Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Diabetes – Etiology'

RESUMO: A Diabetes Mellitus é uma doença metabólica crónica, com deficiência a nível do metabolismo dos hidratos de carbono, lípidos e proteínas, resultante de deficiências na secreção ou ação da insulina, ou de ambas, que quando não tratada antecipadamente e de modo conveniente, pode ter consequências muito graves. Dado a incidência a nível mundial da Diabetes Mellitus, torna-se de elevada importância avaliar toda a sua envolvência e estudar bem quais os critérios a ter em consideração. Este trabalho propõe-se estudar para além dos parâmetros bioquímicos relacionados com a doença - Glicose e Hemoglobina Glicada A1c (HbA1c), analisar os resultados dos últimos cinco anos (2008-2012) dos ensaios interlaboratoriais do PNAEQ, do Departamento de Epidemiologia, do Instituto Nacional de Saúde Dr. Ricardo Jorge. Foram também analisadas as metodologias utilizadas e as variações interlaboratoriais, de forma a entender qual ou quais são os parâmetros mais adequados para o seu diagnóstico e controlo. Este estudo utilizou a população de laboratórios portugueses, públicos e privados, de Portugal Continental e Ilhas, um laboratório de Angola e outro de Macau que se inscreveram no PNAEQ nestes cinco anos, sendo a amostra composta pelo n.º de participações. No programa de Química Clinica foram distribuídas 38 amostras e no programa de HbA1c foram distribuídas 22 amostras. Para a glicose, o nível de desempenho nos ensaios é na globalidade das amostras de Excelente, no entanto verifica-se que sempre que a concentração da amostra é de nível patológico, que a maioria dos ensaios o desempenho foi inferior – Bom. O método de eleição e com CV% mais baixos foi o método da hexoquinase. Para a HbA1c, o nível de desempenho nos ensaios é na globalidade das amostras de Excelente. O método de eleição e com CV% mais baixos foi o método de HPLC. O CV% para a glicose ronda desde 2010 a 2012, os 3% e para a HbA1c foi de aproximadamente 4,0% em 2012. A HbA1c tem mostrado ser uma ferramenta muito útil, importante e robusta na monitorização da Diabetes, sendo hoje em dia quase sempre requisitada em análises de rotina a diabéticos de modo a prevenir complicações que possam vir a acorrer. No futuro poderá ser um importante, senão o parâmetro de futuro, para o diagnóstico da Diabetes, no entanto, mesmo já tendo sido muito trabalhada a sua padronização, ainda existem questões por responder como quais são na realidade todos os seus interferentes, qual a verdadeira relação da HbA1c com a glicose média estimada, em todas as populações e com estudos epidemiológicos. Também a própria educação do diabético e clínico deve ser aprimorada, pelo que neste momento as PTGO e os doseamentos de glicose em jejum devem ser utilizados e encontrando-se a Norma da DGS N.º 033/2011 de acordo com as necessidades e com o estado da arte deste parâmetro. A implementação da glicose média estimada será uma mais-valia na monitorização dos diabéticos pelo que deverá ser uma das prioridades a ter em conta no futuro desta padronização, uniformizando a decisão clinica baseada nela e minimizando a dificuldade de interpretação de resultados de laboratório para laboratório. --------------ABSTRACT: Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease, with a deficit in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, resulting from deficiencies in insulin secretion or action, or both, which if, when not early treated in a proper way, may result in very serious consequences. Given the worldwide incidence of diabetes mellitus, it is highly important to evaluate all its background and study specifically all the criteria to take into consideration. The aim of this thesis is to study and evaluate beyond the biochemical parameters related to the disease - Glucose and Glycated Haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), analyze the results of the last five years (2008-2012) of the PNAEQ interlaboratorial tests, in the Department of Epidemiology of National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge. It is also intended to analyze the methodologies used and the interlaboratorial variations, in order to understand the most suitable parameters for the diagnosis and control. This study was based in a population of Portuguese laboratories, public and private, of Portugal mainland and islands, a laboratory of Angola and other from Macau, who enrolled in PNAEQ in these five years, and the sample was composed by the n. º of holdings. In the Clinical Chemistry Program there were distributed 38 samples and in the program HbA1c were distributed 22 samples. For glucose, the level of performance in the total nº of the samples was Excellent; however, it was found that when the concentration level of the sample was pathological, in most of the tests the performance was Good. The most preferred method with the lowest CV% is the hexokinase method. For the HbA1c, as a whole, the samples’ tests were Excellent, at the level of performance. The method of election with the lower CV% was the HPLC. The CV% for glucose was around 3%, from 2010 to 2012 and the HbA1c was approximately 4.0% in 2012. The HbA1c method has demonstrated to be a very useful tool, important and robust for monitoring diabetes, being nowadays, almost always required in routine analysis to prevent future complications. In the future it may be an important parameter, if not the most important, for the diagnosis of diabetes. However, despite it has already been standardized, there are still some questions that need to be answered, such as, which are in fact all their interferences, which is the true connection of HbA1c, when compared with the estimated average glucose, in all populations and epidemiological studies. Moreover, the education of the patient and the doctor concerning diabetes should be improved. Nowadays, the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) and fasting glucose determinations should be used and, the needs and the state of the art of this parameter, should be in accordance with the Standard DGS N. º 033/2011. The Implementation of the estimated average glucose will be an added value in monitoring diabetics and, therefore, should be a priority to consider in its future standardization and clinical decision based on it, will be uniform and the difficulty of interpreting results from laboratory to laboratory will be minimal.

OBJECTIVES: In Australia, diabetes causes significant morbidity and mortality. Whilst the need to prevent diabetes and its complications has been widely recognised, the capacity of health care systems - which organise diabetes care - to facilitate prevention has not been fully established. METHODS: A series of seven population-based case-control studies were used to examine the effectiveness of the Australian health care system and its capacity to manage diabetes. Six of the studies compared the patterns of care of patients who had developed advanced diabetes complications in 2000 (cases), to similar patients who remained free of the condition (controls) across Australia and for various risk groups. A secondary study investigated the role of treating GPs in the development of the outcome. RESULTS: A strong relationship between the patterns of care and the development of advanced diabetes complications was found and is described in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, this same relationship was investigated for each Australian state and territory, and similar findings were made. The study in Chapter 6 investigated whether late diagnosis or the patterns of care was the stronger risk factor for advanced diabetes complications, finding that the greatest risk was associated with the latter. In Chapter 7 the influence of medical care during the pre-diagnosis period was explored, and a strong relationship between care obtained in this period and the development of advanced complications was found. In Chapter 8, which investigated the role of socio-economic status in the development of advanced complications, found that the risk of advanced diabetes complications was higher in low socio-economic groups. Chapter 9 investigated geographic isolation and the development of advanced diabetes complications and found that the risk of advanced complications was higher in geographically isolated populations. Finally, Chapter 10, which utilised a provider database, found that some GP characteristics were associated with the development of advanced diabetes complications in patients. CONCLUSION: A number of major risk factors for the development of advanced complications in Australia was found. These related to poorer diabetes management, later diagnosis, low socioeconomic status and geographic isolation. Strategies must be devised to promote effective diabetes management and the early diagnosis of diabetes across the Australian population.

Master of Public Health
OBJECTIVES: In Australia, diabetes causes significant morbidity and mortality. Whilst the need to prevent diabetes and its complications has been widely recognised, the capacity of health care systems - which organise diabetes care - to facilitate prevention has not been fully established. METHODS: A series of seven population-based case-control studies were used to examine the effectiveness of the Australian health care system and its capacity to manage diabetes. Six of the studies compared the patterns of care of patients who had developed advanced diabetes complications in 2000 (cases), to similar patients who remained free of the condition (controls) across Australia and for various risk groups. A secondary study investigated the role of treating GPs in the development of the outcome. RESULTS: A strong relationship between the patterns of care and the development of advanced diabetes complications was found and is described in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, this same relationship was investigated for each Australian state and territory, and similar findings were made. The study in Chapter 6 investigated whether late diagnosis or the patterns of care was the stronger risk factor for advanced diabetes complications, finding that the greatest risk was associated with the latter. In Chapter 7 the influence of medical care during the pre-diagnosis period was explored, and a strong relationship between care obtained in this period and the development of advanced complications was found. In Chapter 8, which investigated the role of socio-economic status in the development of advanced complications, found that the risk of advanced diabetes complications was higher in low socio-economic groups. Chapter 9 investigated geographic isolation and the development of advanced diabetes complications and found that the risk of advanced complications was higher in geographically isolated populations. Finally, Chapter 10, which utilised a provider database, found that some GP characteristics were associated with the development of advanced diabetes complications in patients. CONCLUSION: A number of major risk factors for the development of advanced complications in Australia was found. These related to poorer diabetes management, later diagnosis, low socioeconomic status and geographic isolation. Strategies must be devised to promote effective diabetes management and the early diagnosis of diabetes across the Australian population.

Com o objetivo de verificar se as proteínas do sistema GH-IGF-IGFBP e o receptor do fator de crescimento insulina símile tipo I (IGF-IR) estão envolvidos na etiopatogenia do Diabetes Melito tipo 1 (DM1) , foram estudados 23 pacientes prépúberes portadores de DM1 em diferentes fases do diagnóstico (Grupo A: tempo de diagnóstico <= 6 meses; Grupo B: tempo de diagnóstico > 6 meses) e 10 indivíduos pré-púberes sadios como grupo controle (Grupo C). A expressão do mRNA do IGFIR realizada através do ensaio molecular de RT-PCR nos linfócitos periféricos T e B não demonstrou diferenças estatisticamente significantes nos linfócitos T quando comparados indivíduos diabéticos e controles, sugerindo que a ativação imunológica destas células seja independente da ação do IGF-IR. Observou-se uma maior expressão do mRNA do IGF-IR dos linfócitos B de pacientes diabéticos em relação ao grupo controle (p < 0,05). A avaliação das proteínas do sistema GH-IGF-IGFBP não demonstrou diferença estatística significante entre os grupos. Estes achados, associados à presença de auto-anticorpos para o DM1 (ICA, anti-GAD e anti-IA2) sugerem fortemente o papel do IGF-IR na ativação dos linfócitos B envolvidos na etiopatogenia do DM1
Aiming to verify if GH-IGF-IGFBP proteins system and insulin-like growth factor type I receptor (IGF-IR) are implicated on pathofisiology of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM1), we studied 23 prepubertal patients with DM1 on different stages of diagnosis (Group A: time of diagnosis <= 6 months; Group B: time of diagnosis > 6 months) and 10 prepubertal healthy subjects as control group (Group C). The RT-PCR molecular assay for IGF-IR mRNA on peripheral T and B lymphocytes didn\'t show statistical differences between the groups when T cells were analyzed. We found an increase of IGF-IR mRNA expression on B cells from diabetic patients when compared to healthy subjects (p< 0,05). There were no differences in the GH-IGF-IGFBP proteins system levels between the groups. Our study suggest that IGF-IR in association with diabetes-related autoantibodies (ICA, anti-GAD and anti-IA2) presence could activate B cells involved on pathofisiology of DM1

Defects in fat metabolism are central to the aetiology and pathogenesis of obesity and type II diabetes. The liver plays a central role in these disease states via its regulation of glucose and fat metabolism. In addition, accumulation of fat within the liver has been associated with changes in key pathways of carbohydrate and fat metabolism. However a number of questions remain. It is hypothesised that fat accumulation within the liver is a primary defect in the aetiology and pathogenesis of obesity and type II diabetes. Fat accumulating in the liver is the result of changes in the gene expression of key enzymes and proteins involved with fat uptake, fat transport, fat oxidation, fat re-esterification or storage and export of fat from the liver and these changes are regulated by key lipid responsive transcription factors. To study these questions Psammomys obesus was utilised. This polygenic rodent model of obesity and type II diabetes develops obesity and diabetes in a similar pattern to susceptible human populations. In addition dietary and environmental changes to Psammomys obesus were employed to create different states of energy balance, which allowed the regulation of liver fat gene expression to be examined. These investigations include: 1) Measurement of fat accumulation and fatty acid binding proteins in lean, obese and diabetic Psammomys obesus. 2) Characterisation of hepatic lipid enzymes, transport protein and lipid responsive transcription factor gene expression in lean, obese and diabetic Paammomys obesus. 3) The effect of acute and chronic energy restriction on hepatic lipid metabolism in Psammomys obesus. 4) The effect of sucrose feeding on the development of obesity and type II diabetes in Psammomys obesus. 5) The effect of nicotine treatment in lean and obese Psammomys obesus, 6) The effect of high dose leptin administration on hepatic fat metabolism in Psammomys obesus. The results of these studies demonstrated that fat accumulation within the liver was not a primary defect in the aetiology and pathogenesis of obesity and type II diabetes. Fat accumulating in the liver was not the result of changes in the gene expression of key enzymes and proteins involved in hepatic fat metabolism. However changes in the mRNA level of the transcription factors PPAR∝ and SREBP-1C was associated with the development of diabetes and the gene expression of these two transcription factors was associated with changes in diabetic status.

The isolated perfused working heart was used to study hypertensive- diabetes induced alterations in cardiac function at 6 and 12 weeks after the induction of diabetes. There was no difference in cardiac function between normotensive Wistar and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) diabetic rats at 6 weeks after diabetes induction. Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were also included as normotensive controls in our 12-week study. Successful induction of diabetes was confirmed by the presence of hyperglycemia, hypoinsulinemia, glycosuria and increased haemoglobin glycosylation in all three diabetic groups. However, quantitation of various parameters of heart function revealed highly significant differences between SHR diabetic animals and all other groups, associated with an increased mortality. Serum lipids were elevated in SHR and Wistar and unaffected in WKY diabetic rats. Furthermore, thyroid hormone levels were not depressed in WKY diabetic rats and could explain the lack of cardiac dysfunction in these animals. The data provide further evidence that the combination of hypertension and diabetes mellitus produces greater myocardial dysfunction than is seen with either disease alone and is associated with a significant mortality. The effects of hydralazine on blood lipids, systolic pressure and cardiac performance were assessed in male Wistar rats, 6 weeks after they were made diabetic with streptozotocin (STZ). When hydralazine was administered for a 6-week period to the diabetic rats, their blood lipids were not significantly different from that of non-diabetic rats despite a low serum insulin. In contrast, blood lipids were elevated in the diabetic rats that were not treated with hydralazine; these animals also had low insulin levels. Cardiac performance was depressed in the untreated diabetic animals, but the cardiac performance of the hydralazine-treated diabetic animals showed a definite improvement which could be partly explained by their normal thyroid status in contrast to the untreated diabetic animals which were slightly hypothyroid. Blood pressure was elevated only in the untreated diabetic animals. Thus hydralazine controlled the high serum lipids and blood pressure and improved cardiac performance in STZ diabetic rats. To examine the influence of sex differences in the STZ model of diabetes, we studied left ventricular function in hearts from 6 week male and female rats. Significantly lower values for +dP/dt occurred in male diabetic rats compared with their own controls or female diabetics at most left atrial filling pressures. Decreases in this value for female diabetic rats compared to their own controls occurred only at high left atrial pressures. It appears that diabetes mellitus produces greater myocardial dysfunction in male diabetic rats.
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of
Graduate

Abstract Obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) form a dangerous quartet which threatens human health all over the world. About 25% of adults around the world have NAFLD, which poses risks for cardiovascular and metabolic well-being and may develop into liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Apart from lifestyle modification, treatment options for NAFLD are scarce. This thesis presents atrial fibrillation (AF) as a new complication of NAFLD among general population of 958 individuals aged 40-60 years participating in the OPERA study. Even after multiple-adjustments for confounding factors, ultrasound-based NAFLD predicted the development of AF during about 16 years of follow-up. Moreover, the association between AF and liver fibrosis in 76 individuals aged 64-82 years in a cross-sectional setting is presented. The thesis also shows that individuals with metabolic syndrome (MetS), with or without NAFLD, are at increased risk of cardiovascular events, T2D and the increase of left ventricular mass index in a study population of 958 individuals aged 40-60 years during a 20-year follow-up. In other words, NAFLD without MetS does not seem to expose to these three cardiometabolic complications. The thesis also shows that rifampicin-activated pregnane X receptor (PXR), a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors with several endobiotic and xenobiotic activators, increases serum levels of cholesterol, phospholipids and certain fatty acids, assessed by nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomics technique, in a randomized, open, placebo-controlled trial among 34 young and healthy individuals. These serum lipids are considered toxic lipids and capable of transforming hepatosteatosis into steatohepatitis and even more severe forms of NAFLD. Moreover, rifampicin-activated PXR has no effect on serum triglycerides, that are non-toxic lipids, or triglyceride accumulation in the liver, assessed by magnetic resonance imaging, in 15 young and healthy individuals. In conclusion, this thesis advances the knowledge in the pathogenesis, lipid metabolism, complications and heterogeneous nature of NAFLD. These may have implications for patient care and follow-up
Tiivistelmä Maailmanlaajuisesti noin 25% täysi-ikäisistä henkilöistä sairastaa alkoholinkäyttöön liittymätöntä rasvamaksaa. Sen tiedetään altistavan sydän- ja verisuonisairauksille, aineenvaihduntahäiriöille, maksakirroosille ja jopa maksasyövälle, mutta elämäntapahoitoa lukuun ottamatta hoitomahdollisuudet ovat toistaiseksi vähäisiä. Tässä väitöskirjassa osoitetaan ensimmäistä kertaa alkoholinkäyttöön liittymättömän rasvamaksan ennustavan itsenäisesti eteisvärinän ilmaantuvuutta noin 16 vuoden seurannan aikana 958 tavallisen keski-ikäisen ihmisen aineistossa osana OPERA-tutkimusta. Lisäksi väitöskirjassa osoitetaan maksan sidekudosmuodostuksen ja eteisvärinän välillä olevan yhteys poikkileikkausasetelmassa 76 iäkkään ihmisen muodostamassa aineistossa. Väitöstutkimuksessa havaittiin myös, että metabolista oireyhtymää sairastavilla henkilöillä on suurentunut tyypin 2 diabeteksen, sydän- ja verisuonisairauksien sekä vasemman kammion koon suurentumisen riski noin 20 vuoden seurannan aikana 958 tutkittavan henkilön aineistossa riippumatta siitä, onko heillä alkoholinkäyttöön liittymätön rasvamaksa. Toisin sanoen alkoholin käyttöön liittymätön rasvamaksa ilman metabolista oireyhtymää ei lisää edellä mainittujen kolmen sairauden riskiä. Väitöstutkimuksessa esitetään lisäksi, että rifampisiinilla aikaansaatu maksan pregnane X -reseptorin aktivaatio johtaa seerumin fosfolipidien, tiettyjen rasvahappojen sekä usean eri kolesterolityypin lisääntymiseen 34 terveen nuoren henkilön aineistossa. Kirjallisuudessa näiden seerumin rasva-aineiden on esitetty aiheuttavan alkoholin käyttöön liittymätöntä maksatulehdusta ja jopa rasvamaksan vakavimpia muotoja. Toisaalta rifampisiini ei lisännyt seerumin triglyseridipitoisuutta eikä aiheuttanut magneettitutkimuksella mitattuna triglyseridien kertymistä maksaan 15 terveen nuoren henkilön aineistossa. Tämä väitöstutkimus antaa lisätietoa rasvamaksan kehittymisestä, rasva-aineenvaihdunnasta ja komplikaatioista sekä korostaa rasvamaksan monimuotoista luonnetta. Nämä löydökset saattavat parantaa rasvamaksaa sairastavien henkilöiden hoitoa ja seurantaa

RESUMO- Introdução: A obesidade e a Síndrome Metabólica (SM) são atualmente um importante problema de saúde pública, com prevalências crescentes, que se acompanham também por aumento da prevalência de Diabetes Mellitus (DM).Estudos prévios demonstram associação destas entidades com o aumento de risco de eventos cardiovasculares, em particular a DM. A SM tem sido uma entidade muito debatida nos últimos anos, com aparecimento de diversas definições, contribuindo para resultados díspares no que diz respeito à influência da SM nas doenças cardiovasculares. Também têm sido descritas variações étnicas e regionais. Para além de alguns estudos epidemiológicos na população geral, a informação relativamente à sua influência na presença de doença cardiovascular é desconhecida em Portugal, em particular em populações com suspeita de doença coronária. Objetivos - Esclarecimento de questões relacionadas com a prevalência de SM e a sua influência na evolução de doença ateroclerótica arterial por avaliação de uma população com suspeita de doença coronária. População e Métodos - Estudo observacional, transversal, com inclusão prospetiva de indivíduos admitidos letivamente para realização de angiografia coronária por suspeita de doença coronária, tendo sido também efetuadas análises laboratoriais e ecografia carotidea para avaliação da espessura intima-média carotidea (EIMc) e da presença de placas carotídeas. Efetuou-se avaliação dos parâmetros demográficos, antropométricos, determinação do perfil lipídico, glicémia e insulinémia. Os exames angiográficos foram analisados por análise quantitativa semi-automática. Foram excluídos indivíduos com antecedentes conhecidos de doença cardíaca. Resultados - Incluíram-se 300 doentes, com idade média de 64 ± 9 anos, 59% do género masculino. A prevalência de SM de acordo com a definição da AHA/NHLBI foi 48,4% (ajustada para idade e género da população portuguesa) e a prevalência de DM foi 14,8% (ajustada). A concordância global das três definições mais recentes de SM foi de apenas 43%. A prevalência de SM aumenta com a idade e é também mais elevada no género feminino. O componente mais frequente foi a hipertensão arterial, seguido pela obesidade abdominal, a elevação da glicémia e por fim as alterações dos triglicéridos e do colesterol HDL. Por outro lado, a presença de doença coronária significativa (lesões ≥50%) ocorreu em apenas 51,3% dos doentes, sendo ainda mais baixa no género feminino. Demonstrou-se também uma baixa capacidade preditiva para doença coronária dos testes não invasivos clássicos, em particular no género feminino. A prevalência de doença coronária significativa foi idêntica nos indivíduos com SM comparativamente com indivíduos sem alterações metabólicas (46,3% vs. 48,2%, respectivamente), sendo mais elevado nos diabéticos (65,2%). Os fatores predizentes independentes de doença coronária significativa foram a idade, o género masculino, a elevação da glicémia e dos triglicéridos. Pelo contrário, o Índice de Massa Corporal (IMC) mostrou uma associação protetora relativamente à presença de doença coronária. A SM não é fator predizente de doença coronária. Relativamente às dimensões dos vasos coronários, o IMC correlaciona-se positivamente e a glicémia / DM correlacionam-se negativamente. A EIMc aumenta com o aumento da idade e no género masculino. A EIMc foi intermédia nos doentes com SM (0,88 ± 0,31 mm) comparativamente com os doentes diabéticos (0,97 ± 0,34 mm) e os indivíduos “Normais” (0,85 ± 0,34 mm). Os fatores predizentes independentes de EIMc foram a idade, o género masculino, o colesterol HDL e a insulinémia. A EIMc permite predizer com uma acuidade moderada a presença de doença coronária significativa (AUC 0,638), em particular no género feminino, sendo um fator predizente independente de presença de doença coronária (OR 2,35, IC 95% 1,04-5,33. p=0,04). Apesar de não se correlacionar com o número de vasos coronários com doença, correlacionou-se com a gravidade da doença (pelo score de Gensini). A insulinémia e o índice HOMA aumentam diretamente com a idade e com o IMC, sendo contudo sobreponíveis em ambos os géneros. Os fatores predizentes de índice HOMA (resistência à insulina) foram o IMC, bem como os restantes componentes de SM, estando o índice HOMA relacionado com a presença de SM e o número dos seus componentes presentes. O limiar para resistência à insulina foi de 2,66 e para SM foi 2,41. Ao contrário das restantes definições de SM, a definição da AHA/NHLBI não é predizente da presença de DM no género masculino. A associação da resistência à insulina com doença coronária foi limiar (OR 1,13, IC 95% 1,00-1,28, p=0,045). Conclusões - Numa população com suspeita de doença coronária, a prevalência de SM é muito elevada (superior a 50%), sendo a prevalência de DM de 23%. Também a obesidade e o excesso de peso foram extremamente prevalentes nesta população. A concordância entre definições de SM é baixa. A hipertensão arterial e a obesidade abdominal são os componentes mais frequentes de SM, sendo menos prevalentes as alterações lipídicas. Pelo contrário, a presença de doença coronária significativa foi muito baixa, em particular nas mulheres. A SM não se associou à presença de doença coronária significativa, estando esta mais dependente das alterações do metabolismo glicídico e dos triglicéridos, bem como de outros fatores de risco não modificáveis, nomeadamente a idade e o género. A EIMc da carótida comum e a presença de placas carotídeas é mais elevada nos indivíduos diabéticos, estando também ligeiramente aumentada nos doentes com SM, sendo os fatores predizentes de EIMc apenas a idade, o género, a hiperinsulinémia bem como os níveis baixos de colesterol HDL. A utilização da avaliação da EIMc na estratificação de risco pré-angiografia coronária, poderá ser útil no género feminino. A hiperinsulinémia e o índice HOMA (índice de resistência à insulina), estão relacionados com o IMC e consequentemente com a presença de obesidade, embora também se correlacione de forma independente com os outros componentes de SM. A resistência à insulina associou-se à presença de SM. Relativamente à capacidade preditiva da coexistência com DM, verificou-se associação com a definição da NCEP-ATP III e da IDF, contudo, a definição da AHA/NHLBI só foi predizente de DMnas mulheres. -------------ABSTRACT - Introduction: Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome (MS) are a major public health problem, with increasing prevalence, that follows the increase in diabetes prevalence. Previous studies showed an association of both entities with increased cardiovascular risk, particularly diabetes. MS has been debated in the last few years, with several definitions and different results when analysed the influence of MS on cardiovascular diseases. There are also some regional and ethnical variations. Beyond general population epidemiological studies, information about the influence on cardiovascular disease in Portugal is unknown, particularly in patients with suspected coronary disease. Objectives- To clarify several questions regarding the prevalence of MS and the influence in arterial atherosclerotic disease by evaluation of a population with suspected coronary artery disease. Population and Methods- Observational, cross-sectional study with prospective inclusion of individuals admitted electively for coronary angiography with suspicion of coronary artery disease. All individuals also performed laboratorial evaluation and carotid ultrasound to evaluate carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and carotid plaques. We also evaluated demographic, anthropometric parameters, lipid profile, blood glucose and blood insulin. Angiographic data was obtained by semi-automated quantitation. Individuals with previously known cardiac history were excluded from the study. Results- We included 300 individuals with a mean age of 64 ± 9 years, 59% males. MS prevalence according to AHA/NHLBI definition was 48.4% (adjusted for age and gender of the Portuguese population) and the adjusted prevalence of diabetes was 14.8%. Global agreement between the more recent three definitions of MS was only 43%. MS prevalence increases with age and is also higher in women. The most frequent components were hypertension and abdominal obesity, followed by elevated glucose and triglicerides and low HDL-cholesterol. Significant coronary artery disease (stenosis ≥50%) was present in only 51.3% of patients, being lower in females. Non-invasive tests also had a low predictive capacity, particularly in females. The prevalence of significant coronary disease was identical in patients with MS compared with normal metabolism individuals (46.3% vs. 48.2%, respectively), being higher in diabetics (65.2%). Independent predictive factors for coronary disease were age, male gender, high blood glucose and triglycerides. On the contrary, Body Mass Index (BMI) was a protective factor for coronary disease. MS wasn’t a predictor of coronary disease. BMI showed a positive correlation with coronary vessel diameter and glucose /diabetes had a negative correlation. CIMT increased with age and was higher in males. CIMT was intermediate in patients with MS (0.88 ± 0.31 mm) when compared to diabetic patients (0.97 ± 0.34 mm) and “Normal” individuals (0.85 ± 0.34 mm). Independent predictors for cIMT were age, male gender, HDL-cholesterol and insulin. CIMT had a moderate predictive accuracy for coronary disease (AUC 0,638), particularly in females and is an independent predictor of the presence of significant coronary disease (OR 2.35, 95% CI 1.04-5.33. p=0.04). Although it did not correlate with the number of diseased coronary arteries, it correlated with coronary disease severity by the Gensini score. Insulin and HOMA index increase directly with age and BMI, but were identical in both genders. Predictive factors for HOMA index (insulin resistance) were BMI as well as the other MS components. HOMA index is related to MS and the number of its components. The cut-off for insulin resistance was 2.66 and for MS 2.41. Unlike other MS definitions, AHA/NHLBI definition is not a predictor of diabetes in males. There was a borderline association between insulin resistance and coronary disease (OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.00-1.28, p=0.045). Conclusions - In a population of patients with suspected coronary disease, MS prevalence is extremely high (above 50%) with a diabetes prevalence of 23%. Also obesity and overweight are very prevalent in this population. Global agreement between MS definitions is however low. Hypertension and abdominal obesity are the most frequent components, with a lower prevalence of lipid abnormalities. Coronary disease prevalence was low, particularly in women. MS wasn’t associated with coronary disease. Coronary disease was related to glucose and triglycerides, as well as with other non-modifiable factors such as age and gender. CIMT and carotid plaques are increased in diabetic patients, and also slightly elevated in patients with MS, but cIMT independent predictors were age, male gender, insulin and HDLcholesterol. CIMT can be useful in risk stratification before coronary angiography particularly in women. Elevated insulin and HOMA index (an insulin resistance index) are related with BMI and consequently with obesity, and it was also correlated with other MS components. Insulin resistance was associated with MS. The presence of diabetes was associated with the presence of MS by NCEP-ATP III and IDF definitions; however, AHA/NHLBI definition was only predictive of diabetes in females.

Diabetes is a rapidly growing disease with 415 million affected adults worldwide. The pancreatic endocrine cells, most importantly the insulin producing β-cells, play an important role in regulating blood glucose homeostasis. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is characterized by the inability of the pancreas to secrete sufficient amounts of insulin due to autoimmune destruction of insulin producing β-cells. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) on the other hand is characterized by defects in insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity. Alterations in the β-cell mass (BCM) and/or function play a major role in the development and progression of the disease. Understanding BCM dynamics in disease models is therefore a key aspect for better interpretation of research results. In this thesis, we have used optical projection tomography (OPT) as a tool to evaluate a non-invasive imaging modality for β-cell scoring and to study disease dynamics in frequently used animal models for T1D and T2D. The possibility to monitor BCM in vivo would radically improve our competence in studying the pathogenesis of diabetes and in therapeutic interventions. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is a widely used technique that has become a promising approach to monitor changes in BCM in vivo. A key issue for using this approach is to evaluate the β-cell specificity and read out of the utilized radiotracers. This is most commonly performed by conventional stereological approaches, which rely on the extrapolation of 2D data. We developed a protocol for SPECT-OPT multimodal imaging that enables rapid and accurate cross evaluation of SPECT based assessments of BCM. While histological determination of islet spatial distribution was challenging, SPECT and OPT revealed similar distribution patterns of the radiotracer 111In-exendin-3 and insulin positive β-cell volumes respectively between different pancreatic lobes, both visually and quantitatively. We propose SPECT-OPT multimodal imaging as an accurate and better approach for validating the performance of β-cell radiotracers. The leptin deficient ob/ob mouse is a widely used model for studies of metabolic disturbances leading to T2D, including obesity and insulin resistance. By OPT imaging we created the first 3D-spatial and quantitative account of BCM distribution in this model. We observed a previously unreported degree of cystic lesions in hypertrophic islets, that were occupied by red blood cells (RBCs) and/or fibrin mesh. We propose that these lesions are formed by a mechanism involving the extravasation of RBCs/plasma due to increased blood flow and islet vessel instability. Further, our data indicate that the primary lobular compartments of the ob/ob pancreas have different potentials for expanding their β-cell population. Unawareness of these characteristics of β-cell expansion in ob/ob mice presented in this study may significantly influence ex vivo and in vivo assessments of this model in studies of β-cell adaptation and function. The tomographic data, on which this study was based, will be made publically available as a resource to the research community for the planning and interpretation of research involving this model. There are limited studies on early metabolic and functional changes of BCM in the settings of T1D. In order to assess initial metabolic alterations in BCM before the onset of diabetes, we characterized congenic diabetes prone Bio-breeding (BB) DR.lyp/lyp rats, a widely used model for T1D diabetes. We observed lower acute insulin response, reduced islet blood flow and a significant reduction in the BCM of small and medium sized islets at a very early stage (40 days), i.e. before insulitis and development of diabetes. Underlying changes in islet function may be a previously unrecognized factor of importance in the development of T1D.

Type 1 diabetes(T1D)is a disease that only gets more common. The etiology of the disease is not known but there are many existing theories about what the cause is. These different theories have been tested in vivoin rodents or invitro. The resultsfrom experiments done in those waysarenotall realistic because rodents differnotablyfrom humans,and when studies areperformed in vitrowith human isletsof Langerhans different hormones will accumulate. The aim of this studywas to establisha dynamic ex vivosystem in which stimulation of human islets of Langerhans can be performed in a more lifelike environment. To study islets in this system couldin the future lead to increased knowledge in the etiology of T1D.The perifusion system PERI-4.2 from Biorep Technologies together with an incubator with 37°Cand5% CO2were used to arrangethe ex vivosystem. An Insulin ELISA from Mercodia was performedto analyze the insulin secretion from the islets. Fourdifferent set ups for the system were tested and the last one showed the best results.In conclusion this study has shown that it is possible to preserve human islets of Langerhans in a dynamic ex vivosystem with a constant medium exchange if it is done under conditionswhere the islets are protected from shear forces from the supplying medium,together with a medium exchange rate which replaces the whole medium in at least one hour.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2003.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xviii, 233 p.: ill. Includes abstract and vita. Advisor: Douglas E. Crews, Dept. of Anthropology. Includes bibliographical references (p. 209-233).

Noventa e seis pacientes com diabetes melito do tipo 2 foram randomizados para receberem ou não abciximab durante o implante eletivo de stent coronário, com o objetivo de determinar se esse inibidor da glicoproteína IIb/IIIa reduz a hiperplasia intimal intra-stent, avaliada pelo ultra-som intracoronário, aos seis meses de evolução. A análise volumétrica mostrou que o abciximab não reduz o volume de obstrução intra-stent nestes pacientes [41,3% (DP21,0%) versus 40,5% (DP18,3%), p=0,853].
Ninety-six type 2 diabetics were randomly assigned to receive abciximab or no abciximab at the time of elective stent implantation to determine whether this IIb/IIIa glycoprotein inhibitor would reduce in-stent intimal hyperplasia, measured by intravascular ultrasound, at 6-month follow-up. Volumetric analysis showed that abciximab was not associated with a reduction of in-stent volume obstruction in diabetic patients [41.3% (DP21.0%) versus 40.5% (DP18.3%), p=0.853).

Tese (doutorado)—Universidade de Brasília, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Departamento de Biologia Celular, 2008.
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MicroRNAs (miRNAs) são os produtos gênicos não-codantes (~19-22 nucleotídeos) com um papel chave no regulamento pós-transcricional inibindo a expressão gênica através da união seletiva a seqüências complementares de RNA mensageiro. Nossos resultados indicam que os miRNAs isolados com métodos atualmente usados para preparação de RNA são instáveis assim como também seus cDNAs correspondentes. Estas observações têm grande importância em estudos de análise de expressão de miRNAs. Além, nosso laboratório é pioneiro em determinar perfis específicos de miRNA em ilhotas pancreáticas humanas e de roedores normais assim como em ilhotas expostas à ação de citocinas diabetogênicas pró-inflamatórias. O miR-7 resultou ser o miRNA mais abundante da porção endócrina das ilhota e o miR-375 o mais abundante no pâncreas. Ambos os miRNAs aumentaram sua expressão durante o desenvolvimento pancreático, assim como também, em ilhotas tratadas com citocinas pró-inflamatórias por 6 horas. Estas observações sugerem que o miR-7 e o miR-375 desempenham um papel importante não apenas durante o processo de desenvolvimento e de manutenção do fenótipo das ilhotas mas também nos sinais de sobrevivência nos primeiros estágios da resposta inflamatória. A pesquisa dos miRNAs e de seus mRNAs alvos pode tornar-se uma ferramenta valiosa para o diagnóstico e tratamento de doenças tais como o diabetes. ___________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding gene products (~19–22 nucleotides) that play a key role in post-transcriptional regulation by inhibiting gene expression through selective binding to complementary messenger RNA sequences. Our early results indicated that miRNAs isolated with currently used methods for RNA preparation are unstable and so are their corresponding cDNAs. These observations should be of great interest to all researches that outsource RNA samples for miRNA gene array analysis. We are first to determine specific miRNA signatures in normal pancreatic islets as well as in islets exposed to pro-inflammatory (diabetogenic) cytokines. MiR-7 emerged as the most abundant endocrine islet miRNA and miR-375 as the most abundant intra-islet miRNA. Both miRNAs increased their expression during pancreatic development as well as in islets treated with pro-inflammatory cytokines for 6 hours. This suggests that miR-7 and miR-375 play an important role not only in development and islet phenotype maintenance but also in the survival signaling at the early inflammatory response. The research of miRNAs and their target mRNAs could be a valuable tool in diagnostics by indicating the early onset of diseases such as diabetes and by finding new therapeutic targets to treat them.

Alteração da função cognitiva tem sido descrita em pacientes diabéticos tipo TI (DM TI) associada à neuropatia periférica, ao mau controle metabólico e a um efeito inespecífico da doença crônica. O objetivo deste estudo transversal controlado foi determinar se a disfunção cognitiva nestes pacientes está, por si só, associada à presença de neuropatia autonômica (NA), avaliada através dos testes cardiovasculares propostos por Ewing. Foram estudados 20 pacientes DM II com NA (14 homens e 6 mulheres; idade = 60±1 anos), 29 pacientes DM TI sem NA (14 homens e 15 mulheres; idade = 59±1 anos) e 34 pacientes não-diabéticos com doenças articulares não-infla matórias ( l O homens e 24 mulheres; idade = 58±1 anos), comparáveis em idade, nível de escolaridade e duração de doença. A função cognitiva foi avaliada através de testes de memória verbal - imediata e recente (span de dígitos; span de palavras), memória visual - imediata e recente (reconhecimento de silhuetas de torres e de faces famosas) e memória remota (datas de eventos importantes). Os pacientes DM II com NA apresentaram escores significativamente mais baixos em testes de memória visual do que os pacientes DM II sem NA e do que os controles (torres imediata = 5 versus 7 e 6; torres recente = 4 versus 6 e 6; faces = 16 versus 18 e 18; respectivamente; Kruskal-Wams; p < 0,05). Não houve diferenças no desempenho em testes de memória verbal e memória remota (Kmskal-Wallis; p > 0.05). Outros fatores como a idade, a escolaridade, a duração de doença e a glicemia de jejum, que poderiam interferir no desempenho cognitivo, foram analisados através da regressão linear múltipla. Esta análise revelou que o desempenho nos testes de memória visual permaneceu significativamente associado à presença de NA (p = 0,0054; r:2 parcial = 0,166 e p = 0,0076; r2 parcial = 0,163, nos testes de torres). Correlações negativas (r = -0,25 e r = -0,24) foram observadas entre os escores nos testes de memória visual (FACE e TOR F, respectivamente) e o número de testes cardiovasculares anormais. Concluiu-se que a disfunção cognitiva na área de memória visual nos pacientes DM II está associada à presença e ao grau de neuropatia autonômica. Este trabalho foi apresentado, parcialmente, no 29th Annual Meeting of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Istanbul, Turkey, 6-9th September, 1993.
Abnormal cognitive function in Type 2 diabetic patients has been associated with peripheral neuropathy, poor metabolic contrai and a non-specific effect of chronic disease. A cross-sectional controlled study was conducted to determine whether autonomic neuropathy (AN), defined according to cardiovascular tests as proposed by Ewing, is independently associated with cognitive dysfunction in Type 2 diabetic patients. Study participants were 20 Type 2 diabetic patieuts witb AN (14 males and 6 females; age = 60±1 years); 29 Type 2 diabetic patients without AN (14 males and 15 females; age = 59±1 years) aud 34 non diabetic patients with non-inflammatory articular disease (10 males and 24 females; age = 58± 1 years), matched by age, educational level and duration of disease. Cognitive functiou was evaluated by tests of verbal - immediate and receut (digit span; word span), visual - immediate and recent (recognition of silhouettes of towers and famous faces) and remate memory (dates of important events). Diabetic patients with AN obtained significantly lower scores in visual memory tests than diabetic patients without AN and controls (towers immediate = 7 versus 6 versus 6; towers recent = 4 versus 6 versus 6; faces = 16 versus 18 versus 18, respectively; Kruskal-Wallis; p < 0.05). Talking into account other factors (age, educational level, duration of disease and fasting plasma glucose) that could interfere with performance in cognitive tests, stepwise multiple regression analysis disclosed that performance in visual tests remained significantly associated to AN (p = 0,0054; partial r2 = 0,166 aud p = 0,0076; parcial r2 = 0,163 for TOWER 1 and TOWER F, respectively). Negative correlations (Spearman; r = -0,25 and r= -0, 24) were observed between the scores in visual memory tests (FACES and TOWER F, respectively) and the number of abnormal cardiovascular tests. In conclusion, decreased visual cognitive function in Type 2 diabetic patients is associated to the presence and degree of AN.

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o papel do polimorfismo de I/D do gene da Enzima Conversora de Angiotensina (ECA) e o polimorfismo K121Q da PC-1 nas modificações das taxas de filtração glomerular (TFG), excreção urinária de albumina (EUA) e pressão arterial em uma coorte de pacientes diabéticos tipo 1 normoalbuminúricos (EUA<20μg/min) em um estudo com seguimento de 10,2 ± 2,0anos (6,5 a 13,3 anos). A EUA (imunoturbidimetria), TFG (técnica da injeção única de 51Cr-EDTA), HbA1c (cromatografia de troca iônica) e pressão arterial foram medidas no início do estudo e a intervalos de 1,7 ± 0,6 anos. O polimorfismo I/D e K121Q foram determinados através da PCR e restrição enzimática. Onze pacientes apresentaram o genótipo II, 13 o ID e 6 apresentaram o genótipo DD. Pacientes com o alelo D (ID/DD) desenvolveram mais freqüentemente hipertensão arterial e retinopatia diabética. Os 3 pacientes do estudo que desenvolveram nefropatia diabética apresentaram o alelo D. Nos pacientes ID/DD (n=19) ocorreu maior redução da TFG quando comparados com os pacientes II (n=11) (-0,39 ± 0,29 vs – 0,12 ± 0,37 ml/min/mês; P=0,035). A presença do alelo D, em análise de regressão múltipla linear (R2=0,15; F=4,92; P=0,035) foi o único fator associado à redução da TFG (-0,29 ± 0,34 ml/min/mês; P<0,05). Já o aumento da EUA (log EUA = 0,0275 ± 0,042 μg/min/mês; P=0,002) foi associado somente aos níveis iniciais de EUA (R2=0,17; F=5,72; P=0,024). Um aumento significativo (P<0,05) no desenvolvimento de hipertensão arterial e de novos casos de retinopatia diabética foi observado somente nos pacientes com os genótipos ID/DD. Vinte e dois pacientes apresentaram genótipo KK, 7 KQ e 1 apresentou genótipo QQ. Pacientes com os genótipos KQ/QQ apresentaram um aumento significativo (P=0,045) de novos casos de retinopatia diabética. Em conclusão a presença do alelo D nesta amostra de pacientes DM tipo 1 normoalbuminúricos e normotensos está associada com aumento na proporção de complicações microvasculares e hipertensão arterial.
The aim of this study was to analyze the role of the ACE gene insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphisms and of the PC-1 gene K121Q polymorphism in the changes of glomerular filtration rate (GFR), urinary albumin excretion rate (UAER), and blood pressure levels in a cohort of normoalbuminuric type 1 diabetic patients. This was a 10.2 ± 2.0 year prospective study of 30 normotensive normoalbuminuric type 1 diabetic patients. UAER (immunoturbidimetry), GFR (51Cr-EDTA single injection technique), GHb (ion-exchange chromatography) and blood pressure levels were measured at baseline and at 1.7 ± 0.6 year intervals. The presence of ACE gene I/D and PC-1 gene K121Q polymorphisms was determined by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme techniques. Eleven patients was a II genotype, 13 the ID and 6 was the DD genotype. Three patients developed diabetic nephropathy; all were carriers of allele D of the ACE gene. The presence of allele D was the only predictor (R2=0.15; F=4.92; P=0.035) of the observed GFR decline (-0.29 ± 0.34 ml/min/month; P<0.05). UAER increased during the study (log UAER change = 0.0275 ± 0.042 μg/min/month; P=0.002) and was associated with baseline UAER levels only (R2=0.17; F=5.72; P=0.024). A significant increase (P<0.05) in cases of hypertension and new cases of retinopathy were observed only ID/DD and not in II patients. Twenty-two patients was KK genotype, 7 the KQ and 1 was the QQ genotype. Patients with the KQ/QQ (n=8) presented a significant increase (P=0.045) in new cases of retinopathy. In conclusion the presence of D allele of ACE gene in this sample of normoalbuminuric normotensive type 1 diabetes patients was associated with a higher proportion of microvascular complications and hypertension.

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar prospectivamente os fatores associados ao desen volvimento de microalbuminúria [excreção urinária de albumina (EUA) entre 20 e 200 g/m in] e macroalbuminúria (EUA > 200 g/min) e de hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS: pressão arterial sistólica140 mmHg e/ou pressão arterial diastól ica 90 mmHg) em uma coorte de pacientes com diabete melito ( DM) tipo 1 normoalbuminúricos e normotensos. Além disto, analisa r a evolução da EUA, dos níveis de pressão arterial sistêmica e da filtração glomerular (FG), bem como avaliar o desenvolvimento de complicações crônicas do di abete melito na mesma coorte. Os pacientes fora m avaliados no início do estudo, e em diversos momentos ao longo do período de acompanhamento, em relação aos seguintes parâmetros: medida da EUA em urina de 24 h, níveis de pressão arterial sistêmica, medida da FG, índ ices de controle metabólico, presença de retinopatia vasculopatia periférica, neuropatia periférica e neuropatia autonômica. A medida da FG foi realizada através da técnica de injeção única de 51Cr-EDTA. A dosagem da albumina urinária foi realizada por técnica de radioimunoensaio. A glico-hemoglobina toi dosada através de cromatogratia de troca iônica em microcolunas. A pressão arteri al (fases I e V de Korotkoft), foi medida na posição sentada, após lO minutos de repouso, com esfigmomanômetro de coluna de mercúrio. A retinopatia foi avaliada por oftalmoscopia direta sob midríase e caracterizada como presente se fossem visualizadas alterações não-proliferativas ou neoformação vascular ou como ausente se estas al terações não fossem observadas. . A avaliação da vasculopatia periférica foi realizada através da palpação dos pulsos periféricos. A presença de neuroparia periférica foi pesquisada através da avaliação dos reflexos tendinosos profundos, da sensibilidade vibratória e de sintomas compatíveis. A neuropatia a u tonômica foi avaliada através de 5 testes cardiovasculares autonômicos e caracterizada como presente se o paciente apresentasse 2 ou mais testes alterados. Na análise estatística, foram util izados testes paramétricas e não-paramétricas. conforme indicado. Na avaliação das alterações da EUA, FG, pressão arterial sistólica ( PAS), pressão arterial diastól i ca ( PAO) e pressão arterial média ( PAM) através do tempo. foi determinada a regressão linear simples (y = a + bx) de cada paciente e. então, calculada a média das declividades (b) pa ra cada uma das va riáveis acima. A significância destas alterações (bEUA. bFG. bPAS, bPAD e bPAM) foi ava liada através do teste 1 para uma amostra. Foi calculada a incidência densidade e a incidência cumulativa de nefropatia diabética. HAS, retinopatia, neuropatia periférica e neuropatia autonômica. Foram realizadas análises de regressão múltipla (linear e logística) considerando como variáveis dependentes os níveis de EUA, a presença de nefropatia e a PAM ao final do estudo e a alteração da FG durante o período deseguimento (bFG). Os resultados foram expressos como média ± desvio-padrão ou como média geométrica e variação, para os valores de EUA. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. Foram estudados, por um período médio de acompan hamento de 8,4 ± 2, l anos, 34 pacientes com DM tipo 1 (20 homens) com idade de 31 ,7 ± 6,5 anos e duração de DM de 7,1 ± 5,5 anos.Vinte pacientes referiam história familiar de HAS. Na a valiação inicial, hiperfíltração glomerular (FG > l 34rn l/min/ l ,73m 2) foi observada em 2 1 pacientes (FG = 154,8 ± 16,5 ml/min/1 ,73m2) e em 13 pacientes a FG foi nonnal ( I 06, l ± 15,7 mllmin/1 ,73m2 . Sete pacientes apresentavam retinopatia diabética e nenhum paciente apresentava neuropatia periférica ou autonômica. Durante o período de acompanhamento. 4 pacientes desenvolveram nefropatia diabética (3 microalbuminúria e 1 macroalbuminúria) e 7 pacientes desenvolveram HAS, sendo a incidência cumulativa de nefropatia diabética I l ,8% e a de HAS 20.6%. Os níveis de EU A foram mais elevados ao final do estudo (3.94 j..tg/min vs 7.53 j..lg/min bEUA= I ,O I j..tg/min/mês) e a presença de retinopatia diabética no início do período de acompanhamento foi o único fator de risco identificado para os valores finais de EUA, explicando 14% da variabilidade dos níveis de EUA ao final do estudo. Os pacientes com retinopatia no início do estudo apresentaram um risco relativo 1 9,5 vezes maior de a presentar nefropatia diabética ao final do período de acompanhamento. Os níveis de PAM aumentaram ao tina do período de acompanhamento (86,0 ± 9,6 mmHg vs 99,4 ± 11,5 mmHg; bPAM = 0,14 ± 0,16 mmHg/mês), sendo este aumento relacionado aos valores de FG e à idade no início do estudo e à presença de história tàmi l ia r de HAS. A contribuição relativa destas variáveis sobre os níveis de PAM ao final do estudo foi de 44%. A FG diminuiu durante o período de seguimento ( 1362 ± 28,8 ml/min/1,73m2 vs 1 15,9 ± 21 J ml/min/1 ,73m2; bFG = -0,1 9 ± 0,29 mllmin/mês). ). Esta diminuição se rel acionou aos níveis de FG no i nício do estudo e ao controle glicêm ico durante o estudo. Estes fatores explicaram 32% da va riabilidade da alteração da FG durante o estudo (bFG). O aumento dos níveis de EUA e a diminuição da FG ao longo do período de acompanhamento foram observados apenas nos pacientes h i perfiltrantes. Os n íveis de pressão arterial ao fina l do estudo aumentaram nos pacientes hiperfiltrantes e nonnofiltrantes Ao ser avaliado o desenvolvimento de outras complicações crônicas. apenas a freqüência de neuropatia periférica e autonômica foram mais elevadas ao final do estudo, com uma incidência cumulativa calculada de 61 ,8% e 15,2%, respectivamente. Em conclusão, a presença de retinopatia diabética pode indicar o desenvol vi mento futuro de nefropatia em pacientes com DM tipo nonnoalbuminúricos e nonnotensos. Nesta coorte, o aumento observado nos niveis pressóricos foi determinado pelos níveis de FG no início do estudo. pela história famili ar de HAS e pela idade dos pacientes. Após 8 a nos, o número de pacientes apresentando neuropatia periférica ou a utonômica aumentou consideravelmente.

Proteinúria (micro- e macroalbuminúria) identifica pacientes diabéticos com nefropatia diabética e/ou risco de doença cardiovascular e morte. Os três estudos que compõem este trabalho exploram aspectos de curso evolutivo, possibilidades de intervenção precoce e marcadores de predisposição para estas complicações.
Proteinuria (micro- and macroalbuminuria) identifies diabetic patients with nephropathy and/or those at risk of cardiovascular disease and death. The three studies that are part of this work explore aspects o f the evolution of kidney function, possibilities of early intervention, and markers of predisposition for these complications.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a syndrome of multiple etiologies resulting from lack of insulin and / or the inability of insulin properly exercise its effects. It is considered the world, a public health problem by the position it occupies with high epidemiological incidence and prevalence, besides causing macrovascular and microvascular complications. The DM has two main forms, type 1 (DM1), which appears mostly in childhood or adolescence and type 2 (DM2), the most frequent, accounting for 85% to 90% of cases, usually of insidious onset, especially after 40 years of age, affecting obese individuals in 90% of the time. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are responsible for approximately 52% of deaths of patients with DM. The strategy of prevention of these chronic complications essentially depend on the adequate control of blood glucose and other comorbidities, including dyslipidemia and hypertension (SAH). This ivestigação was conducted to evaluate the effect of pharmaceutical intervention on glycemic control in outpatients suffering from DM2.Trata is a longitudinal study with intervention, using 100 subjects during query consecutively diagnosed with DM2 in private clinic endocrinology from May 2011 to February 2012. All patients answered a questionnaire and underwent pharmaceutical intervention, conducted by the researcher. After this intervention, there was a significant reduction of 45% CI 95% in A1C levels. Thus, there was still improvement in outcomes among women (69%) (p = 0.01) and the following parameters: fasting glucose (p = 0.000), frequency of exercise (p = 0.0001), adoption of low-calorie diet (p = 0.0001), adherence to drug therapy (p = 0.024) and BMI (p = 0.012).
O diabetes mellitus (DM) é uma síndrome de etiologia múltipla decorrente da falta de insulina e/ou da incapacidade da insulina exercer adequadamente seus efeitos. É considerado, mundialmente, um problema de saúde pública pela posição epidemiológica que ocupa com altas taxas de incidência e prevalência, além de acarretar complicações macrovasculares e microvasculares. O DM apresenta duas formas principais, o tipo 1 (DM1), que aparece principalmente na infância ou na adolescência e o tipo 2 (DM2), a mais freqüente, responsável por 85% a 90% dos casos, geralmente de instalação insidiosa, principalmente após os 40 anos de idade, acometendo indivíduos obesos em 90% das vezes. As doenças cardiovasculares (DCV) são responsáveis por aproximadamente 52% das mortes dos portadores de DM. A estratégia de prevenção destas complicações crônicas dependem, fundamentalmente, do adequado controle da glicemia e de outras comorbidades, entre elas a dislipidemia e a hipertensão arterial sistêmica (HAS). A presente ivestigação foi conduzida visando avaliar o efeito da intervenção farmacêutica no controle da glicemia de pacientes ambulatoriais portadores de DM2.Trata-se de um estudo longitudinal com intervenção, utilizando-se 100 sujeitos durante consulta, consecutivamente, com diagnóstico de DM2 em ambulatório privado de endocrinologia no período de maio de 2011 a fevereiro de 2012. Todos os voluntários responderam a um questionário e sofreram intervenção farmacêutica, realizada pelo pesquisador. Após esta intervenção, ocorreu uma redução significativa de 45% IC 95% nos níveis de A1C. Diante disso, observou-se ainda melhora nos resultados entre as mulheres (69%) (p=0,01) e nos seguintes parâmetros: glicemia de jejum (p=0,000), frequência de exercícios físicos (p=0,0001), adoção da dieta hipocalórica (p= 0,0001), adesão à terapia medicamentosa (p= 0,024) e IMC (p= 0,012).

Genetic research of complex diseases is a challenging, but exciting, area of research. The early development of the research was limited, however, until the completion of the Human Genome and HapMap projects, along with the reduction in the cost of genotyping, which paves the way for understanding the genetic composition of complex diseases. In this thesis, we focus on the statistical methods for two aspects of genetic research: phenotype definition for diseases with complex etiology and methods for identifying potentially associated Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) and SNP-SNP interactions. With regard to phenotype definition for diseases with complex etiology, we firstly investigated the effects of different statistical phenotyping approaches on the subsequent analysis. In light of the findings, and the difficulties in validating the estimated phenotype, we proposed two different methods for reconciling phenotypes of different models using Bayesian model averaging as a coherent mechanism for accounting for model uncertainty. In the second part of the thesis, the focus is turned to the methods for identifying associated SNPs and SNP interactions. We review the use of Bayesian logistic regression with variable selection for SNP identification and extended the model for detecting the interaction effects for population based case-control studies. In this part of study, we also develop a machine learning algorithm to cope with the large scale data analysis, namely modified Logic Regression with Genetic Program (MLR-GEP), which is then compared with the Bayesian model, Random Forests and other variants of logic regression.

INTRODUÇÃO: Com o aumento da longevidade dos portadores de fibrose cística, o Diabetes Mellitus surgiu como sua primeira co-morbidade. Visando ao diagnóstico precoce, buscou-se maior compreensão do mecanismo fisiopatológico do Diabetes Mellitus Relacionado à Fibrose Cística (DRFC) através do estudo da resposta endócrina do pâncreas após dois tipos de estímulo. MÉTODOS: Neste estudo transversal, prospectivo e controlado conduzido entre junho de 2004 a agosto de 2005, foram comparadas as respostas de glicose, insulina, peptídeo-C, proinsulina e glucagon aos testes de sobrecarga com glicose (OGTT) e com dieta líquida (TTDM) realizados num intervalo inferior a 10 semanas, num grupo de 52 crianças e adolescentes com fibrose cística, entre 5 e 19 anos, acompanhadas na Unidade de Pneumologia Pediátrica do Instituto da Criança. RESULTADOS: O TTDM provocou uma hiperglicemia de menor duração (p < 0,05) e uma resposta mais precoce no tempo 30 minutos de insulina (p < 0,05), peptídeo-C (p < 0,05) e glucagon (p < 0,05), enquanto que o OGTT produziu uma hiperglicemia mais prolongada e respostas de insulina (p < 0,001), peptídeo-C (p < 0,001) e proinsulina (p < 0,001) mais tardias e sustentadas nos tempos 120 e 180 minutos. Ao grupo portador de DRFC sem hiperglicemia de jejum associaram-se níveis médios elevados de insulina (p < 0,05), peptídeo-C (p < 0,01) e proinsulina (p < 0,05) no tempo 120 minutos, revelando resistência insulínica. Houve sobreposição das respostas hormonais dos grupos normal, pré-diabético e diabético com hiperglicemia de jejum no tempo 120 minutos, sugerindo disfunção de célula beta nos dois últimos grupos. CONCLUSÕES: O estímulo da dieta líquida revelou uma resposta hormonal mais rápida provavelmente mediada pelos nutrientes diferentes da glicose. A resistência insulínica, além da disfunção da célula beta, está associada à fisiopatologia dos distúrbios glicêmicos da fibrose cística.
INTRODUCTION: Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes is a common complication leading to clinical deterioration of these patients. Aiming at an earlier diagnosis, we investigated the kinetics of the glucose-metabolism abnormalities by evaluating glucose, insulin, pro-insulin, C-peptide and glucagon responses after oral glucose (OGTT) and a mixed meal tolerance (MMTT) tests. METHODS: In a cross-sectional and controlled study, conducted from july/2004 till august/2005, 52 children and adolescents with cystic fibrosis, from 5 to 19 years old, underwent both tests in an interval of less than 10 weeks. RESULTS: Plasma glucose values were significantly lower during MMTT after 60 minutes and insulin, C-peptide and glucagon were secreted earlier, being significantly higher at 30 minutes. During OGTT, patients showed a delayed but higher peak insulin, C-peptide and pro-insulin secretion at time 120 minutes. Patients with Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes (CFRD) without fasting hyperglycemia presented insulin, C-peptide and proinsulin values significantly higher than those patients with normal glucose tolerance or pre-diabetes, at time 120 minutes, indicating increased peripheral insulin resistance. An overlap of insulin, C-peptide and pro-insulin levels was observed in normal and pre-diabetic patients as well as in people with CFRD with fasting hyperglycemia, at 120 minutes, suggesting beta cell dysfunction in the latter groups. Conclusion: Mixed meal ingestion caused an earlier hormone secretion stimulated probably by nutrients different from glucose. Insulin resistance besides beta cell dysfunction are involved in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis related glucose disturbances.

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Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Centro de Pesquisas Aggeu Magalhães. Recife, PE, Brasil
A prevalência das condições crônicas cresce vertiginosamente na população. Dentre elas, destaca-se o diabetes, sendo o agravo responsável por incapacidades e mortes, com elevados custos financeiros e sociais. Os muitos casos de complicações do diabetes evidencia a existência de falhas na atenção à saúde dos usuários. Diante desse contexto, se faz necessário a mudança na organização da atenção à saúde, com vistas à atenção integral, intencionando transcender a racionalidade estritamente biomédica e oferecer respostas efetivas às suas necessidades de saúde. Esse estudo se propôs a avaliar a atenção integral ao usuário diabético no município de Recife, a partir das trajetórias assistenciais dos diabéticos complicados com retinopatia diabética grave, considerada como uma complicação evitável do diabetes e, portanto, um indicador de monitoramento de emergência ou evento sentinela. Foram identificados 4 usuários com retinopatia diabética no Centro Médico, serviço de referência para o portador de diabetes, que foram entrevistados através da técnica em profundidade. As trajetórias dos usuários foram reconstruídas, sendo que os mesmos foram renomeados com termos que melhor expressam o sentimento mais explícito em cada um dos caminhos. As entrevistas foram analisadas a partir da Técnica da História de Vida, com foco nas categorias pré-estabelecidas: acesso e utilização de serviços; atendimento humanizado: vínculo, responsabilização e acolhimento; e coordenação e ordenação do cuidado. Identificaram-se fragilidades na atenção dos usuários, destacando-se ainda a quase inexistente relação entre os entrevistados e a atenção básica, o que prejudica ainda mais a garantia da assistência integral. As evidências encontradas embasam a afirmativa de que os usuários diabéticos não são assistidos de forma integral, mantendo-se a assistência fragmentada e focada nas “agudizações” da doença. Uma atenção à saúde não adequada possibilita o surgimento de complicações evitáveis, como a retinopatia diabética e outras. Faz-se necessário uma mudança na organização da atenção à saúde do diabético, a fim de alcançar uma assistência integral e resolutiva para o mesmo, que se traduza em redução da prevalência das complicações do agravo e de seu impacto social (AU)

Background: The Framingham Study from 1988 showed a heavy impact of diabetes mellitus (DM) on the risk and prognosis of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Several other studies have confirmed that DM is an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD) and that patients with DM have a poor prognosis. However, the strength of DM as a risk factor is debated. Some studies indicate that DM, as a risk factor for a coronary event, is comparable to already known or established CHD. Also, mechanisms of how diabetes increases the CVD risk are under intensive research. A novel risk factor such as altered fibrinolysis is one of the potential mechanisms explaining the heavy cardiovascular burden in diabetes. Hypofibrinolytic changes can be seen in individuals with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and obesity as well as in patients with manifest diabetes or manifest CHD. Methods: This dissertation is divided in three parts; epidemiological, etiological and interventional. Papers I and II are epidemiological, population based retrospective studies which compare time trends in myocardial infarction and stroke morbidity and mortality between patients with or without diabetes. Papers III and IV have an etiological approach to the fibrinolytic system and CVD risk both in patients with or without diabetes. Paper V is the interventional part of this thesis studying if intensive insulin treatment can improve fibrinolysis in patients with high CVD risk. Results: The incidence and mortality from myocardial infarction and stroke have declined in the counties of Västerbotten and Norrbotten in Northern Sweden. Unfortunately, the subgroup with patients with diabetes and myocardial infarction (MI) in Paper I did not benefit from these favorable trends over the study period. For stroke, this is for the first time declining incidence has been reported in this population. Incidence of first-ever stroke decreased for non-diabetic men with a yearly change of -0.8 percent (p-value  <0.001), and for diabetic women with a yearly change of -1.5 percent (p-value=0.012). Recurrent stroke incidence declined highly significant, p-value  <0.001, for non-diabetic men and women and for diabetic women with a yearly change of -1.5, -2.7, and -5.4 percent, respectively. For diabetic men a non-significant decline of -1.0 percent (p-value=0.28) in stroke incidence was seen. Paper II showed that women with diabetes had decreased incidence for stroke but not men with diabetes. Also, reduced mortality from stroke was found in all patients except for diabetic women with first ever stroke. Patients with diabetes have altered fibrinolysis compared to individuals with normal glucose metabolism. Also, patients with prior MI manifest a hypofibrinolytic stage with low tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA) activity and high levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and fibrinogen. Paper III showed a significant association between decreased tPA activity and increased fibrinogen levels in patients with a first MI when examined 3 months after the event. The results persisted even after adjustment for traditional risk factors and variables mirroring the insulin resistance syndrome and were significant in the whole study group of subjects with MI as well as for men alone. Paper IV, a 10 year follow-up study, showed that in patients with diabetes, tPA-activity significantly predicted the presence of sign(s) of lower extremity arterial disease (LEAD) at the baseline and at the 10-year follow-up. In addition, tPA-mass at the 10-year follow-up was associated with signs of LEAD. Baseline age, hypertension, and HbA1c were independently associated with sign(s) of LEAD at 10 years. This long-term study supports previous findings of a significant association between asymptomatic LEAD and tPA-activity. Thus, tPA-activity may be an early marker of LEAD, although the mechanism of this relationship remains unclear. Several studies report conflicting results regarding benefits and disadvantages of intensive insulin treatment. ORIGIN trial was an international multicenter trial studying effects of intensive insulin treatment on CVD. This thesis reports a Swedish sub-study of ORIGIN trial examining effects of insulin treatment on fibrinolysis. The allocation to insulin treatment did not significantly affect the studied fibrinolytic markers or von Willebrand factor (VWF) compared to the standard treatment. Log mean delta values between baseline and end of study increased significantly for tissue plasminogen activator activity (tPAact) and tPA/PAI-1 complex. For plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), tPA antigen (tPAag) and VWF no significant differences were found. Within-group analysis during the whole study period revealed significant changes for tPA/PAI-1 complex, tPA antigen, and VWF in the insulin treatment group but no significant changes in the standard treatment group. The hypothesis that allocation to insulin treatment would improve the levels of markers of fibrinolysis or VWF compared to standard glucose lowering treatment could not be verified.   Conclusion: This dissertation shows that patients with diabetes still have a heavy cardiovascular disease burden with increased risk for MI and stroke compared to individuals with normal glucose metabolism. This cardiovascular burden also includes increased morbidity, mortality, and poorer long-term prognosis. The fibrinolytic system has an impact on cardiovascular disease and this thesis has shown that patients with diabetes have unfavorable changes in their fibrinolysis and that alterations in fibrinolysis can predict future peripheral artery disease. However, intensive insulin therapy did not appear to affect this system to the extent of resulting in reduced cardiovascular morbidity.
Diabetes bakgrund: Diabetes Mellitus är en av de vanligaste kroniska sjukdomarna i världen. Diabetesförekomsten har ökat påtagligt de senaste årtiondena. Ökningen beror på ökat insjuknande på grund av livsstilsförändringar med minskat fysisk aktivitet och ökad övervikt och även på grund av förbättrad diagnostik. Även förbättrad sjukvård med ökad överlevnad hos patienter med diabetes samt fler andel äldre ökar andelen diabetes patienter i befolkningen. Enligt WHO har antalet patienter med diabetes stigit från 30 miljoner år 1985 till 171 miljoner år 2000 då uppskattningsvis 4,6 % av vuxenbefolkning har diabetessjukdomen. Majoriteten, ca 80 % har diabetes typ 2. WHO:s prognos visar fortsatt kraftig ökning av diabetes med ca 550 miljoner drabbade år 2030. Majoriteten av denna förändring förklaras av diabetes typ 2 som i framtiden beräknas utgöra 90-95% av all diabetes. Diabetes är fortsatt den viktigaste bakomliggande orsaken till terminal njursvikt i industriländer och en av de vanligaste orsakerna till blindhet i världen. Diabetes innebär en kraftigt ökad risk för hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar. Patienter med diabetes som drabbats av hjärt- och kärlsjukdom såsom hjärtinfarkt eller stroke har ofta sämre prognos, både akut och på långsiktigt, jämfört med patienter utan diabetes. På grund av att diabetes är en kronisk sjukdom med många, ofta svåra och kostsamma, komplikationer står diabetesrelaterade sjukvårdskostnader för en betydande del av totala de sjukvårdskostnaderna i världen varierande mellan 2,5 – 25 % av olika länders sjukvårdsbudget. Diabetes och risk för hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar: De klassiska risk-faktorerna för hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar är ålder, rökning, högt blodtryck, högt kolesterol, låg fysisk aktivitet/övervikt och ärftlighet. Lägger man till diabetes till dessa riskfaktorer får man påtagligt ökad risk för kärlsjukdomar som hjärtinfarkt, stroke och perifer kärlsjukdom. Mekanismerna bakom denna överrisk av diabetes är fortfarande åtminstone till viss del oklara och aktuella för intensiv forskning och debatt. Sannolikt har tiden före diabetesdiagnosen, prediabetes, betydelse då vi vet att vid tidpunkt för diagnos har patienterna med typ 2 diabetes haft störd sockeromsättning varierande länge, oftast sannolikt flera år. Andra tänkbara diabetesrelaterade orsaker för ökad hjärt- och kärlsjuklighet kan vara kronisk inflammation, blodets störda levringsfunktion (hypofibrinolys), nedsatt funktion i blodkärlen (endoteldysfunktion), ogynnsam blodfetts-profil, kroniskt höga insulinnivåer och även sannolikt direkt skadlig effekt av det höga sockret på flertal celler och organ i kroppen. Framtidens behandlingsmöjligheter: Aktuella behandlingsriktlinjer betonar vikten av att betrakta individer med diabetes som högriskpersoner avseende hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar oavsett förekomst av känd kärlsjukdom. Sjukvården ska primärpreventivt intensivbehandla de traditionella riskfaktorerna hos individer med diabetes. Det är dock uppenbart att personer även med helt optimalt behandlade riskfaktorer som blodtryck och kolesterol och även optimal sockerkontroll har fortsatt högre risk för hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar, så kallad residual risk, jämfört med personer utan diabetes. Det är viktigt att i framtiden försöka klargöra vilka faktorer som utgör denna residual risk och utveckla behandlingsmöjligheter mot dessa faktorer. Det är sannolikt av största vikt att tidigt identifiera individer med störd sockeromsättning och risk för utveckling av diabetes. Sjukvården bör sträva efter att minimera de negativa effekterna av prediabetes och förebygga progress till manifest diabetes. Avhandlingens syfte: Att kartlägga hur effektiv den traditionella riskfaktorbehandlingen har varit i att förebygga hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar, särskilt hjärtinfarkt och stroke, hos patienter med diabetes. I avhandlingen  studeras närmare en av de icke traditionella riskfaktorerna nämligen i det blodproppsupplösande systemet, fibrinolysen. Det är numera välkänt att diabetes i sig påverkar fibrinolyssystemet ogynnsamt och att vissa diabetesläkemedel kan påverka fibrinolysen gynnsamt. Vi har studerat om förändringar i fibrinolysen kan prediktera perifer kärlsjukdom hos patienter med diabetes och om intensiv insulinbehandling kan påverka detta fibrinolyssystem. Resultat: Avhandlingen visar att insjuknandet och dödlighet i hjärtinfarkt och stroke har minskat i Västerbotten och i Norrbotten. För stroke var det första gången ett minskat insjuknande kunde rapporteras för denna population. Tyvärr har inte patienter med diabetes och hjärtinfarkt fått ta del av dessa gynnsamma trender under studerad tid. För stroke har kvinnor med diabetes fått minskat insjuknande men inte män med diabetes. Strokestudien kunde också redovisa minskat dödlighet i stroke för alla patienter utom kvinnor med diabetes med en förstagångs insjuknande i stroke. Patienter med diabetes har påverkad fibrinolys jämfört med personer med normal glukosmetabolism. Även patienter med tidigare hjärtinfarkt uppvisar ett hypofibrinolytisk tillstånd med låg tPA-aktivitet och höga nivåer av PAI-1 och fibrinogen. Arbete III visade en association mellan låg tPA-aktivitet och höga nivåer av fibrinogen hos patienter med förstagångs hjärtinfarkt. Detta samband kvarstod även efter justering med traditionella riskfaktorer. Arbete IV, en 10 års uppföljning visade hos patienter med diabetes att tPA-aktivitet kan prediktera förekomsten perifer kärlsjukdom vid baslinjen och även vid 10-års uppföljning. Dessutom var tPA-mass vid 10-års uppföljning associerad med perifer kärlsjukdom. Av de traditionella riskfaktorerna var ålder, hypertension och HbA1c vid studiestart oberoende associerade med förekomst av perifer kärlsjukdom vid 10 års uppföljning. Denna långtidsstudie stöder tidigare fynd av ett signifikant samband mellan asymtomatisk perifer kärlsjukdom och tPA-aktivitet. Sålunda kan tPA-aktivitet vara en tidig markör av perifer kärlsjukdom, även om, den bakom liggande mekanismen för detta är fortfarande oklart. Flera större studier rapporterar motstridiga resultat beträffande för- och nackdelarna med intensiv insulinbehandling. ORIGIN studien var en internationell multicenterstudie som undersökte effekterna av intensiv insulinbehandling på hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar. I arbete V med ORIGIN-studiens svenska kohort undersöktes effekterna av insulinbehandling på fibrinolys. Randomisering till insulinbehandling hade ingen signifikant effekt på de studerade fibrinolytiska markörerna eller von Willebrand faktorn VWF jämfört med standardbehandling. Logaritmerade medeldeltavärden mellan baslinjen och studie slutet ökade signifikant för tPA-aktivitet och tPA/PAI-1-komplexet. För PAI-1, tPA-antigen och för VWF kunde inga signifikanta skillnader visas. Inom-gruppsanalys över hela studieperioden visade signifikanta förändringar för tPA/PAI-1-komplexet, tPA-antigen och VWF i insulingrupp men inga signifikanta förändringar för patienter med standardbehandling. Hypotesen att randomisering till insulinbehandling skulle förbättra nivåerna av fibrinolysfaktorer eller VWF jämfört med standardbehandling kunde inte verifieras Konklusion: Denna avhandling visar att patienter med diabetes har fortsatt ökad risk för hjärtinfarkt och stroke jämfört med individer med normal sockeromsättning. Denna överrisk betyder för patienter med diabetes en ökad risk för insjuknande, svårare sjukdomstillstånd och sämre prognos med ökad risk för återinsjuknande samt även högre dödlighet både på kort och lång sikt. Även andra aktuella studier rapporterar en fortsatt hjärt- och kärlrelaterad överrisk hos patienter med diabetes. Fibrinolyssystemet har betydelse för hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar och denna avhandling visar att patienter med diabetes har ogynnsamma förändringar i sin fibrinolys, så kallad hypofibrinolys. Intensiv insulinbehandling förefaller inte påverka fibrinolysen till den grad att minskad hjärt- och kärlsjuklighet kan ses.

Wang Ying.
"July 2003."
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 250-297).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.

廣泛的區域內和跨民族的轉錄變化反映了人類的適應和自然選擇。基因表達是轉化基因組信息為功能基因產品 - 蛋白質的主要機制。異常基因的表達和疾病的發病機制有關。基因組革命提供了獨特的機會為複雜的人類轉錄組進行全面的研究。轉錄分析需要複雜的生物信息學方法。在技術角度，一個實證模型用了哺乳動物基因組中內含子長度幾何尾分佈的定律準確地確定剪接交界處和非唯一映射讀取的位置。這種方法在處理非唯一映射讀取比BWA更好。這方法還比其他工具檢測出更多已經實驗證實的剪接交界處。核糖核酸測序首先用於北京漢人和西歐之間的表達表型與的轉錄變化的詳盡研究。民族的具體剪接交界處被發現。此外，民族的具體特點體現在相對異構體的豐度差。最後，這分子表型剪接頻譜的變化在不同種族之間的不同表明了另一個描繪種族多樣性的方法，核糖核酸測序還被用於探索的一種複雜的疾病：二型糖尿病的分子異常。二型糖尿病表現在廣泛不同的基因表達。（1）這研究證實先前公佈的全基因組關聯研究;（2）改善策劃不佳的位點和（3）發現新型2型糖尿病相關的基因。本研究通過整合各種改變的信號，並在一個高度可信的基因 - 基因相互作用網絡進行解釋，增強表達異常在2型糖尿病的認識。在更廣泛的69×79的情況下，對照組的結果進行了驗證。本研究增強表達異常在2型糖尿病的認識。
Extensive intra- and inter- ethnic transcriptome variation reflects human adaptation and natural selection. Gene expression is the primary mechanism that translates genome information into functional gene product that lead to physiological phenotypes. Aberrant gene expression has been associated to the pathogenesis of diseases. The genome revolution has offered unique opportunity for a comprehensive interrogation of the complexity of human transcriptome. Analysis of transcriptome using RNA-Seq requires sophisticated bioinformatics approach. In a technical perspective, an empirical model based on the geometric-tail distribution of intron lengths in mammalian genome was developed to accurately determine splice junctions from junction reads and locations of non-uniquely mapped reads. Such method handles non-uniquely mapped reads better than BWA. The method can also detect more experimentally confirmed splice junction than other tools. Expressional phenotyping was employed to explore global transcriptomic variation between Beijing Han Chinese and Western European. In addition to inter-ethnic variations in gene expression, ethnic specific splice juctions were found. Further, ethnic specific trait manifests in differential relative isoform abundance. Lastly, such spectrum of variations was different between different ethnic groups, suggesting alternative splicing as another molecular phenotype that delineates ethnic diversity. Expressional phenotyping was then used in a case-control study to explore the molecular abnormalities of a complex disease: Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM). T2DM manifested in wide-spread repression of gene expression. The study (1) confirmed previously reported Genome-wide Association Study (GWAS) loci; (2) curated poorly characteriezed GWAS loci and (3) discovered novel T2DM associated genes. By integrating various alteration signals and interpretation performed in a highly confident gene-gene interaction network, this study augmented the understanding of expressed abnormalities in T2DM. The results were validated in a broader 69 x 79 case-control group.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Li, Jing Woei.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 118-130).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstract also in Chinese.
Abstract --- p.v
中文擇要 --- p.vi
Thesis/Assessment Committee --- p.ix
Acknowledgement --- p.ix
List of figures --- p.x
List of tables --- p.xii
List of Abbreviations --- p.xiii
Scientific contributions --- p.xv
List of Publication(s) related to this thesis --- p.xvi
Conference presentations --- p.xvii
Chapter Chapter 1: --- Introduction and Literature Reviews --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- The variable human transcriptome --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Significance of variation in gene expression and transcript variants --- p.2
Chapter 1.3 --- Transcriptomic study in a technological perspective --- p.8
Chapter 1.3.1 --- Microarray: Probing what was designed to be probed --- p.8
Chapter 1.3.2 --- RNA-Seq: the ab initio decoder of biological sequences --- p.9
Chapter 1.4 --- Analysis of RNA-Seq data --- p.10
Chapter 1.4.1 --- The bioinformatics challenges prevail --- p.10
Chapter 1.4.2 --- Identifying changes in gene expression --- p.16
Chapter 1.4.3 --- Identifying splice site, quantification of isoform level expression --- p.17
Chapter 1.5 --- Conclusion --- p.19
Chapter 1.6 --- Aims of this study --- p.20
Chapter 1.6.1 --- Splice junction determination --- p.20
Chapter 1.6.2 --- Expressional phenotyping in ethnical context --- p.20
Chapter 1.6.3 --- Expressional phenotyping in a disease context --- p.20
Chapter Chapter 2: --- Detection of splicing events --- p.21
Chapter 2.1 --- Abstract --- p.21
Chapter 2.2 --- Introduction --- p.22
Chapter 2.3 --- Methods and workflow --- p.25
Chapter 2.4 --- Algorithm --- p.29
Chapter 2.5 --- Geometric-tail distribution --- p.32
Chapter 2.6 --- Insert-size distribution --- p.33
Chapter 2.7 --- Multiread analysis --- p.34
Chapter 2.7.1 --- GT model probably places multiread more accurately than BWA --- p.35
Chapter 2.8 --- Splice-site comparison --- p.37
Chapter 2.8.1 --- GT model discovers more experimentally confirmed splice junction --- p.37
Chapter 2.8.2 --- GT model is highly accurate --- p.39
Chapter 2.9 --- Discussion --- p.40
Chapter 2.10 --- Limitation --- p.40
Chapter Chapter 3: --- Transcriptomic variation in a ethnicity context --- p.41
Chapter 3.1 --- Abstract --- p.41
Chapter 3.2 --- Introduction --- p.42
Chapter 3.3 --- Materials and Methods --- p.46
Chapter 3.3.1 --- HapMap lymphoblastoid cell-lines --- p.46
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Sequenced samples --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.3 --- Paired-end RNA-Seq, dataset and reads processing --- p.48
Chapter 3.3.4 --- Genome reference and annotation --- p.49
Chapter 3.3.5 --- Strategies for reads mapping --- p.49
Chapter 3.3.6 --- Pathway and Gene Ontology analysis --- p.50
Chapter 3.3.7 --- Differential gene expression analysis --- p.50
Chapter 3.3.8 --- Ethnic specific splice junction --- p.51
Chapter 3.3.9 --- Junction sites saturation analysis --- p.51
Chapter 3.3.10 --- Ethnical novel transcribed regions --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.11 --- Isoform dynamics and meta-analysis --- p.53
Chapter 3.4 --- Result --- p.54
Chapter 3.4.1 --- Paired-end RNA-Seq --- p.54
Chapter 3.4.2 --- Differential gene expression and meta-analysis --- p.56
Chapter 3.4.3 --- Ethnic specific splice junction is rare --- p.58
Chapter 3.4.4 --- Saturation of discovery of highly confident annotated junctions --- p.59
Chapter 3.4.5 --- Novel transcribed regions --- p.62
Chapter 3.4.6 --- Isoform dynamics and meta-analysis --- p.63
Chapter 3.5 --- Discussion --- p.66
Chapter 3.6 --- Limitations --- p.67
Chapter 3.6.1 --- HapMap LCLs may not reflect the entire spectrum of natural variation --- p.67
Chapter 3.6.2 --- Sequencing depth and the usefulness of published dataset --- p.67
Chapter 3.6.3 --- Knowledge gap in understanding of the human genome --- p.69
Chapter Chapter 4: --- Transcriptomic investigation of complex disease: Type 2 Diabetes --- p.70
Chapter 4.1 --- Abstract --- p.70
Chapter 4.2 --- Introduction --- p.72
Chapter 4.3 --- Materials and Methods --- p.75
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Subjects --- p.75
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Strand-specific RNA-Seq Library Construction --- p.77
Chapter 4.3.3 --- Genome annotation sequencing reads processing --- p.81
Chapter 4.3.4 --- Reads mapping for expression analysis --- p.82
Chapter 4.3.5 --- Differential Gene expression analysis --- p.82
Chapter 4.3.6 --- GWAS candidate genes --- p.83
Chapter 4.3.7 --- Individual network, pathway and Gene Ontology analysis --- p.83
Chapter 4.3.8 --- Alternative Splicing Variation --- p.83
Chapter 4.3.9 --- Reads mapping and processing for expressed genomic variants discovery --- p.84
Chapter 4.3.10 --- Expressed and functional genomic variants --- p.85
Chapter 4.3.11 --- Screening for gene fusion --- p.86
Chapter 4.3.12 --- Sense and Antisense analysis --- p.86
Chapter 4.3.13 --- Integrated multi-level T2DM alternations gene interaction network --- p.87
Chapter 4.3.14 --- Validation of selected genes --- p.87
Chapter 4.4 --- Results --- p.88
Chapter 4.4.1 --- High quality strand-specific pair-ended RNA-Seq facilitated downstream analyses --- p.88
Chapter 4.4.2 --- Definition of significance --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.3 --- Wide-spread repressed gene expression in T2DM --- p.91
Chapter 4.4.4 --- Confirmation and curation of T2DM GWAS loci by RNA-Seq --- p.92
Chapter 4.4.5 --- Global expression alteration on T2DM associated genes --- p.97
Chapter 4.4.6 --- Alteration of relative splicing isoforms variations and T2DM specific isoforms --- p.100
Chapter 4.4.7 --- Rare and deleterious SNPs --- p.100
Chapter 4.4.8 --- Absence of alteration in Sense/Antisense ratio and expressed fusion gene --- p.101
Chapter 4.4.9 --- T2DM manifests a broad spectrum of expressed abnormalities --- p.101
Chapter 4.4.10 --- Pathway-based integration of multiple levels of alteration expanded the T2DM network --- p.103
Chapter 4.4.11 --- Validation of selected genes --- p.107
Chapter 4.5 --- Discussion --- p.108
Chapter Chapter 5: --- Conclusions and future perspectives --- p.115
Chapter 5.1 --- Conclusions --- p.115
Chapter 5.2 --- Future perspective --- p.115
Chapter 5.2.1 --- Splicing detection --- p.115
Chapter 5.2.2 --- Studies related to ethnicity --- p.116
Chapter 5.2.3 --- Complex diseases --- p.116
References --- p.118
Appendix --- p.131

Zhao Hailu.
"June 2002."
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 192-210).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.

Type 2 diabetes is a highly prevalent disease, projected to increase in prevalence, while expensive to treat. This study sought to identify significant predictors of each of the two study outcome variables—a higher quality of patient-provider communication, and a higher quality of life. The online sample (N=72) was 78% (n=56) female with a mean age of 55.3 years, while 71% Black/African American with a good overall health status. They rated the overall quality of care received from their provider between good and very good. Using the new Patient-Provider Communication Scale (PP-CS-07, patient-provider communication was closest to very good. Health literacy skills were closest to very good, and health literacy self-efficacy was closest to very good. Level of knowledge for caring for type 2 diabetes was closest to very good knowledge. Participants were in an action stage with 80% confidence (very good self-efficacy) to perform seven diabetes self-management behaviors. Some 43.1% experienced depression, 44.4% experienced anxiety, and 20.8% sought counseling in the past year. The mean quality of life rating was closest to good quality of life. While controlling for social desirability, backward stepwise regression showed better quality patient-provider communication was significantly predicted by: received diabetes education, higher rating of health care quality, higher level of health literacy skills, and, being in a lower stage of change for self-care behaviors—with 79.2% of variance explained by this model. Better quality of life was significantly predicted by: female gender, having received diabetes education, no past year anxiety, higher annual household income, lower weight status, higher health literacy self-efficacy, higher rating of knowledge of diabetes self-management—with 69.4% of the variance explained by this model. Findings make a compelling case for screening patients for depression and anxiety, using the brief tool used in this study; and future research evaluating the impact of health educators and providers being trained in motivational interviewing, while using the Patient-Provider Communication Scale (PP-CS-7) as a new tool to compare ratings by patients of providers trained in motivational interviewing. Healthcare policy should mandate such training in brief motivational interviewing, and evaluate the impact of training in containing costs.

Yeung Sau-Man.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 139-172).
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
Title page --- p.i
Acknowledgements --- p.ii
Table of Content --- p.iv
List of Figures --- p.viii
List of Graphs --- p.x
List of Tables --- p.xi
Abbreviations --- p.xiv
Abstract --- p.xv
Chinese Abstract --- p.xvii
Chapter Chapter 1 --- General Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Diabetes Mellitus --- p.2
Chapter 1.1.1 --- Type 1 diabetes mellitus --- p.3
Chapter 1.1.2 --- Type 2 diabetes mellitus --- p.5
Chapter 1.1.3 --- Maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY) --- p.6
Chapter 1.1.4 --- Gestational diabetes --- p.7
Chapter 1.2 --- Effect of Diabetes on Pregnancy --- p.9
Chapter 1.3 --- Suggested Causes of Diabetic Embryopathy --- p.10
Chapter 1.3.1 --- Glucose --- p.10
Chapter 1.3.2 --- Ketone bodies --- p.11
Chapter 1.3.3 --- Somatomedin inhibitors --- p.12
Chapter 1.3.4 --- TNF-α --- p.12
Chapter 1.3.5 --- Oxidative stress --- p.13
Chapter 1.4 --- Animal Model of Diabetes --- p.15
Chapter 1.4.1 --- Chemically-induced --- p.15
Chapter 1.4.2 --- Mutants --- p.17
Chapter 1.5 --- Gene-teratogen Interaction under Diabetic Pregnancy --- p.19
Chapter 1.6 --- Strategy of the Thesis --- p.21
Chapter Chapter 2 --- General Materials and Methods --- p.24
Chapter 2.1 --- Mouse Maintenance and Mating Method --- p.25
Chapter 2.2 --- Induction of Diabetes --- p.25
Chapter 2.3 --- Preparation of All-trans Retinoic Acid --- p.26
Chapter 2.4 --- Dissection of Embryos --- p.26
Chapter 2.5 --- DNA Extraction from Yolk Sac for Genotyping --- p.27
Chapter 2.6 --- Genotyping of Embryos --- p.28
Chapter 2.7 --- Preparation of RNA Probes for In Situ Hybridization --- p.29
Chapter 2.7.1 --- Mini-scale preparation of plasmid DNA --- p.29
Chapter 2.7.2 --- Linearization of plasmid DNA --- p.30
Chapter 2.7.3 --- In vitro transcription --- p.31
Chapter 2.8 --- Whole Mount In Situ Hybridization --- p.33
Chapter 2.8.1 --- Fixation and dehydration of embryos --- p.33
Chapter 2.8.2 --- Hybridization --- p.33
Chapter 2.8.3 --- Post-hybridization wash --- p.34
Chapter 2.8.4 --- Antibody wash and color development --- p.35
Chapter 2.8.5 --- Embryo powder preparation --- p.36
Chapter 2.8.6 --- Pre-absorption of antibody --- p.35
Chapter 2.9 --- Whole Mount TUNEL Staining --- p.36
Chapter Chapter 3 --- "Maternal Diabetes, Sp2H and RA Interaction" --- p.39
Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.40
Chapter 3.1.1 --- Neural tube defects --- p.41
Chapter 3.1.2 --- Retinoic acid as environmental factor --- p.41
Chapter 3.1.3 --- Sp2H as genetic factor --- p.44
Chapter 3.1.4 --- Experimental design of this chapter --- p.46
Chapter 3.2 --- Material and Methods --- p.47
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Sp2H mice --- p.47
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Mating and RA injection protocol --- p.47
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Dissection of fetuses and analysis of neural tube development --- p.48
Chapter 3.3 --- Results --- p.49
Chapter 3.3.1 --- Maternal diabetes alone --- p.50
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Sp2H mutation alone --- p.51
Chapter 3.3.3 --- RA alone --- p.52
Chapter 3.3.4 --- Maternal diabetes and RA interaction --- p.53
Chapter 3.3.5 --- Sp2H mutation and RA interaction --- p.55
Chapter 3.3.6 --- Sp2H mutation and maternal diabetes interaction --- p.57
Chapter 3.3.7 --- "Maternal diabetes, Sp2H mutation and RA interaction" --- p.59
Chapter 3.4 --- Discussion --- p.62
Chapter 3.4.1 --- Maternal diabetes alone does not cause neural tube defects --- p.62
Chapter 3.4.2 --- RA induces neural tube defects --- p.63
Chapter 3.4.3 --- Interaction of maternal diabetes with RA in increasing the susceptibility to neural tube defects --- p.64
Chapter 3.4.4 --- Embryos with Sp2H allele show increased susceptibility to neural tube defects when triggered by maternal diabetes and RA --- p.67
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Molecular and Cellular Bases of Interaction --- p.71
Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.72
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Mechanism of diabetic embryopathy --- p.72
Chapter 4.1.2 --- Mechanism of Sp2H mutation in development of neural tube defects --- p.74
Chapter 4.1.3 --- Mechanism of RA teratogenicity --- p.75
Chapter 4.1.4 --- "Possible common pathways shared by maternal diabetes, RA and Sp2H mutation" --- p.76
Chapter 4.1.5 --- Experimental design of this chapter --- p.78
Chapter 4.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.80
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Sample collection for studying Pax3 expression in Sp2H/+ And +/+ embryos in response to maternal diabetes or RA by whole mount in situ hybridization --- p.80
Chapter 4.2.2 --- "Sample collection for studying the level of apoptosis in response to the interaction of maternal diabetes, Sp2H mutation and RA by whole mount TUNEL staining" --- p.82
Chapter 4.3 --- Results --- p.86
Chapter 4.3.1 --- Expression levels of Pax3 mRNA detected by whole mount in situ hybridization
Chapter 4.3.1.1 --- Expression of Pax3 in Sp2H/+/- and +/+ embryos --- p.86
Chapter 4.3.1.2 --- Effect of maternal diabetes on Pax3 expression in Sp2H/+ and +/+ embryos --- p.87
Chapter 4.3.1.3 --- Effect of RA on Pax3 expression in Sp2H /+ and +/+ embryos --- p.88
Chapter 4.3.2 --- Level of apoptosis detected by whole mount TUNEL --- p.89
Chapter 4.3.2.1 --- Effect of Sp2H allele on apoptosis --- p.94
Chapter 4.3.2.2 --- Effect of maternal diabetes on apoptosis in Sp2H/+ and +/+ embryos --- p.95
Chapter 4.3.2.3 --- Effect of RA on apoptosis in Sp2H/+ and +/+ embryos --- p.96
Chapter 4.3.2.4 --- Effect of maternal diabetes and RA on apoptosis in Sp2H/+ and +/+ embryos --- p.97
Chapter 4.4 --- Discussion --- p.99
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Underexpression of Pax3 and increases in apoptosis under maternal diabetes --- p.99
Chapter 4.4.2 --- "RA does not down regulate Pαx3, but increases apoptosis" --- p.102
Chapter 4.4.3 --- Interaction of maternal diabetes and RA in increasing apoptosis --- p.104
Chapter Chapter 5 --- "Maternal Diabetes, NOD and RA Interaction" --- p.108
Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.109
Chapter 5.1.1 --- Diabetic embryopathy in NOD mice --- p.109
Chapter 5.1.2 --- Experimental design of this chapter --- p.110
Chapter 5.2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.112
Chapter 5.2.1 --- NOD mice --- p.112
Chapter 5.2.2 --- Mating and RA Injection Protocol --- p.112
Chapter 5.2.3 --- Sample Collection for the Study of Pax3 Expression --- p.113
Chapter 5.3 --- Results --- p.115
Chapter 5.3.1 --- Maternal diabetic alone --- p.116
Chapter 5.3.2 --- NOD mutation alone --- p.117
Chapter 5.3.3 --- RA alone --- p.118
Chapter 5.3.4 --- Maternal diabetes and RA interaction --- p.119
Chapter 5.3.5 --- NOD mutation and RA interaction --- p.121
Chapter 5.3.6 --- NOD mutation and maternal diabetes interaction --- p.123
Chapter 5.3.7 --- "Maternal diabetes, NOD mutation and RA interaction" --- p.125
Chapter 5.3.8 --- Expression of Pax3 in embryos with different copies of NOD alleles --- p.128
Chapter 5.4 --- Discussion --- p.130
Chapter 5.4.1 --- Maternal diabetes interacts with NOD mutation to increase susceptibility to neural tube defects --- p.130
Chapter 5.4.2 --- Interaction of maternal diabetes with NOD mutation is greatly exacerbated when exposed to RA --- p.131
Chapter 5.4.3 --- Pax3 is not involved in the interaction --- p.133
Chapter Chapter 6 --- Conclusion and Future Perspectives --- p.134
References --- p.139
Figures
Graphs

As the prevalence of atherosclerosis has risen to an alarming level throughout the world, this thesis investigated: (1) the effects of type 2 diabetes mellitus on the risk factors for atherosclerosis and the intima-media thickness (IMT) of the common carotid arteries (a surrogate marker for atherosclerosis), (2) the contribution of various risk factors to the IMT of the common carotid arteries and (3) the interrelationship between the risk factors.
Atherosclerosis is the process by which the inner lining of a large or medium artery is deposited with lipids, cellular waste and other substances. It reduces the vessel's elasticity, lumen size and blood flow. Atherosclerosis is the primary underlying mechanism leading to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, the second and third leading causes of death in Hong Kong.
Both traditional and emerging risk factors for atherosclerosis were studied: traditional risk factors include age, blood pressure, indices of glycaemia control (fasting glucose, insulin and haemoglobin-Alc), and fasting lipids, while the emerging risk factors include, abdominal fat volume (subcutaneous and visceral), inflammatory markers (interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-8 (IL-8) and high sensitivity c-reactive protein (hsCRP)), adiponectin, stress hormones (24 hr urinary noradrenaline and adrenaline, and plasma cortisol), and occupational stress (measured by a effort-reward imbalance questionnaire).
Starting with 204 subjects recruited from three different studies, data from 84 normoglycaemic subjects, 23 patients with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and 77 patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) were included in the analysis. When the IMT of the common carotid arteries and various risk factors were compared between normoglycaemic, IGT and DM subjects: (1) the IMT of the common carotid arteries showed an increasing trend with the worsening of glycaemia control (normal<IGT<DM), (2) increased prevalence of hypertension, dyslipidaemia, and obesity were observed among DM patients, and (3) increased levels of inflammatory markers, reduced concentration of adiponectin (a anti-inflammatory substance), and increased plasma cortisol concentration were also found among DM subjects. As the studies were limited by sample size, only a few risk factors were found significantly related to the carotid IMT. Age was the only common risk factor which was found to be correlated to the IMT of both the normoglycaemic and the DM/IGT subjects. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)
Fok Siu Pong.
"June 2005."
Adviser: Lester A. H. Critchley.
Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 67-01, Section: B, page: 0173.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 200-228).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Electronic reproduction. [Ann Arbor, MI] : ProQuest Information and Learning, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.
School code: 1307.

Chan Wai-Hon.
"September 2000."
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2000.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 137-156).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
Abstracts in English and Chinese.

Type 2 diabetes affects over 100 million people worldwide. The prevalence is increasing and there are projections that over 250 million individuals will be affected by the year 2020. Classically considered a disease of adults, it is now becoming clear that type 2 diabetes is affecting children and youth. The earlier age of onset magnifies the potential socioeconomic and health impact at both an individual and societal level. To combat this emerging problem, we need a better understanding of the epidemiology, diagnosis, complications, treatment, and prevention of type 2 diabetes in youth. Health care providers, policy makers and administrators face a major challenge in the 21st century to gain a better understanding of this new phenomenon in pediatrics. This thesis represents several projects linked by the common theme of type 2 diabetes in youth. The unifying objective is to improve our understanding of this new disorder so we can ultimately improve prevention, detection and treatment in order to impact positively on the health of children and youth at risk for the development of type 2 diabetes. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)