important to take also private sewage emissions into consideration, even though they might appear insignificant. Point emissions from insufficient private sewage (private sewage systems with insufficient waste-water treatment or emission of untreated waste water), primarily in small, tightly clustered communities in Slovakia or for example in Sweden in areas where weekend houses are being converted into permanent dwellings, are potential sources of pollution that can cause health or/and environmental problems. Inadequate private sewage can thus reduce the quality of both surface and ground water and have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems, which in turn makes it more difficult to reach the quality standards of the Water Framework Directive and its daughter directives. This applies to both Slovakia and Sweden. The private sewage solutions that are recommended today are often satisfactory but not without problems. To give an example, miniature waste water treatment plants are expensive to put in place, require technological knowledge on the part of the property owner and they also require a daily flow of waste water to function properly. Improper handling of the miniature water treatment plant may cause inefficient or no water treatment at all, in some cases the bacterial content of the waste water may increase instead of being reduced. To address the problem concerning private sewage it is important that (1) waste-water solutions are adapted to local circumstances and financial funding are given to economically week municipalities (2) the property owner (owner of the private sewage) regularly controls the quality of the out-going treated wastewater (if it is possible) and (3) that efficient inspections with injunctions (from authorities) are carried out to discover faulty private sewage. Unfortunately financial funding, in general, is not given to small municipalities and/or inappropriate private sewage and inspections, both in Slovakia and Sweden, are generally slow.

Graduation theses treats of evolution of the legal regulations of auditing in the Czech republic from first regulation of Ministry of Finance no. 63/1989 Sb. to the draft law of auditors which results from Directive 2006/43/EC. Fundamental part of the theses is concentrated on the law no. 254/2000 Sb., of auditors and of change of law no. 165/1998 Sb., as amended by the subsequent acts, and on the act draw of auditors which implements the requirements of the Directive above mentioned to the Czech legal order (the theses is based on the text which was put to Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament of the Czech republic as a parliament print no. 517/0). However previous Czech and actual European legal regulations of auditing is also mentioned.

During the last several decades, many people, fleeing from disasters or political threats, have applied for asylum in the European countries. Council Directive 2003/9/EC, laying down minimum standards for the reception of asylum-seekers, as well as several other directives, have been developed in the EU in order to ensure fair treatment of the asylum-seekers in all the European countries. However, there are huge differences in the national asylum laws of countries and consequently, the way they treat the asylum-seekers. In this research, the national asylum laws of Germany and the Netherlands are studied and compared, showing that though following the Council Directive, fair or equal treatment of asylum-seekers cannot be guaranteed. In the Netherlands asylum-seekers are granted with a great extent of benefits while in Germany, they are greatly discriminated against. Based on the Social Determinants of Health Model, developed by Dahlgren and Whitehead in 1991, the hypothesis is that the asylum seekers in the Netherlands enjoy better health status than the ones in Germany, because based on the Dutch asylum laws, they have better living and working conditions. In order to confirm or negate this hypothesis, a meta-study of available literature on the health status of asylum-seekers has been done. However, the hypothesis could not be confirmed/ negated due to extreme lack of availability of data in this area. By discussing the relationship between life conditions and health of individuals, reviewing current legal instruments regulating asylum in the EU and analyzing the available data on the health status of asylum-seekers, this paper draws the attention to the importance of data and research on these topics and the need for development of practices for collection of such information. Availability of such information can affect future decision and policy makings regarding asylum-seekers and their health and might result in comprehensive reformations in the current national or international legal instruments.

Since the US National Security Agency’s former contractor Edward Snowden exposed the Agency’s mass surveillance, the EU has been making a series of attempts toward a more safeguarded and stricter path concerning its data privacy protection. On 8 April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union (the CJEU) invalidated the EU Data Retention Directive 2006/24/EC on the basis of incompatibility with the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (the Charter). After this judgment, the CJEU examined the legality of the Safe Harbour Agreement, which had been the main legal basis for transfers of personal data from the EU to the US under Decision 2000/520/EC. Subsequently, on 6 October 2015, in the case of Schrems v Data Protection Commissioner, the CJEU declared the Safe Harbour Decision invalid. The ground for the Court’s judgment was the fact that the Decision enabled interference, by US public authorities, with the fundamental rights to privacy and personal data protection under Article 7 and 8 of the Charter, when processing the personal data of EU citizens. According to the judgment, this interference has been beyond what is strictly necessary and proportionate to the protection of national security and the persons concerned were not offered any administrative or judicial means of redress enabling the data relating to them to be accessed, rectified or erased. The Court’s analysis of the Safe Harbour was borne out of the EU Commission’s own previous assessments. Consequently, since the transfers of personal data between the EU and the US can no longer be carried out through the Safe Harbour, the EU legislature is left with the task to create a safer option, which will guarantee that the fundamental rights to privacy and protection of personal data of the EU citizens will be respected. However, although the EU is the party dictating the terms for these transatlantic transfers of personal data, the current provisions of the US law are able to provide for derogations from every possible renewed agreement unless they become compatible with the EU data privacy law. Moreover, as much business is at stake and prominent US companies are involved in this battle, the pressure toward the US is not only coming from the EU, but some American companies are also taking the fight for EU citizens’ right to privacy and protection of their personal data.

Tese de mestrado, Biologia (Ecologia e Gestão Ambiental), 2007, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências
Water Framework Directive is an important tool in the management of European surface waters, namely for heavily modified water bodies that remain poorly assessed. The objective of this study was to establish a fish based methodology to assess the ecological potential of Spanish reservoirs. Specifically an abiotic typology was developed and metrics commonly used in indices of biotic integrity worldwide were evaluated for application in different fish-ecoregions. A total of 120 reservoirs in the Guadiana, Júcar, Douro and Northern basins were characterized using 9 hidromorphological variables. Main descriptors of reservoir variability were identified using Principal Component Analysis, and Ward's clustering helped in the construction of an abiotic typology scheme, that proved to be more effective than traditional System A applications. Overall, 14 reservoir types were established based in catchment area, altitude, volume and geology. Fish in 88 reservoirs in the Jucar, Douro and Northern basins were assigned into functional guilds and 100 metrics were tested for range, responsiveness, redundancy and precision. River basins were considered as distinct eco-regions based on Ward clustering of low-impacted sites and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Water quality and human impacts in each reservoir were approached using 4 environmental variables. Overall, 13 candidate metrics were responsive to turbidity and integrated chlorophyll a. However, there was considerable variation among basins in the set of selected metrics, with only density of phytophilic and tolerant species being common to all regions. Moreover, metrics showed no significant variation between low-impacted and impacted reservoirs. Despite being preliminary, current results highlight the complexity of reservoir dynamics, and suggest that progress in ecological assessment of heavily modified water bodies will dependent on the development of new typology schemes and fish metrics specifically targeted at these systems
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This thesis deals with implementation of Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) in the Czech Republic. The study area was the Rolava River basin in the Ore Mountains (northwest of Bohemia). The ecological status assessment was applied to both - the main stream and relevant tributaries. Available hydrobiological and hydrochemical data enhanced with the field hydromorphological survey using the Hydroecological monitoring (HEM, Langhammer, 2007) were applied in this thesis. Results of the field survey were compared with two ecomorphological methods: LAWA-FS (LAWA, 2000) and EcoRivHab (Matoušková, 2003, 2007). As a final result, it was found out the water body on upper course of the Rolava River achieved good ecological status. Water body on lower course of the Rolava River and of the tributary the Nejdecký Brook were classified as not achieving good ecological status. The Rolava catchment has very specific conditions and huge potential to achieve the good status in the future.

This thesis deals with the monitoring of water quality and aquatic sediments analysis in the protected area Křivoklátsko. Monitoring was carried out at 16 locations and there were determined 14 physico-chemical parameters . Sediment samples were collected once for the whole period at 14 locations in which was determine the content of metals. In each sediment sample there was analyzed content of selected metals. The results of analysis, water and sediment samples were evaluated according to the Directives and regulations giving limits for water and sediment. Due to the Czech Republic is a member state of the European Union, the state was also evaluated according to Water Framework Directive. Theoretical part of thesis decribes characteristics of metals, their forms in water and soils. This section also contain some informations about water framework directive 2000/60/EC as a great step in a water policy. Moreover there is a short history about development water quality in the Czech Republic. Experimental section contains standards for determining water quality, but indicating in particular the processing of sediment samples from sampling to determine concentrations. The following chapter deals with the evaluation of the results given by legislation - for water to the CSN 75 7221 and Regulation...

Η όλο και εντονότερη ανάπτυξη των συστημάτων υδατικών πόρων σε παγκόσμια κλίμακα, ταυτόχρονα με τα συνεχώς αυξανόμενα ελλείμματα λόγω της μεγάλης αύξησης της κατανάλωσης σε συνδυασμό με την υποβάθμιση της ποιότητας, έχει κάνει επιτακτική την ανάγκη για την εφαρμογή ολοκληρωμένων μεθόδων σχεδιασμού και διαχείρισης των υδατικών πόρων. Για το λόγο αυτό η Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση με διαδοχικές Κοινοτικές αποφάσεις, κατέληξε στην έκδοση και ψήφιση της Οδηγίας Πλαίσιο για τα νερά 2000/60, που αποτελεί το πλαίσιο εφαρμογής μέτρων, για την προστασία όλων των υδατικών συστημάτων της Κοινότητας. Απώτερος στόχος και σκοπός της Οδηγίας είναι να διασφαλιστεί η αειφόρος χρήση του νερού, για την καλή οικολογική κατάσταση στη Κοινότητα. Πρόκειται για μια οδηγία σταθμό καθώς εισάγει μια νέα πολιτική πρακτική και νομοθεσία και καθιερώνει την ολοκληρωμένη διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων. Το 2015, αποτελεί το χρονικό ορόσημο επίτευξης των στόχων της οδηγίας. Η Πολιτεία με το Νόμο 3199/2003 και το Π.Δ. 51/2007, προσάρμοσε την Ελληνική νομοθεσία στην Οδηγία πλαίσιο. Η ισχύουσα πλέον νομοθεσία στη χώρα μας, επιβάλει τη διασφάλιση της αειφορίας των νερών μέσω της ολοκληρωμένης διαχείρισης και προστασίας τους. Η κοινοτική οδηγία ορίζει πως η διαχείριση πρέπει να γίνεται στο επίπεδο της λεκάνης απορροής ποταμού, ενώ η ελληνική νομοθεσία, λόγω της γεωμορφολογίας της χώρας και των ιδιαίτερων συνθηκών ορίζει την διαχείριση στο επίπεδο των 14 υδατικών διαμερισμάτων της χώρας. Τα διαχειριστικά σχέδια των υδατικών διαμερισμάτων είναι στην διαδικασία της ολοκλήρωσής τους, γι΄ αυτό και η Τοπική Αυτοδιοίκηση και συγκεκριμένα οι Δήμοι, που έχουν την ευθύνη της διαχείρισης των υδατικών πόρων της περιοχής τους, οφείλουν να προσανατολίσουν τις ενέργειές τους στις βασικές αρχές της κοινοτικής οδηγίας και να διευκολύνουν την εφαρμογή των Σχεδίων Διαχείρισης. Έτσι και στην περίπτωση της περιοχής του πρώην Δήμου Μεσσάτιδος, ενός Καποδιστριακού Δήμου της Αχαΐας (που μετά την εφαρμογή του νόμου «Καλλικράτη» αποτελεί Δημοτική Ενότητα του διευρυμένου Δήμου Πατρέων), μέσης έκτασης και πληθυσμού, όπου χρησιμοποιούνται αποκλειστικά υπόγειοι υδατικοί πόροι για την ύδρευση και τις άλλες χρήσεις που εξυπηρετούνται από το δίκτυο του Δήμου, ενώ τα επιφανειακά νερά χρησιμοποιούνται για την άρδευση όταν είναι διαθέσιμα, πρέπει να αλλάξει η φιλοσοφία της διαχείρισης του νερού και να προσανατολιστεί στις παρακάτω βασικές αρχές της κοινοτικής οδηγίας: • Ολοκληρωμένη διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων λαμβάνοντας υπ΄ όψη όλες τις υδρογεωλογικές, περιβαλλοντικές, οικονομικές και κοινωνικές παραμέτρους. • Εφαρμογή σωστής πολιτικής τιμολόγησης του νερού με τελικό σκοπό «την ανάκτηση του κόστους ύδατος» • Αλλαγή της φιλοσοφίας της διαχείρισης από διαχείριση της προσφοράς να περάσουμε σε διαχείριση της ζήτησης. • Ενημέρωση και συμμετοχή του κοινού στην διαχείριση των υδατικών πόρων Με τον τρόπο αυτό θα περάσουμε σε μια μορφή ολοκληρωμένης διαχείρισης με στόχο την αειφορία του υδάτινου συστήματος όπως ορίζει η κοινοτική οδηγία.
The more and more intense growth of systems of water resources in world scale, simultaneously with continuously increasing deficits because of the big increase of consumption in combination with devalorisation of quality, has made imperative the need for the application of completed methods of planning and management of water resources. For that reason the European Union with successive community decisions, led to the publication and the voting of Directive Frame on the Water 2000/60 that constitute the frame of application of measures to protect all the water systems of the community. Final objective and aim of Directive are to ensure the viable use of water, for the good ecological situation of the community. It’s an essential directive since it imports a new political practice and legislation and establishes the completed management of water resources. In 2015, it constitutes a milestone of achievement of objectives of the Directive. The state with the law 3199/2003 and the presidential decree 51/2007, adapted the Greek legislation in the Framework Directive. The current legislation in our country, imposes the guarantee of viability of waters via the completed management and their protection. The community directive defines that the management should become in the level of the river basin while the Greek legislation, because of the geomorphology of the country and the particular conditions defines the management in the level of 14 water districts of the country. The administrative plans of water districts are in the integration process that’s why the local government and specifically the municipalities, that have the responsibility of management of water resources of their region, owe to orient their actions in the basic principles of the community directive and to facilitate the application plans of management. So, in the case of the region of the former municipality Messatida, a “Kapodistrias law” municipality of Achaia, (that after the application of the law “Kallikratis” constitutes municipal units of the extended Municipality of Patras) average area and population, where exclusively underground water resources for the water supply are used and the other uses that are served by the network of the Municipality, while the surface waters are used for the irrigation when they are available, the philosophy of management of water should be charged and should be directed in the following basic principles of the Community Directive: • Completed management of water resources taking into consideration all the hydrogeological, environmental, financial and social parameters. • Application of right pricing policy of water, with final aim the recuperation of the cost of water. • Change the philosophy of management by management of offer to pass in management of demand. • Information and public participation in the management water resources. In this way we will pass in a form of completed management with target the viability of water system as indicated by the Community Directive.

Long-term and intensive human use of watercourses has led to their considerable degradation. Recently, there has been an effort to improve the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems, based on studies of hydromorphological characteristics of natural watercourses and identification of reference conditions. The aim of this thesis was the hydromorphological survey and an identification of reference conditions of the Jizera River. The selection of sites suitable for identification of reference status was based on pre-set criteria determined on remote sensing data, which eliminated significant anthropogenic impacts on the channel and floodplain. The survey using River Habitat Survey (Environmental Agency, 2003), Hydroecological Monitoring (Langhammer et al., 2014) and REFCON (Šmerousová a Matoušková, 2014a) methods was conducted in selected sites. Sites where hydromorphological conditions correspond with very good class, according to Hydroecological Monitoring, were used for identification of the type-specific reference conditions. Physico-chemical characteristics according to ČSN 757221 (1998) and Rosendorf et al. (2011) and the biological quality element macroinvertebrates according to Opatřilová et al. (2011) were also evaluated. Physico-chemical characteristics reached class I - II (ČSN, 1998) and...

Το αντικείμενο της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής είναι η οικολογική αξιολόγηση δύο ποτάμιων οικοσυστημάτων του Αχέροντα και του Λούρου, με βάση τις κοινότητες υδρόβιων μακροφύτων, την ποιότητα του νερού και τα υδρογεωμορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, καθώς και η ανάπτυξη και η οριστικοποίηση μεθοδολογίας για τη συλλογή, την επεξεργασία, την ανάλυση και την αξιολόγηση των δεδομένων πεδίου προσαρμοσμένης και εφαρμόσιμης στις ελληνικές συνθήκες. Οι επιμέρους στόχοι της διδακτορικής διατριβής διακρίνονται σε 4 επί μέρους κεφάλαια. Το πρώτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Α) αφορά τη διερεύνηση των αβιοτικών παραμέτρων που επηρεάζουν την κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των δύο λεκανών απορροής. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Β) πραγματοποιείται διερεύνηση της δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης και εκτίμηση των βασικών προτύπων οικολογικής διαβάθμισης και ανθρώπινης παρέμβασης. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Γ) πραγματοποιείται αβιοτική τυπολογική διάκριση των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας με σκοπό τη μείωση της χωρικής διακύμανσης, έλεγχο της διαχρονικής και εποχικής διακύμανσης στην κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων και καθορισμός των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς σε κάθε τμήμα του ποτάμιου οικοσυστήματος. Τέλος στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο (Κεφάλαιο Δ) δίνεται η μεθοδολογία ανάπτυξης του συστήματος αξιολόγησης των επιπτώσεων των υδρομορφολογικών τροποποιήσεων στη σύνθεση και αφθονία των υδρόβιων και των παρόχθιων ειδών και η δημιουργία του Πολυμετρικού Δείκτη Μακροφύτων. Τα δεδομένα συλλέχθηκαν από συνολικά 32 θέσεις δειγματοληψίας οι οποίες επιλέχθηκαν με κριτήρια 1) την κάλυψη ευρείας διαβάθμισης χρήσεων γης, 2) την επιλογή περισσοτέρων του ενός τμημάτων με παρόμοια γεωμορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά, 3) τη σταθερή απόσταση μεταξύ των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας, 4) την ομοιογένεια των τμημάτων και τέλος 5) την προσβασιμότητα στα σημεία δειγματοληψίας καθ’ όλη τη διάρκεια της παρακολούθησης. Με βάση τα πιο πάνω κριτήρια επιλέχθηκαν 15 θέσεις δειγματοληψίας στη λεκάνη απορροής του ποταμού Αχέροντα [11 Αχέροντας (A1-8 & A11-13), 1 Κωκυτός (A9), 1 Βουβό Ρέμα (A15), 2 αρδευτικά κανάλια (A10 & A14)] και 17 Θέσεις Δειγματοληψίας στη λεκάνη απορροής του ποταμού Λούρου (S1-17). Η περιοχή αξιολόγησης περιλαμβάνει ένα ομοιογενές τμήμα ποταμού μήκους 100 m, το οποίο χωρίστηκε σε τρία επί μέρους τμήματα: α) το τμήμα της κοίτης το οποίο καλύπτεται με νερό, β) τα κράσπεδα, δηλαδή το ενεργό τμήμα της κοίτης γ) την παρόχθια-δασική ζώνη. Για τη συλλογή και την αξιολόγηση της υδρόβιας και παρόχθιας βλάστησης πραγματοποιήθηκαν εποχικές δειγματοληψίες κατά τη διάρκεια των βλαστητικών περιόδων των ετών 2005-2007 και η αφθονία ειδών καταγράφηκε με την 5-βάθμια κλίμακα DAFOR (5: κυριαρχία και 1: απουσία). Στο πεδίο μετρήθηκαν επίσης οι φυσικοχημικές παράμετροι του νερού (pH, διαλυμένο οξυγόνο, θερμοκρασία, αγωγιμότητα, ταχύτητα νερού και μέσο βάθος νερού) και συλλέχθηκαν δείγματα επιφανειακού νερού για χημικές αναλύσεις θρεπτικών αλάτων αζώτου (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν) και φωσφόρου (PO4-P & TP), Chl-a και αλκαλικότητας. Επίσης καταγράφηκαν στο πεδίο και υπολογίστηκαν στο εργαστήριο υδρογεωμορφολογικά στοιχεία και δεδομένα τοπίου τα οποία αφορούν τόσο την περιοχή αξιολόγησης όσο και όλη τη λεκάνη απορροής. Για τη στατιστική επεξεργασία των δεδομένων χρησιμοποιήθηκαν 1) Ιεραρχική Ανάλυση Συστάδων για βιοτική τυπολογία των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των ποταμών και για τον προσδιορισμό της δομής της παρόχθιας βλάστησης, 2) Ανάλυση Ειδών Δεικτών (ISA), για την περιγραφή της ιεραρχικής δομής της κάθε ομάδας και για τη διάκριση των σημαντικών Ειδών-Δεικτών (IndSps), και 3) Ταξιθέτηση όπου χρησιμοποιήθηκαν τόσο έμμεσες όσο και άμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης. Στις έμμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν α) Ανάλυση Κύριων Συνιστωσών (PCA), για τον προσδιορισμό των Γεωμορφολογικών Ενοτήτων και στον Καθορισμό της κλίμακας πιέσεων και β) Βελτιωμένη Ανάλυση Αντιστοιχιών (DCA), για τη χωρική κατανομή της αφθονίας των ειδών και τον έλεγχος των εποχικών και διαχρονικών διακυμάνσεων των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς. Ως άμεσες αναλύσεις διαβάθμισης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν α) Ανάλυση Πλεονασμού (RDA), για συσχέτιση των φυσικοχημικών χαρακτηριστικών του νερού με τα είδη δείκτες και β) Ανάλυση Κανονικών Αντιστοιχιών (CCA), για συσχέτιση των γεωμορφολογικών παραμέτρων με τα είδη-δείκτες και τον καθορισμό κύριων μεταβλητών υποβάθμισης της παρόχθιας ζώνης. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι κατά μήκος των δύο λεκανών απορροής διακρίνονται έξι Ομάδες Βλάστησης με παρόμοιο περιβαλλοντικό πρότυπο (πηγές-εκβολές). Στις ορεινές περιοχές και των δύο λεκανών απορροής (Αχέροντα και Λούρου) κυριαρχούν τα είδη Pteridium aquilinum, είδη βρυόφυτων και είδη του γένους Carex, C. acuta για τον ποταμό Αχέροντα και C. pendula για τον ποταμό Λούρο. Στο μέσο ρου των ποταμών διακρίθηκαν 4 διαφορετικές ομάδες βλάστησης. Ο διαφορετικός βαθμός ανθρωπογενούς τροποποίησης των εκβολών στις δύο λεκάνες απορροής αντανακλά και στη σύνθεση των φυτοκοινοτήτων όπου στις εκβολές του ποταμού Αχέροντα κυριαρχούν χλωροφύκη και το ανθεκτικό είδος Potamogeton pectinatus ενώ στον ποταμό Λούρο οι εκβολές χαρακτηρίζονται από την απουσία χλωροφυκών και την κυριαρχία του είδους Potamogeton nodosus. Οι σημαντικότεροι φυσικοχημικοί παράγοντες οι οποίοι επηρεάζουν την κατανομή των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των λεκανών απορροής της περιοχής μελέτης είναι: το pH, η αγωγιμότητα, η θερμοκρασία νερού, η μέση ταχύτητα νερού, οι συγκεντρώσεις των αλάτων αζώτου (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν) και ορθοφωσφορικών (PO4-P) και Chl-a. Ενώ οι σημαντικότεροι γεωμορφολογικοί παράγοντες είναι: το υψόμετρο, το υπόστρωμα κοίτης, το πλάτος της κοίτης, η σκίαση της κοίτης, ο τύπος ενδιαιτήματος και το βάθος του νερού. Η διερεύνηση της δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης έδειξε την ύπαρξη 4 διαφορετικών ομάδων παρόχθιας βλάστησης. Οι ορεινές περιοχές και άνω μέσος ρους και των δύο λεκανών απορροής χαρακτηρίζεται από την κυριαρχία των ειδών Platanus orientalis και Quercus coccifera. Οι βασικές τροποποιήσεις που δέχονται οι περιοχές αυτές αφορούν μεταβολές σε τοπικό επίπεδο γεγονός που επιβεβαιώνεται από τις υψηλές τιμές δείκτη QBR. Οι πεδινές περιοχές χαρακτηρίζονται από την κυριαρχία των ειδών Salix alba και Populus alba. Οι σημαντικότερες πιέσεις που δέχεται το πεδινό τμήμα των ποταμών αφορούν τις γεωργικές δραστηριότητες, τη δημιουργία τεχνικών αναχωμάτων, την ενίσχυση της όχθης, τις αμμοχαλικοληψίες, τη διευθέτηση και την ευθυγράμμιση της όχθης. Το είδος Phragmites australis χαρακτηρίζει τις εκβολές των ποταμών, ενώ σημαντική ήταν η αφθονία των ειδών Arundo donax και του εισαγόμενου είδους Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα η αφθονία των ειδών ήταν χαμηλή σε όλες τις Ομάδες Βλάστησης. Εφαρμόστηκαν επίσης οι δείκτες: QBR ο οποίος αποτελεί μέτρο αξιολόγησης της ποιότητας της παρόχθιας ζώνης, HQA όπου αποτελεί δείκτη αξιολόγησης της οικολογικής ποιότητας του ποτάμιου ενδιαιτήματος και HMS ο οποίος είναι δείκτης ανθρωπογενούς τροποποίησης του ενδιαιτήματος. Τα αποτελέσματα από την εφαρμογή των πιο πάνω δεικτών έδειξαν ότι η οικολογική ακεραιότητα παρόχθιας ζώνης αυξάνει τη συνολική οικολογική ποιότητα. Σύμφωνα με τις υδρογεωμορφολογικές μεταβλητές, οι οποίες εξετάστηκαν, οι θέσεις δειγματοληψίας ομαδοποιηθήκαν σε τρεις Γεωμορφολογικές Ενότητες οι οποίες αντιστοιχούν στο Ορεινό, Πεδινό και Εκβολικό Τμήμα των ποταμών. Σε κάθε Γεωμορφολογική Ενότητα πραγματοποιήθηκε ανάλυση πιέσεων και διακρίθηκαν οι σταθμοί αναφοράς οι οποίοι για το ορεινό τμήμα ήταν 7, στο πεδινό 3 ενώ στο εκβολικό τμήμα μόνο 2 σταθμοί χαρακτηρίστηκαν ως περιοχές αναφοράς. Σε κάθε Γεωμορφολογική Ενότητα διερευνήθηκαν οι εποχικές και διαχρονικές μεταβολές στη σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς και προσδιορίστηκε δομή τους. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν, ότι η σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς στο πεδινό τμήμα των ποταμών φαίνεται να παραμένουν σταθερές στις φυσικές διακυμάνσεις. Από την άλλη, οι μικρές διαφορές οι οποίες καταγράφηκαν στο ορεινό και εκβολικό τμήμα των ποταμών οφείλονται κυρίως στην όψιμη Άνοιξη και στις υψηλές θερμοκρασίες που επικρατούν κατά τους καλοκαιρινούς μήνες και εντοπίζονται στο μειωμένο αριθμό των βρυοφύτων και πτεριδοφύτων αντίστοιχα. Τέλος σύμφωνα τα αποτελέσματα η περίοδος διεξαγωγής των δειγματοληψιών προσδιορίζεται ανάμεσα στο χρονικό διάστημα μεταξύ τέλος Απριλίου και τέλος Σεπτεμβρίου αφού σε αυτό το χρονικό διάστημα οποιαδήποτε επίσκεψη στο πεδίο αναμένεται να δώσει την ίδια σύνθεση των κοινοτήτων αναφοράς. Διερευνήθηκαν, στο μεγαλύτερο δυνατό βαθμό, όλες οι πιθανές παράμετροι και πιέσεις, οι οποίες επηρεάζουν τη σύνθεση και την κατανομή υδρόβιων μακροφύτων κατά μήκος των λεκανών απορροής. Οι σημαντικότερες πιέσεις που δέχεται η περιοχή μελέτης επηρεάζουν κυρίως τα υδρομορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά του οικοσυστήματος. Ως πιο αξιόπιστος και ολιστικός τρόπος αξιολόγησης της οικολογικής κατάστασης της περιοχής μελέτης επιλέχθηκε η Πολυμετρική προσέγγιση. Σαν πίεση επιλέχθηκε η υδρομορφολογική τροποποίηση. Συνολικά, διερευνήθηκαν 86 υποψήφιες μετρικές οι οποίες ανήκουν σε 5 κατηγορίες: 1) Αφθονίας/Ποικιλότητας, 2) Τροφικής κατάστασης, 3) Σύνθεσης φυτικών κοινοτήτων, 4) Ποιότητας Δομής της παρόχθιας ζώνης και 5) Ευαισθησίας/Ανοχής, οι οποίες προέρχονται από τις βιοκοινότητες του υγρού δίαυλου, της ενεργής κοίτης και της όχθης. Ο καθορισμός της κλίμακας πιέσεων πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη χρήση της Ανάλυσης Κύριων Συνιστωσών (PCA) με 36 υδρομορφολογικές μεταβλητές υποβάθμισης σε 2 χωρικά επίπεδα: Μακροκλίμακας και Μικροκλίμακας. Στον τελικό Πολυμετρικό δείκτη συμπεριλήφθηκαν μόνο οι μετρικές οι οποίες ικανοποιούσαν συγκεκριμένα κριτήρια. Τα κριτήρια αυτά αφορούσαν: την εκπλήρωση του κριτηρίου από την εφαρμογή των θηκογραμμάτων με απολήξεις (δηλαδή εξαιρούνται οι μετρικές οι οποίες έχουν στενό εύρος τιμών, πολλές ακραίες τιμές και πολλές απόμακρες παρατηρήσεις), την αποφυγή αλληλεπικαλυπτόμενων πληροφοριών (Spearman ǀrǀ>0,800) και την υψηλή συσχέτιση με τις κλίμακες πιέσεων (Spearman ǀrǀ>0,500). Συνολικά από τις 86 υποψήφιες μετρικές οι 6 θεωρήθηκαν ως κεντρικές μετρικές αφού ικανοποίησαν όλα τα πιο πάνω κριτήρια. Οι κεντρικές μετρικές είναι: 1) Δείκτης IBMR, 2) Δείκτης QBR, 3) Αριθμός Βρυοφυτικών taxa, 4) % Είδη Αναφοράς, 5) % Νιτρόφιλα είδη και 6) % Ελοφυτικά είδη (Phe_herbids). Ο Πολυμετρικός Δείκτης Μακροφύτων (Multimetric Macrophyte Index-MMI) είναι ο αριθμητικός μέσος των 6 κανονικοποιημένων «κεντρικών» μετρικών. Κανονικοποίηση καλείται η προσαρμογή του εύρους τιμών της κάθε μετρικής στο ενδεικτικό όριο από 0 μέχρι 1. Σημαντικό σημείο στην κανονικοποίηση των μετρικών είναι ο καθορισμός του ανώτερου (upper anchor) και κατώτερου ορίου (lower anchor) της κάθε «κεντρικής» μετρικής. Το ανώτερο και το κατώτερο όριο δείχνουν το ενδεικτικό εύρος της κάθε μετρικής όπου το ανώτερο όριο (anchor) αντιστοιχεί στην τιμή της μετρικής κάτω από τις συνθήκες αναφοράς. Στην παρούσα εργασία για το ανώτερο όριο κάθε μετρικής επιλέχθηκε το 75ο εκατοστημόριο (percentile) των μη διαταραγμένων περιοχών και για το κατώτερο όριο το 5ο εκατοστημόριο (percentile) των διαταραγμένων περιοχών. Για την αξιολόγηση της οικολογικής ποιότητας, των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας, με βάση τον Πολυμετρικό Δείκτη Μακροφύτων, απαιτείται ο καθορισμός των ορίων μεταξύ των 5 ποιοτικών κλάσεων όπως απαιτεί η Οδηγία Πλαίσιο για τα Ύδατα 2000/60/ΕΕ. Τα όρια του δείκτη καθορίστηκαν υπολογίζοντας αρχικά το όριο μεταξύ της «Υψηλής»/«Καλής» οικολογικής κατάστασης το οποίο ορίστηκε ως το 25o εκατοστημόριο μη διαταραγμένων περιοχών (0,623). Το υπόλοιπο εύρος τιμών χωρίστηκε σε τέσσερις ίσες κλάσεις. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν, ότι ο ΜΜΙ δίνει πολύ καλή ένδειξη της οικολογικής κατάστασης των μεσαίου μεγέθους πεδινών ποταμών της Δυτικής Ελλάδας (RM-2). Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα το 29,6% των θέσεων δειγματοληψίας (8 θέσεις) ταξινομήθηκαν στην Υψηλή οικολογική κατάσταση, το 4% (14 θέσεις) στην Καλή οικολογική κατάσταση, το 22,3% (6 θέσεις) στην Μέτρια, το 29,6% (8 θέσεις) στην Φτωχή και μόνο το 3,7% (1 θέση) χαρακτηρίστηκε ως Κακής Οικολογικής Ποιότητας. Η παρούσα Διδακτορική Διατριβή, αποτελεί µια πρώτη προσπάθεια στον Ελληνικό χώρο για δημιουργία ενός ολοκληρωμένου συστήματος παρακολούθησης της οικολογικής ποιότητας των ρεόντων υδάτων με χρήση των υδρόβιων μακροφύτων ως βιολογικών ποιοτικών στοιχείων. Η μεθοδολογία αναπτύχθηκε και εφαρμόστηκε πιλοτικά σε δύο λεκάνες απορροής στα μεσαίου μεγέθους πεδινά ποτάμια της Ηπείρου Αχέροντα και Λούρου ακολουθώντας πιστά τις απαιτήσεις και τις κατευθυντήριες γραμμές της Ευρωπαϊκής Οδηγίας Πλαίσιο για τα Ύδατα 2000/60/ΕΕ. Επίσης το σύστημα αξιολόγησης το οποίο προτείνεται αναπτύχθηκε με σκοπό την εφαρμογή του σε όλα τα παρόμοιου τύπου ποτάμια της Ελλάδας αφού τόσο ο κατάλογος με τις υποψήφιες μετρικές όσο και ο ίδιος ο πολυμετρικός δείκτης μπορεί να ελεγχθεί και σε άλλους τύπους ποταμών της Ελλάδας (RM-1, RM-3, RM-4 & RM-5). Τέλος, τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν συμβάλλουν στην ορθολογικότερη διαχείριση και ανάδειξη των ποτάμιων ενδιαιτημάτων και στην εφαρμογή της περιβαλλοντικής πολιτικής του νερού στην Ελλάδα.
The main objective of the present thesis was the ecological assessment of two river basins, Acheron and Louros; based on aquatic plant communities, water quality and hydromorphological characteristics, as well as, the development of a methodology for collecting, analyzing and assessing field data, specific adapted to Greek conditions. The specific objectives of the doctoral thesis include: a) the investigation of abiotic parameters influencing the distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the two river basins (Chapter A); b) the investigation of riparian zone structure and the assessment of “key” environmental gradient and human intervention (Chapter B); c) abiotic typology for reducing the spatial variability, monitoring the temporal and seasonal variation in of aquatic macrophytes distribution, and determination of reference communities in each geomorphological unit of the riverine ecosystem (Chapter C), and d) the development of the Macrophyte Multimetric Index (MMI) which is described step by step in Chapter D. Data were collected from 32 sampling sites, which were chosen according to the following criteria: i) covering a wide gradient of land used i.e. from natural to artificial; ii) selection of more than one site with similar geomorphological characteristics; iii) the constant distance between sampling sites; iv) the homogeneity of the sampling sites, and v) the accessibility to the sampling points throughout the duration of monitoring. Based on the above criteria, 15 sites were selected along Acheron river basin [11, Acheron river (A1-8 & A11-13); 1, Cocytos (A9); 1, Vouvo Rema (A15); 2, irrigation canals (A10 & A14)]. Additionally, 17 sampling sites were selected along Louros river (S1-S15). The survey area was subdivided into 3 zones, a) the wetted part of the channel, b) the marginal-active channel and c) the riparian woodland plot. The survey area length was standardized at 100 m according to the widely accepted methods [e.g. Mean Trophic Rank, (MTR); Riparian Forest Quality, (QBR)]. On the other hand, the width of each plot includes the area between, the end of the active channel and the riparian woodland. The field surveys were conducted during the vegetation periods (April to September) of the years 2005 to 2007. The coverage of each macrophyte species was visually estimated using DAFOR 5-point scale (1: Rare, 2: Occasional, 3: Frequent, 4: Abundant and 5: Dominant). Also, water physicochemical parameters such as temperature, DO, pH, conductivity, were measured in situ using portable equipment (WTW340i/SET). Additionally, surface water samples were collected for determination of nutrients such as nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, total nitrogen, ammonium, phosphorus nutrients (soluble reactive phosphorus and total phosphorus), Chl-a, and alkalinity (HCO-3, CO3=). Nutrient samples were collected and analyzed according to APHA standard analytical method (APHA, 1989). For the statistical processing of the data were used: 1) Hierarchical cluster analysis (Bray-Curtis), for the biotic typology of macrophyte data along river basins and to determine the structure of the riparian vegetation; 2) Indicator Species Analysis, was used to describe the hierarchical structure of each group to distinguish the indicator species (Ind_Sps) for each vegetation group; 3) Ordination, which were used both Indirect and Direct gradient analyses. Indirect gradient analyzes were used: a) Principal Component Analysis (PCA), to identify Geomorphological Units and to determining the pressure gradients; and b) Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA), for researching the spatial distribution of species abundance, and for seasonal and inter-annual variability of the reference communities. For direct gradient analyzes were used: a) Redundancy Analysis (RDA), for correlation between, water physicochemical parameters and Indicator species; and b) Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), for correlation between geomorphological characteristics and indicator species, as well as, to determine the key variables best explain the degradation of the riparian zone. The results showed that along the two river basins, six vegetation groups can be distinguished, with similar environmental gradient pattern (springs-estuaries). The dominant species for the upper part of Acheron and Louros river basins were: Pteridium aquilinum, bryophyte taxa and Carex species (C. acuta and C. pendula respectively). Moreover, four different vegetation groups were characterized the middle part of both river basins. The different degree of anthropogenic alteration of river estuaries (Acheron and Louros), reflects in the composition of the plant communities. The estuaries of Acheron were characterized by the dominant of green algae and the tolerant species Potamogeton pectinatus, while the estuaries of Louros river was characterized by the absence of green algae and the dominance of Potamogeton nodosus. The most important physicochemical variables that significantly affect the distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the river basins were: pH, conductivity, water temperature, and mean water velocity, concentrations of nitrogen nutrients (ΝΟ3-Ν, ΝΗ4-Ν, ΝΟ2-Ν) and orthophosphate (PO4-P), as well as, Chl-a. Whereas, the most important geomorphological factors were: altitude, bed substrate, channel width, channel shading, habitat type, water depth. Hierarchical cluster analysis distinguished five vegetation groups of the riparian zone of the study area. The following groups were indentified and characterized by the dominant riparian species. The upper reaches were characterized by the Vegetation Group Ia: Platanus orientalis and Ib: Quercus coccifera-P. orientalis; the middle reaches by II: Salix alba and Populus alba; and lowland areas until estuaries by III: Phragmites australis. Vegetation Group IV was characterized by the dominant of non native species Eucalyptus camaldulensis and the giant reed Arundo donax. According to the results, species abundance was low in all Vegetation Groups. Also, the applied indices Riparian quality assessment (QBR), Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) and Habitat Modification Score (HMS) revealed that the ecological integrity of the riparian zone increases the overall ecological quality of the riparian ecosystem. According to the hydromorphological characteristics, the sampling sites were grouped into three Geomorphological Units: Upper –Middle reaches-Estuaries. In each Geomorphological Unit (GU) a pressure gradient analysis was performed, and the reference sites were identified. For GU I the number of reference sites was 7, for GU II 3 reference sites were identified, while, for the estuaries the number of the reference sites were only 2. Also in each GU the seasonal and inter annual changes in reference communities, were investigated, and the structure of the reference community was determined. The results showed that the composition of the reference communities in lowland rivers appears to remain constant in the physical fluctuations. On the other hand, the slight differences which were recorded, in the GU I, during spring and summer sampling, referred to the reduction of bryophytes. This reduction might be cause due to the late spring (May), at the upper part of Louros river. Also, differences were recorded between autumn and spring samplings, in the GU III (estuaries). Those differences referred to the reduction of pteridophytes, maybe due to the high temperatures that prevail during the summer months. Finally, the sampling period could be set between late April and late September, since, during this period, any field visit will give the same composition of the reference communities. We investigated, to the greatest possible degree, all the potential parameters and pressures, which could influence the composition and distribution of aquatic macrophytes along the river basins. The most significant effect, from the current pressures, in the studied area, is the alteration of the hydromorphological characteristics of the ecosystem. The Multimetric approach was chosen, as the most holistic and reliable evaluation method of the ecological status of the study area. A preliminary list of potential plant metrics was compiled from a review of the literature, and in situ observations of plant community patterns. The metrics were grouped into five categories, so that each one representing a different ecological aspect of aquatic and riparian plant communities: 1) Richness/Diversity, 2) Trophic status, 3) Composition, 4) Riparian Integrity, and 5) Sensitivity/Tolerance. A total of 86 metrics were tested, of which 7 belonged to the category of "Abundance/Diversity", 4 to the category of "Trophic” status, 46 metric referred to “Composition” of plant communities, 11 referred to "Riparian Integrity”, and finally, 18 belonged to “Sensitivity/Tolerance” category. The estimation of the pressure gradient was performed using Principal Component Analyses (PCAs), with 36 hydromorphological degradation variables in 2 spatial scales: macroscale and microscale. Candidate metrics, which can be identified as robust and most informative, are scrutinized further, in the process of selecting core metrics. To be selected as a core metric the following aspects have to be considered: 1) core metrics should cover different metric types (see above); 2) metrics should not give redundant information. Inter-correlation tests between candidate metrics were carried out to detect redundant metrics (threshold value Spearman’s r<0.800). In case of redundancy we further investigate: the correlation of each metric with stress gradient (threshold value Spearman’s r<0.05); the correlation of each of the pair of metrics with the other metrics in order to finally omit the one that showed the higher overall mean correlation; and how well they separate stressed from unstressed sampling sites (graphical analysis of box-whisker plots). The final index includes 6 metrics out of 86 candidated metrics. The core metrics are: 1) IBMR, 2) QBR, 3) Number of Bryophyte, 4) % Reference Species, 5) % Nitrophilous taxa and 6) % Helophyte taxa (Phe_herbids). The different numerical scales of each core metric (e.g. abundance class, number of individuals) were normalized to unitless scores between 0 and 1. The upper and lower anchors mark the indicative range of a metric. The upper anchor corresponds to the upper limit of the metric’s value under reference conditions, and it was set as the 75th of the unstressed sites. The lower anchor corresponds to the lower limit of the metric’s value under the worst attainable conditions and it was set as 5th percentile of stressed sites. The multimetric index was calculated as the arithmetic mean of the normalized metrics (Böhmer et al., 2004). The final Multimetric Index provides a score that represents the overall relationship between the combined values of the biological parameters observed for a given site and the expected value under reference conditions. This score is – as for single metrics – expressed as a numerical value between zero and one. This range can be subdivided into any number of categories corresponding to various levels of impairment. To determine the boundaries of Multimetric Index, the 25th percentile of the unstressed sites (0,623) was set as the boundary for the high/good ecological class. We propose quality classes with equal ranges, to provide five ordinal rating categories for assessment of impairment in accordance with the demands of the WFD. The application of Macrophyte Multimetric Index (MMI) in the medium lowland rivers of Greece led to the ecological classification in five quality classes. The results indicated that the 29.6% of the sampling sites (8 sites) were classified in High ecological status, 4% (4 sites) in Good ecological status; the 22.3% (6 sites) in Moderate, 29.6% (8 sites) in the Poor and only 3.7% (1 site) was characterized as Bad ecological quality. The current doctoral thesis was the first attempt in the Greece, for establishing an integrated monitoring system of ecological quality of running water ecosystems, using aquatic macrophytes as biological quality element. The methodology developed, was pilot implemented in two river basins, Acheron and Louros, in Epirus, following the requirements and guidelines of the European Water Framework Directive, 2000/60/EE. Also, the evaluation system was developed to be proposed for implementation at all similar river types of Greece, since both the list of candidate metrics and the Multimetric Index itself, can be tested in other types of Greek rivers (RM-1, RM-3, RM-4 & RM-5). Finally, the results, will contribute to the sustainable management and conservation of riverine ecosystems, as well as, to the implementation of the water environmental policy in Greece.

LL.M. (International Commercial Law)
This essay seeks to look at the role of express submission to jurisdictjon under the Brussels I Regulation,lthe Brussels I (recast) Regulation2 and the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements.3 The express submission to jurisdiction under the three instruments mentioned in the previous sentence refers to the situation in which parties to an international commercial contract include in their contract a court of their choice to govern any disputes that may arise between them. This designated court may or may not be situated in a country that is a member of the three instruments mentioned above. The purpose of this thesis is to determine what will occur when the court chosen is from a country that is not a member of either of the three instruments mentioned. We will first look at express submission and the role it plays in determining which court has jurisdiction. This section on express submission will provide the definition of express submission in the context of a contract which incorporates a choice-of-forum agreement between the parties who are engaged in an international commercial transaction. The thesis will view the role of submission in a common-law and civil-law country in light of express submission by contract. Finally, a distinction will be made between an exclusive and non-exclusive jurisdiction clause. A brief discussion ofthe Brussels Convention4 (The Convention) will be provided in order to present the fact that the Convention only applies when a choice-of-forum agreement in a contract has assoned thejurisdiction to a court of a country which is a member of the Convention. The Convention would not apply when a choice-of-forum agreement in a contract has assigned jurisdiction to the court of a country which is not a member to the Convention. ln order to determine whether the position has changed since the enactment of the Brussels I Regulation (Regulation) with regard to choice-of-forum agreements that designate jurisdiction to the court of a country in a nonmember state of the Regulation, provisions relating to express submission clauses will be discussed. A further discussion will be provided to ascertain whether the enactment of the Council Regulation (EC) No 4412001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement ofjudgments in civil and commercial matters.