Journal articles: 'Development charges'

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Laakso, L., S. Gagné, T. Petäjä, A. Hirsikko, P. P. Aalto, M. Kulmala, and V. M. Kerminen. "Detecting charging state of ultra-fine particles: instrumental development and ambient measurements." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7, no. 5 (February 27, 2007): 1333–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-1333-2007.

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Abstract. The importance of ion-induced nucleation in the lower atmosphere has been discussed for a long time. In this article we describe a new instrumental setup – Ion-DMPS – which can be used to detect contribution of ion-induced nucleation on atmospheric new particle formation events. The device measures positively and negatively charged particles with and without a bipolar charger. The ratio between "charger off" to "charger on" describes the charging state of aerosol particle population with respect to equilibrium. Values above one represent more charges than in an equilibrium (overcharged state), and values below unity stand for undercharged situation, when there is less charges in the particles than in the equilibrium. We performed several laboratory experiments to test the operation of the instrument. After the laboratory tests, we used the device to observe particle size distributions during atmospheric new particle formation in a boreal forest. We found that some of the events were clearly dominated by neutral nucleation but in some cases also ion-induced nucleation contributed to the new particle formation. We also found that negative and positive ions (charged particles) behaved in a different manner, days with negative overcharging were more frequent than days with positive overcharging.

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Hrokholskyi, J. M., and B. A. Sus. "Development of ideas about "bias current"." Electrical Engineering and Power Engineering, no. 3 (May 17, 2021): 8–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.15588/1607-6761-2020-3-1.

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Purpose. In electrical engineering, radio engineering, such concepts as charge, electric field, magnetic field, electromagnetic field, direct electric current, alternating current are used. These abstract concepts reflect certain real physical phenomena. For example, current is understood as the directed movement of electric charges. However, there is also a conditionally abstract concept of "bias current", which was introduced by Maxwell to explain the passage of current through a section of capacitor where there are no charges. The purpose of the article is to reveal the substantive meaning of this term and to explain the real mechanism of current flow in an electric circuit. Methodology. Analysis of the phenomenon is performed on the basis of such traditional concepts as charge, electric field, magnetic field, electromagnetic field, direct electric current, alternating current. Analysis of the contradiction between the concept of current as a directed movement of charges and the concept of "bias current" as a current without charges is presented. Theoretical coordination of the "bias current "concepts and current as a directed motion of charges is done. Findings. It is shown that for all sections of a closed electric circuit, the definition of current as a directed movement of charges is valid only for direct current, when the charges are actually moving in all sections of the circuit. In the circuit with the capacitor, direct current does not flow, because there are no charges in the gap between the plates of the capacitor. However, alternating current occurs, at the moment when the circuit is closed. In the area of the conductor there is a directed movement of charges and the cause of the movement is an electric field, which is variable and occurs together with the alternating magnetic field in all parts of the circuit, including the part of the capacitor where there are no charges. It is shown that in general the concept of current as a directed motion of charges is correct, but conditionally abstract, because in fact the root cause is what is called an electromagnetic field. The concept of bias current is a conditionally abstract expression of the electromagnetic field. Originality. The novelty is that it is possible to understand adequately and non-abstractly the processes that occur in an electric circuit during the passage of current, that no current creates an electric field around the conductor on which charges move, and vice versa, alternating electric field leads to charges ,which are in the conductor areas. Practical value. Understanding the real essence of the term makes it possible to assess correctly the processes occurring in the electrical circuit; gives the answer whether the movement of charges occurs gradually or immediately around the circle when connecting an e.r.s. and closing the circuit. This understanding gives you an idea of what happens when the capacitor electrodes are connected to an e.r.s. and why do the electrons in a conductor come in a directed motion, what is the nature of the force acting on the electrons.

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Malesa, Piotr, Grzegorz Sławiński, and Karolina Pęcherzewska. "Numerical Analysis and Experimental Test for the Development of a Small Shaped Charge." Applied Sciences 11, no. 6 (March 13, 2021): 2578. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11062578.

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Currently, shaped charges are widely used in many fields of science and industry. Due to the high efficiency of piercing materials with high strength and hardness, shaped charges are commonly used in mining, military and for structural damage. The main application area of shaped charges is the military industry, where they are used in missiles with warheads (torpedoes, rocket launchers) and for piercing vehicle armor or bunker walls. When analyzing the existing solutions of shaped charges, one can find many typical solutions designed for specific applications. However, there are no universal constructions which, after appropriate regulation, will fulfil their role in a wide range of applications. The subject of this article is a new solution for a shaped charge that is characterized by compact dimensions and a short preparation time. This article presents the results of experimental research and the numerical analyses of such a charge.

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Ryazapov, G. M., Y. V. Zhukova, and V. I. Domanov. "Development prospects and overview of portable chargers for electric vehicles." ТЕНДЕНЦИИ РАЗВИТИЯ НАУКИ И ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ 84, no. 6 (2022): 110–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.18411/trnio-04-2022-272.

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The given article deals with mobile chargers for electric vehicles that are divided into slow and fast chargers. Besides, some market models of mobile chargers are presented in the article. The main advantages and disadvantages of the most common types of charges are considered.

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Abdul Rahman, Nor Azalina Yusnita, Mudirah Shaharudin, Nurulhuda Ali, and Siti Fairuz Che Pin. "Implementation of Development Charge by Local Government of Malaysia: Implementation and challenges." Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal 2, no. 5 (March 20, 2017): 459. http://dx.doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v2i5.709.

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Local government plays a major role in property development in Malaysia. Local government in Malaysia is enacted under the Local Government Act 1976 to provide public facilities and amenities to local people as well as to control property development at the state level. At the current practice, development charges have been imposed on property project carried out in accordance with the provisions of Section 32 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172). The main purpose of the development charges is to provide and improve infrastructures, public facilities, and amenities as well as the wellbeing of the development areas. The charges would be levied to developers once the project approved specifically for the conversion of land use, the increment of plot ratios and density, which would increase the land value. The purpose of this research is to identify the issues and challenges in the imposition of development charges to improvise the current methods practiced. This exploratory research aims to come out with the best practices on development charge. A qualitative semi-structured technique will be used that focus on six (6) states in Malaysia which consists of 26 local governments that are currently implementing the development charges. All the primary data were gathered from respondents will be analyzed by using content analysis through interview session. There were four (4) main issues reveals from this research whereby lack of awareness among developers top the chart. Meanwhile, amongst the challenges faced by the local government pertaining to the development charges implementation are to strengthen the implementation procedures of development charges as well as and to increase the understanding of the importance of development charges. The findings, therefore, will come out with full understanding towards the practice of development charges in Malaysia among government sector, developers and other relevant parties.Keywords:development charge;local government; market value; developerISSN: 2398-4287© 2017. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.

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Watkins, Andrew R. "Impacts of Land Development Charges." Land Economics 75, no. 3 (August 1999): 415. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3147187.

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Sher, Evgeny. "MODELLING THE DEVELOPMENT OF AXIALLY SYMMETRIC CRACKS IN THE EXPLOSION OF A BLAST-HOLE CHARGE." Interexpo GEO-Siberia 2, no. 5 (2019): 112–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2618-981x-2019-2-5-112-119.

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During explosion of buried blast-hole charges at brittle rock solid, main destruction of rock occurs by means of development of radial cracks specified by significant tensile tangential stresses near charge and along its surface. While explosion happens, near end faces of buried charges along its axis significant tensile stresses occur. Presence of such stresses can cause occurring and development of axially symmetric cracks. In the work calculating scheme of axially symmetric cracks development near end face of charge near free surface is developed. Examples of calculations of the shape and size of such cracksare carried out.

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Abd Rahman, Nor Azalina Yusnita, Mohamad Haizam Mohamed Saraf, Siti Fairuz Che Pin, and Muhamad Aiman Maaruf. "The Procedural Issues after the Implementation of Development Charge in Malaysia." Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal 4, no. 11 (July 14, 2019): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v4i11.1668.

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The development charge is levied to developers if the project is approved for either the conversion of land use, the increment of plot ratios or density, which increases the land value. To date, seven (7) states have implemented the development charges at their local authorities. Each state has a different interpretation of the policy, framework and development charges practices. An interview using a focus group was conducted to identify issues after the implementation of the development charges. Eight (8) local authorities were selected as research samples. Findings from the focus group have discovered five (5) main issues; namely duration, the collection of data, individual application, payment method, and unstandardized rate. Keywords: work procedure, development charge, local governments, issues and challenges.Keywords: Procedural Issues; Development ChargeeISSN: 2398-4287 © 2019. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/e-bpj.v4i11.1668

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Wenander, F. "CERN hadron sources: status and innovation overview." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2244, no. 1 (April 1, 2022): 012010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2244/1/012010.

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Abstract The CERN accelerator complex is served by several different types of hadron sources, producing both high- and low-intensity negative H- beams, highly charged positive stable ions, but also transforming low-charge radioactive ions to higher charges before post-acceleration. Apart from the operational sources, research and development is carried out at dedicated test stands for H- production and pre-acceleration, ECRIS oven experiments and general EBIS development. In this paper, we will report on the performance and the latest development related to the sources. Efforts to enhance the theoretical understanding of the source physics will be briefly reviewed.

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Worthington, Andrew C., Helen Higgs, and Mark Hoffmann. "Residential water demand modeling in Queensland, Australia: a comparative panel data approach." Water Policy 11, no. 4 (August 1, 2009): 427–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.063.

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This paper uses monthly data from eleven local governments to model residential water demand in Queensland, Australia from 1994 to 2004. In the sample, residential consumption is charged using a variety of structures including fixed charges without allowance, fixed charges with allowance and excess rates, two-part tariffs comprising an access charge and a flat consumption rate, and multi-part tariffs with an access charge and two or more limits with increasing consumption rates. Water demand is specified as average monthly household water consumption and the demand characteristics include the marginal and average price of water and daily average maximum temperatures and rainfall. The findings confirm residential water as price inelastic, more responsive to average than marginal prices, and more responsive to changes in temperature than rainfall. The results also suggest that cross-sectional variation in demand is related to local government-specific factors.

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Goff, Randy, and Wade E. Hathhorn. "Guidelines for Calculating System Development Charges." Journal - American Water Works Association 96, no. 8 (August 2004): 42–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.2004.tb10669.x.

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Lichorobiec, Stanislav, Karla Barčová, Tomáš Dorazil, Radovan Skácel, Ladislav Říha, and Martin Červenka. "The Development of Special Sequentially-Timed Charges for Breaking Frozen Waterways." TRANSACTIONS of the VŠB – Technical University of Ostrava, Safety Engineering Series 11, no. 1 (March 1, 2016): 32–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tvsbses-2016-0005.

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Abstract This article documents the development of the noninvasive use of explosives during the destruction of ice mass in river flows. The system of special sequentially-timed charges utilizes the increase in efficiency of cutting charges by covering them with bags filled with water, while simultaneously increasing the effect of the entire system of timed charges. Timing, spatial combinations during placement, and the linking of these charges results in the loosening of ice barriers on a frozen waterway, while at the same time regulating the size of the ice fragments. The developed charges will increase the operability and safety of IRS units.

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Jebli, Mourad, Thierry Martire, Jean-Charles Laurentie, Guillaume Pellecuer, Ludovic Boyer, and Jérôme Castellon. "Development of Multicellular Converter with Magnetic Coupler for Space Charge Measurement on DC Cable." European Journal of Electrical Engineering 24, no. 5-6 (December 31, 2022): 227–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.18280/ejee.245-601.

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One of the main issues on high voltage direct current (HVDC) cable is the electric field distribution on the insulation induced by space charges accumulation. Indeed, the space charges can cause a local increase of the electric field, which will accelerate ageing and may lead to dielectric breakdown. The TSM is one of the techniques that allow space charge measurements. The principle of the TSM consists in disturbing the electrostatic balance of the cable insulation system using a short thermal stimulus. For this study, the thermal pulse is created by Joule effect. This paper describes the structural optimization of a multi-cell DC-DC converter and its use in a high-current application to produce thermal stimulus. The design of the converter is first presented, then a multi-objective optimization is proposed for minimizing volume and losses. Finally, experimental results using a converter prototype which confirmed the space charge measurement principle are presented.

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Sergei D., Viktorov, Zakalinskii Vladimir M., Shipovskii Ivan E., and Mingazov Rafael Ia. "New aspect of drilling development and application in today’s mineral extraction." Izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii. Gornyi zhurnal, no. 6 (September 24, 2020): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.21440/0536-1028-2020-6-5-13.

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Introduction. The method of applying the factor of short period delay initiation in rock blasting and its effectiveness can be substantiated by the technical possibility of applying it for both conventional inter-row and current downhole delay intervals. The state of the art in blasting has made it possible to implement the technology of a short period delay. So it is rather relevant and extremely difficult to study of the technology’s aspects in full-scale production conditions. Methodology. This work analyzes the options for rock blasting and blasthole charges designs in order to find out how to implement them in a new and more effective way in modern conditions. A well-known method has been chosen, which combines the rock blasting method and the unconventional design of the blasthole charge. It is used as an example to demonstrate the possibility of expanding the practical range of the selected charge placement schemes. This work has been the first to introduce a hypothesis on the possibility of achieving the same effect in two different designs of blasthole charges, but "acting" in almost the same range of short period delay (SPD) use. The fact is that "vertical" distances between downhole short-delay detonators in a conventional blasthole charge (in this case, a single charge) and "horizontal" distances between parallel converged wells of a beam are almost the same. In this regard, it has become possible to focus not on its "internal" content on the "external" one and explain the features of these mechanisms by means of computer simulation. Due to the apparent specific character of conducting a blast in production conditions and intricate experimental observation, this approach is more realizable in practice and the only possible one. 12 "Izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedenii. Gornyi zhurnal". No. 6. 2020 ISSN 0536-1028 Results. It is proposed to test various methods of blasting (detonation) based on the idea of replacing (transforming, transferring) the explosion action of detonators ( ≥ 1) in a single well charge (conventionally large diameter) with the detonation of ( ≥ 1) lines of a beam of converged borehole charges of the corresponding small diameter. As soon as the number of beam charge design options increases, the range of research options that can lead to the results with improved quality expands significantly. To achieve this goal, the action of various configurations of charges with in-line short period delay blasting in a beam was studied. It should make it possible to come up to some recommendations for blast control. Summary. On the one hand, the proposed blast patterns show the technological departure from the traditional circular shape of the blast wave, on the other hand, they allow using the effect found in the course of numerical experiment for various purposes, in particular, to ensure blasting effect on (interaction with) design features of various mining methods and production systems in complex geomechanical environment

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Araujo, Eduardo Nozawa Caetano de, and Homero Delboni Jr. "Development of a method to measure charges in tumbling mills." Rem: Revista Escola de Minas 67, no. 3 (September 2014): 311–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0370-44672014000300011.

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Tumbling mills are often taken as the object of optimization studies because they are a type of equipment that consume large amounts of energy. Among the current available resources to conduct such studies, mathematic modelling presents great efficiency due to its low cost, speed and reliability. The total charge and grinding media charge are very important variables to conduct modelling exercises that aim at power draw and product size distribution forecasting. However, the common measurement methods require people entering the equipment, which carries a number of adversities related to confined spaces. In this regard, this paper presents the development of a method and the prototype of a device able to measure tumbling mill charges, quickly, precisely, with low cost and, above all, ensuring safety. The result of this work is a method that allows equivalent or superior precision in comparison to the existing methods, whose main aspect is to eliminate the requirement of people entering dangerous environments, such as tumbling mills.

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THANG, Dam, Vladimir BELIN, and Tran DOANH. "STUDIES OF THE SHAPED CHARGES EFFECT WITH A HEMISPHERICAL ECCENTRIC SHAPE RECESS FOR THE ROCKS DESTRUCTION." Sustainable Development of Mountain Territories 13, no. 2 (June 30, 2021): 281–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.21177/1998-4502-2021-13-2-281-291.

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The method of outdoor installation of explosive charges is usually used in the destruction of rocks in conditions in which the method of drilling and blasting using borehole or borehole charges is difficult to apply due to objective conditions. The productivity of rock destruction by the outdoor installation of a concentrated charge is very low. This is due to the fact that such an explosion is characterized by a large loss of energy in the environment. The destruction of rocks by an explosion using shaped charges (CW) to destroy the rock is one solution to increase the useful energy of the destruction of the rock compared to charges placed outside. To achieve the optimal effect of destruction of the rock by cumulative charges, it is necessary to, so that for each type of rock, a specific type of shaped charges can be determined with the appropriate performance and efficiency of the use of explosives. The stronger the rock, the more efficient the short-circuit should be, and vice versa. Thus, for effective rock crushing, it is necessary to develop and produce a number of different types of shaped charges. The use of shaped explosive charges allows you to increase the utilization rate of the useful energy of the explosion and increase the destruction zone of the rock. At a fixed mass of the explosive, the destructive effect of the explosive charge placed on the surface of the rock, it depends on the shape of the charge and the geometric parameters of the charge. Shaped charges with an eccentric hemispherical shape have a coefficient of use of the useful energy of the explosion for the destruction of rock, more than 2.4 times compared to conventional concentrated charges of the same mass.

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Karker, Olfa, Konstantinos Zekentes, Aude Bouchard, Isabelle Gélard, Xavier Mescot, Valerie Stambouli, and Edwige Bano. "Modelling and Development of 4H-SiC Nanowire/Nanoribbon Biosensing FET Structures." Materials Science Forum 1062 (May 31, 2022): 608–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/p-23d7ab.

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A SiCNWFET device serving as a biosensor was designed and simulated using Silvaco ATLAS device simulation software. The performance of the designed device in charges sensing was investigated. The device shows the ability to recognize different interface charge values ranging from-1.10E11 to-5.10E12 cm-2 applied on the surface of the silicon carbide nanowire channel to simulate target charge biomolecules that bound to the biosensor. A significant change in the output current is observed due to the presence of different values of fixed interface charge densities. An optimum, according to the TCAD simulation, the 4H-SiC epitaxial structure has been grown. The designed device was fully fabricated on this structure and it exhibited acceptable electrical characteristics.

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Ahmed, M., and A. Q. Malik. "A Review of Works on Shaped Charges." Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research 7, no. 5 (October 19, 2017): 2098–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.48084/etasr.1532.

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Shaped charges are used to pierce hard targets in all three versions of warfare land, air and naval. High explosives compositions fillings produce a thin high velocity metal jet which is used for target damage. Shaped charges can efficiently damage tanks possessing thick armour protection, bunkers and aircraft and are also useful for attacking ships and submarines. Shaped charges have a very long history since the Second World War Theoretical modeling started with the steady state theory of Birkhoff in 1948, which was modified by the non-steady state theory known as PER theory of shaped charges. To review the development in the shaped charges three stages are defined. In the first stage development until 1990 is presented when shaped charge theory was fully developed and penetration predictions with fairly good accuracy were possible. In the second stage, review of the work carried out in the last decade of the 20th century is discussed. During this period experimental verification of different parameters was established. The third stage deals with all the work carried out in the 21st century (2000-2010), including tools for advanced diagnostics, new fabrication and inspection, as well as new liner materials were included. The anomalies occurred were resolved by further refinements in the theoretical models.

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Zhang, Ling, and J. Ilja Siepmann. "Development of the trappe force field for ammonia." Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communications 75, no. 5 (2010): 577–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1135/cccc2009540.

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The transferable potentials for phase equilibria (TraPPE) force field is extended through the development of a non-polarizable five-site ammonia model. In this model, the electrostatic interactions are represented by three positive partial charges placed at the hydrogen position and a compensating partial charge placed on an M site that is located on the C3 molecular axis and displaced from the nitrogen atom toward the hydrogen atoms. The repulsive and dispersive interactions are represented by placing a single Lennard–Jones site at the position of the nitrogen atom. Starting from the five-site model by Impey and Klein (Chem. Phys. Lett. 1984, 104, 579), this work optimizes the Lennard–Jones parameters and the magnitude of the partial charges for three values of the M site displacement. This parameterization is done by fitting to the vapor–liquid coexistence curve of neat ammonia. The accuracy of the three resulting models (differing in the displacement of the M site) is assessed through computation of the binary vapor–liquid equilibria with methane, the structure and the dielectric constant of liquid ammonia. The five-site model with an intermediate displacement of 0.08 Å for the M site yields a much better value for the dielectric constant, whereas differences in the other properties are quite small.

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Gushing, Kathleen A., and Robert J. Stratta. "Design, Development, and Implementation of a Critical Pathway in Simultaneous Pancreas-Kidney Transplant Recipients." Journal of Transplant Coordination 7, no. 4 (December 1997): 164–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/090591999700700402.

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The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of implementation of a critical pathway after simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation on length of stay and hospital charges. Two well-matched groups were compared: 10 patients who received transplants in 1991 (before implementation of the critical pathway) and 10 patients who received transplants in 1995 (after implementation). For the initial transplant hospitalization, the critical pathway was associated with significant reductions in length of stay, total number of laboratory tests, clinical laboratory charges, and total inpatient charges with organ acquisition charges excluded. Despite the rising costs of medical care, we have designed and implemented a critical pathway for simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation that has stabilized hospital charges by decreasing length of stay and the number of clinical laboratory tests.

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Gebregiorgs, Merhatbeb. "Towards Sustainable Waste Management through Cautious Design of Environmental Taxes: The Case of Ethiopia." Sustainability 10, no. 9 (August 30, 2018): 3088. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10093088.

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This research examines the viability of the design of environmental taxes in the achievement of sustainable waste management in the Addis Ababa Administration (AAA) of Ethiopia. It has employed an empirical qualitative method. It first shows the mutual contribution of the achievement of waste management to the progress of sustainable sanitation and water resource management. Secondly, it displays the distributive and incentive roles of environmental taxes in the achievement of sustainable waste management. Thirdly, it indicates that a cautious design of the source, base, scope and rate of environmental taxes is a critical determinant for environmental taxes’ overall success in addressing the prevalent waste mismanagement in Ethiopia. Fourthly, it demonstrates that in the AAA: (1) The sources of solid waste collection, landfill, sewerage service and effluent charges are subject to the principle of legality; (2) the scope of solid waste collection, landfill, sewerage service and effluent charges is appropriate; (3) while the base of sewerage service and effluent charges is efficient, the base of solid waste and landfill charges is not at all efficient; and (4) while the rates of solid waste, landfill and sewerage service charges are slightly optimal, the rate of the effluent charge has not yet developed. Fifthly, it reveals that, having a somewhat viable design, solid waste, landfill and sewerage service charges are marginally reinforcing the aspiration of Ethiopia to achieve sustainable sanitation. Sixthly, it uncovers that because Ethiopia has not yet developed the rate of effluent charge, effluent charge is neither internalizing the cost of water resource degradation nor incentivizing sustainable water resource management. Finally, it implies that the aspiration of Ethiopia to achieve sustainable sanitation and water resource management by 2030 is contingent on the cautious design of its waste management taxes.

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Féres, José, Arnaud Reynaud, Alban Thomas, and Ronaldo Seroa da Motta. "Competitiveness and effectiveness concerns in water charge implementation: a case study of the Paraíba do Sul River Basin, Brazil." Water Policy 10, no. 6 (December 1, 2008): 595–612. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2008.103.

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Policymakers should be aware of the potential trade-off between environmental effectiveness and competitiveness concerns involving water charge implementation. This trade-off can be particularly important in countries such as Brazil, which adopt a decentralized and participative water management approach through River Basin Committees. In such a regulatory framework, it is crucial for the consensus reaching process to evaluate in advance potential impacts of water charge schemes. This paper aims at assessing the economic and environmental impacts of industrial water charges in Brazil. The analysis is based on a survey of 488 plants located within the Paraíba do Sul River Basin. The survey indicates that a significant proportion of the industrial plants approves the water charge mechanism and that increasing water costs are already inducing them to undertake conservation measures. Simulations based on an econometric water demand model suggest that water charges can induce significant industrial water demand reductions with limited impact on firms' costs. Regarding pollution control, the estimated marginal effluent treatment costs are far above the current values established for the pollution-related component of the water charge. These results indicate that competitiveness conflicts will not necessarily pervade the political economy of water charges in Brazil.

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Kugyela, Lóránd. "Experiments with Small Size Shaped Charges." Hadmérnök 14, no. 2 (June 17, 2019): 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.32567/hm.2019.2.8.

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This paper describes the research on testing of small size point focal shaped charges. They were manufactured from composite-B, Semtex and pressed RDX, and binary explosives. As the liner and the whole structure of the charges were identical the mild steel penetration test was a clear method for comparing and quantifying their performance. The target setup was also standardized with different steel discs. During testing I realized that it was a practical development tool, to find a proper mixture for binary explosives. Since most of the shaped charge literature related to their evaluation, I wanted to have a simple, yet productive performance testing method that suited more to practical field works.

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Šperka, Adrián, Juraj Čamaj, Ekaterina Zmeškal, and Jozef Majerčák. "Determining the dependence of supplementary charges in the ZSSK CARGO tariff in the context of the customer approach, competitiveness, and globalization." SHS Web of Conferences 92 (2021): 09015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20219209015.

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Research background: The article deals with the study of the dependencies of selected supplementary charges in rail freight transport. In the environment of a globalized society, it is very important that railway undertakings maintain their competitiveness in an open market. The article is part of a case study that deals with the development of pricing. The research was primarily focused on the structure and development of the price of supplementary charges in the years 2004 – 2020 at Železničná Spoločnosť Cargo Slovakia, j. s. c. Purpose of the article: Based on two selected supplementary charges, and the hypothesis of whether or not the development of their price is dependent will be verified by means of regression analysis. The aim of the research is to point out of the disproportionate increase in the prices of supplementary charge, which form a significant part of the calculation of the price for transportation. And for most customers it is a priority for the price of transport. Methods: The article will use a simple regression analysis according to the relationships depending on the type of dependence used (linear, polynomial, ...) Findings & Value added: The results of the research can help to better set the structure of supplementary charges. The goal of the company should be a satisfied customer and a dominant market share.

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Janic, Milan. "Modelling airport congestion charges." Transportation Planning and Technology 28, no. 1 (February 2005): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0308106052000340369.

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Ko, J., G. H. Lee, H. S. Moon, and Y. Song. "Alkylammonium characterization of smectite alteration in the Tertiary basins of southeast Korea." Clay Minerals 33, no. 2 (June 1998): 243–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/000985598545606.

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AbstractThe layer charge characteristics of smectite from the Tertiary basins in the Pohang area, Korea have been studied in detail using the alkylammonium method. On the basis of layer charges, the smectite in the Pohang area can be classed as normal and high-charge (hc) smectite. The layer charge of the normal smectite averages 0.3, and ranges from 0.25 to 0.38/half unit-cell. The hcsmectite collapses on K saturation to become illite-like material and shows 10 Åseries reflections on X-ray diffraction. The layer charge of the hc-smectite ranges from 0.5 to 1. The layer charges do not appear to be related to stratification or to basins of occurrence. The diagenetic trend that may have existed in the region was probably disturbed by later volcanic activity. A systematic change in layer charge and geochemistry of smectite in Waeup illustrates that the heat and solutions associated with the volcanic activity may have played a role in the development of layer charge.

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BELIN, Vladimir, and Zdravka MOLLOVA. "INFLUENCE OF THE TYPE OF DONOR CHARGES ON THE DETONATION RATE OF LOW-SENSITIVITY EXPLOSIVES." Sustainable Development of Mountain Territories 13, no. 1 (March 27, 2021): 112–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.21177/1998-4502-2021-13-1-112-118.

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The article discusses the creation, testing and implementation of new donor charges designed to initiate low-sensitivity explosives. The cast booster donor charges are made entirely of explosives obtained from the disposal of unnecessary ammunition – TNT, RDX and TEN. The donor charges differ from the mass-produced ones, and have a mass of 150 to 900 g. They also have high explosive characteristics: velocity of detonation from 7200 to 7500 m/s, density of 1.6 g/cm3, excellent water resistance and strength. Their initiating ability on low-sensitivity explosives is significantly better than the one of TNT presses. The velocity of detonation of the main charge of a low-sensitivity emulsion explosive initiated with a cast booster is up to 700 m/s higher than when initiated with a TNT presses. It is especially important when building objects in the constrained conditions, at development of mountain territories for decrease in action of shock air waves and elimination of possibility of mountain collapses and landslides In article advantage of use of cast intermediate detonators on safety of explosive works is proved at development of mountain territories. The new design allows an increase in the security of initiating the charges in the boreholes, which allows them to be initiated with two detonators simultaneously.

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DANIELS, Arthur, Stan DEFISHER, Greg STUNZENAS, Nausheen AL-SHEHAB, and Ernest L. BAKER. "Development and Evaluation of Small Shaped Charge Jet Threats." Problems of Mechatronics Armament Aviation Safety Engineering 8, no. 1 (March 31, 2017): 23–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0009.8992.

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Because of their prolific nature on the battlefield, rocket propelled and gun-launched grenades are of particular concern to the soldier, particularly because of the severe reaction that occurs when a munition is hit by the shaped charge jet. As a result of the danger that such a detonation poses, it is necessary to more precisely understand the behaviour of munitions subjected to these types of devices. In response to these threats, standardized 81 mm and 40 mm shaped charge warheads were developed for use during threat assessment testing to act as a consistent, lower-cost representative of shaped charge projectiles commonly encountered on the battlefield, and to help quantify the interaction of these jest with explosive charges. The international standards for shaped charge jet threat testing uses the Held initiation criteria V2D, where V is the jet velocity and D is the diameter. V2D was computationally predicted using the high-rate continuum models CALE and ALE-3D. The surrogate warheads were test fired through aluminium target plates to strip off jet mass to adjust the V2D to the threat munition.

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Bonsall, Peter, and William Young. "Is there a case for replacing parking charges by road user charges?" Transport Policy 17, no. 5 (September 2010): 323–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2010.02.006.

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Sancton, Andrew. "Reassessing the Case for Development Charges in Canadian Municipalities." Canadian Planning and Policy / Aménagement et politique au Canada 2022 (December 3, 2022): 137–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.24908/cpp-apc.v2022i1.15668.

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“Growth should pay for growth.” This slogan — the common justification for development charges — is rarely challenged in municipal circles. Development charges evolved from post-1945 subdivision agreements and were initially accepted by most developers as a mechanism for enhancing the likelihood that current residents in a municipality would agree to new development. They now add as much as $135,000 to the cost of a new house in some parts of the Greater Toronto Area. If we wish to lower the cost of housing in our prosperous cities, we must consider reverting to the past practice of having municipalities pay for new infrastructure associated with development. Such a policy — still largely in place in metropolitan Montreal — would lead to increased levels of municipal borrowing and modest increases in property taxes. This report explores the origins of development charges in the United States and Canada, and examines how they have been assessed in the academic literature.

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Zaki, S., Emad Uddin, B. Rashid, A. Mubashar, and Samiur R. Shah. "Effect of liner material and explosive type on penetration effectiveness of shaped charge." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications 233, no. 7 (January 10, 2018): 1375–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1464420717753233.

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Shaped charges are used in many civilian and military applications. This study focuses on the effects of liner material and the type of explosive on the development of shaped charge jet. This was carried out by experimentation and numerical finite element-based modelling. Shaped charges were tested on a steel plate during the experimentation and the experimental data were used to validate the developed numerical model of the shaped charge. A hydrocode-based finite element model was able to predict the perforation and jet formation for the shaped charge, as well as the characteristics of the holes formed in the target plate. Several variations of the numerical model with the change of liner material and the filled explosive showed that the higher explosive resulted in higher velocity jet. The jet formation and velocity of jet were compared to determine the better performing combination of the material and explosive for the given shaped charge geometry. The underlying mechanisms were discussed in detail and compared with the previous studies.

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Wordsworth, Sarah, Mandy Ryan, Cam Donaldson, and Anthony Scott. "New Labour, New Charges? Will Charges Curb Costs and Raise more Revenue for the NHS?" New Economy 5, no. 4 (December 1998): 196–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0041.00044.

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Liu, Da, Xiaohua Zhao, Jianglin Gao, Binghan Xue, Xiaobin Wu, Songtao Hu, and Fang Chen. "Numerical Study on the Relationship between the Dominant Frequency of Blasting Vibration and the Development of Plastic Zone in Cylindrical Charge." Geofluids 2022 (August 5, 2022): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/9017792.

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Blasting vibration is a widely studied harmful effect of rock blasting excavations. Many factors affect its dominant frequency, which makes analyzing, evaluating, and predicting it difficult. This study explored the factors influencing the dominant frequency of blasting vibrations in the case of a spherical charge. Based on symmetry, a theoretical analysis in terms of a spherical explosion source is generally sufficient to describe a cavity excited by a spherical explosion charge. The elastic cavity radius and the dominant frequency of vibration induced by the spherical blasting source are closely related. However, there is a lack of relevant research on cylindrical charges. Therefore, a calculation model for a single-hole cylindrical charge was established. There is a relationship between the corresponding dominant frequency and the range of the plastic zone. The results indicate that the dominant frequency of the blasting vibration for both cylindrical and spherical charges is closely related to the range of the plastic zone formed by the rock blasting. As the elastic cavity radius increases, both the zero-crossing and the dominant Fourier frequencies decrease, and the amplitude spectrum shifts to lower frequencies. However, increasing the cylindrical charge diameter causes more changes in the plastic zone in the direction perpendicular to the cylindrical explosive axis. Moreover, increasing the charge length causes more changes in the plastic zone along this axis. It is therefore difficult to identify a unique dimensional parameter that characterizes the range of the plastic zone formed by the blasting. Because the plastic zone around a cylindrical charge is less regular than around a spherical charge, the charge weight Q is a more favorable parameter than the elastic cavity radius a when used as the main influencing factor and in an attenuation analysis for the dominant frequency of cylindrical charge blasting.

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Rose, Richard. "a policymaker's guide to exemption from charges." Economic Affairs 12, no. 1 (November 1991): 37–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0270.1991.tb00836.x.

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Ferreira, Fernanda Neves, Hebe Morganne Campos Ribeiro, and Vítor Abner Borges Dutra. "Potentialities of water charge in the management of Brazilian water resources." Ambiente e Agua - An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Science 15, no. 4 (July 23, 2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4136/ambi-agua.2531.

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We investigated the application of economic instruments in the management of Brazilian water resources as mechanisms to stimulate the rational use of water and to recognise its economic value. We analysed water-charge scenarios at the national and international levels as a methodology to provide an economic estimate of environmental services related to water resources. Through bibliographical and documentary research, we identified the economic instruments applied to Brazilian water-resource management, describing the methodologies and values used Brazilian water charges and in some member states of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. We identified how economic valuation methods of environmental resources could contribute to the improvement of water charges, considering the environmental services offered by a healthy river basin. In the Brazilian and the international scenarios, water charge methodologies include the volumetry of abstracted or consumed water, associating some elements that indicate the pollution level. The prices per cubic meter of water are still very low in all the scenarios. Environmental valuation techniques can be an essential tool for rethinking the methodologies and costs applied in water charges, increasing the potential of water’s rational use through economic instruments.

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Lichorobiec, Stanislav, and Lucia Figuli. "Development and Testing of Rescue Destruction Charges for the Demolition of Statically Unstable Buildings." Communications - Scientific letters of the University of Zilina 20, no. 2 (June 30, 2018): 35–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.26552/com.c.2018.2.35-40.

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Due to the industrial accidents (the effects of explosion of improvised explosive devices or gas) or other unexpected events, heavily damaged buildings represent threat to environment. Generally, their damage is so serious that their reconstruction is not considered and the only solution is a demolition. Advantageously emergency shaped explosive charges can be used in these risk situations of buildings that are beyond repair. With such shaped charges is possible to execute a fast and effective implosion of an unstable building without the posing any threathening effects on surrounding, mainly in urban areas. This papers is focused on the design and development of mentioned shaped explosive charges, their testing in the field test and practical applications.

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Pshchelko, Nikolai, and Ekaterina Vodkailo. "Features of Electrostatic Fields and Their Force Action When Using Micro- and Nanosized Inter-Electrode Gaps." Materials 13, no. 24 (December 11, 2020): 5669. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13245669.

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The present work is devoted to assessing the influence of discreteness of electric charge distribution in the double electric layer on the characteristics of the electric fields and their force action in capacitor structures with small interelectrode gaps. Due to the fact that modern technologies often use submicron-sized interelectrode gaps, it is no longer possible to consider the electrodes uniformly charged because of the discreteness of the electric charge. The corresponding development of a mathematical and physical model for the study of a non-uniform electric field is suggested. Numerical calculations are carried out, expressions, criteria, and results that are convenient for practical evaluations are obtained. The physical and mathematical model for force characteristics of a non-uniform electric field is developed. With a sufficiently small size of the interelectrode gap, the integral force effect of discretely distributed charges can be significantly higher than with a uniform distribution of the same charge. At reasonable surface charge densities, these phenomena are usually observed at interelectrode gaps less than tenths of a micrometer.

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Krstić-Simić, Tatjana, Radosav Jovanović, and Branimir Stojiljković. "Airport emission charges: Economic measures towards sustainable airport development." Tehnika 74, no. 1 (2019): 113–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/tehnika1901113k.

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Zakusylo, R., A. Romanchenko, and D. Zakusylo. "DEVELOPMENT OF ELONGATE CHARGES TECHNOLOGY FOR BLOCK STONE PRODUCTION." Transactions of Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University 4 (August 30, 2018): 75–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.30929/1995-0519.2018.4.75-80.

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Hodge, Ian, and Gordon Cameron. "Raising infrastructure charges on land development: Incidence and adjustments." Land Development Studies 6, no. 3 (September 1989): 171–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640828908723985.

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Skaburskis, Andrejs. "Pricing city form: development cost charges and simulated markets." Planning Practice and Research 18, no. 2-3 (May 2003): 197–211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0269745032000168250.

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Dowdell, Thomas D., Steve C. Lim, and Eric Press. "Were In-Process Research and Development Charges Too Aggressive?" Journal of Business Finance & Accounting 36, no. 5-6 (June 2009): 531–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5957.2009.02155.x.

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Cristiano, Todd. "Consider Debt-Related Interest Costs in System Development Charges." Journal - American Water Works Association 112, no. 8 (August 2020): 87–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/awwa.1562.

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Shipovskii, Iwan, and Vladimir Odintsev. "Numerical simulation of the stress-strain state of a coal seam caused by an explosion of a blast-hole charge with an annular gap." EPJ Web of Conferences 221 (2019): 01053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201922101053.

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The computer simulation of the propagation of a blast wave generated by various explosives is carried out. The simulation used numerical methods to solve dynamic problems in the mechanics of a deformable solid, which allow one to investigate the development of waves during the explosion of charges of various shapes at different speeds of detonation of explosives and various conditions of placement of charges in the hole. The novelty of the research is related to analysis of conditions for the formation of a tensile pulse, which determines the opening of natural and induced defects in a zone remote from the explosion (from 20 to 100 radii of charge), which is known as the zone of explosive pre-fracture.

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Sanai, M., H. E. Lindberg, and J. D. Colton. "Simulation of blast waves with tailored explosive charges." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 158 (September 1985): 137–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022112085002580.

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We have developed a compact and cost-effective shock tube to simulate the static and dynamic pressures of blast waves. The shock tube is open at both ends and is driven by high explosives distributed over a finite length of the tube near one end. The overall charge length is determined by the simulation time of interest, and the charge-density distribution is tailored to produce the pressure-waveform shape desired. For the shock tube to simulate a typical blast wave, the charge density must be highest at the charge front (closest to the test section) and gradually reduced towards the back. The resulting shock tube is an order of magnitude shorter than a conventional dynamic airblast simulator (DABS) in which concentrated explosives are used to drive the shock.Tailored charges designed using this method were built and tested in a simulation development programme sponsored by the U.S. Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA). The pressures measured for several charge distributions agreed very well with SRI's PUFF hydrocode computations and demonstrated the feasibility of the compact simulator under realistic test conditions.

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Muthukrishnan, Subhashini. "Vehicle ownership and usage charges." Transport Policy 17, no. 6 (November 2010): 398–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2010.04.007.

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Chaudhry, M. Ghaffar, Syed Abdul Majid, and Ghulam Mustafa Chaudhry. "The Policy of Irrigation Water Pricing in Pakistan: Aims, Assessment and Needed Redirections." Pakistan Development Review 32, no. 4II (December 1, 1993): 809–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v32i4iipp.809-821.

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Pakistan operates the world's largest well-articulated irrigation system. Individual farms receive water from the gravity flow of a massive network of canals, distributaries and watercourses fed by the Indus River and its tributaries. In recent years public tubewells have become an additional, though somewhat limited, source of irrigation water. The canal system, which has been in operation for more than 100 years, is believed to have become too obsolete to cater for the needs of modern agriculture and is, therefore, in desperate need for rehabilitation. But resource-poor Pakistan cannot undertake the rehabilitation work on its own, and must depend on foreign loans or at least ensure full recovery of annual operation and maintenance (0 and M) expenditures [Chaudhry (1985); Duane (1975) and Hotes (1984)]. Apart from generating investment funds, the cost recovery, with higher water charges, would also lead to greater water-use efficiency and an equitable income distribution at the farm level [Chaudhry (1985) and Hotes (1984»). Can this all be accomplished by simply raising water charges? In this paper, we have attempted to answer this question. To answer the question systematically, we have divided the paper in five sections. The current state of Pakistan's irrigation system, water charges and cost recovery is discussed in Section 2. Section 3 deals with possible impact of rising water charges on cost recovery, investments, efficiency of water use and income distribution under the current system of water pricing. Section 4 presents policy alternatives that would ensure an effective cost recoyery, greater water-use efficiency and a more equitable distribution of farm income. Section 5 presents the summary and conclusions of the paper.

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Belokon, Yurii, Viktoriia Kulynych, Volodymyr Drahobetskyi, and Dmytro Sereda. "TECHNOLOGIES AND EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS FOR SELF-PROPAGATING HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS (SHS)." Transactions of Kremenchuk Mykhailo Ostrohradskyi National University, no. 6(131) (December 26, 2021): 110–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.30929/1995-0519.2021.6.110-115.

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Purpose. The work is aimed at building an algorithm and coating processing on structural steel, its detailed control at each stage and analysis in obtained material physical and technical characteristics. Methodology. The research of the mechanism of obtaining coatings, as well as operational tests of the obtained samples, computer simulation and spectral analysis are offered. Findings. The kinetics of protective coatings formation on steel 50 has been studied. Вased on the obtained data, the conditions for obtaining the greatest coating thickness are predicted. The rational technology of obtaining alloyed chromium-alloy protective coatings on structural materials has been developed, which allows to use the spent charge as: ballast filler for SHS-charges, abrasive material for grinding, powder material for spraying. The study of the microstructure, phase composition of alloyed chromium-alloy protective coatings, their performance characteristics was carried out on the basis of the obtained material. The analysis of surfactant solutions (surfactants) use efficiency as lubricants in the course of SHS processes and development the forecast estimations system for efficiency use the surfactant solutions as lubricants in the course of SHS processes is carried out. Originality. On the basis of the conducted researches and the received results new alloyed chromium-alloyed protective coatings and compositions of powder charges for self-propagating high-temperature synthesis are developed. Practical value. The implementation of the developed recommendations will increase the service life by 2,7–3,2 times by increasing the wear resistance by 1,9–2,1 times. Сonclusions. Boron and titanium alloy chromium-analytical protective coating is obtained on the parts in order to increase their wear resistance. Low cost of a covering in comparison with known methods of reception of coverings in isothermal conditions is provided by insignificant prime cost of components of SHS-charge, and also increase in service life of technological equipment.

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Caddy, George, Justin Stebbing, Gareth Wakefield, and Xiao Yun Xu. "Modelling of Nanoparticle Distribution in a Spherical Tumour during and Following Local Injection." Pharmaceutics 14, no. 8 (August 2, 2022): 1615. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14081615.

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Radio-sensitizing nanoparticles are a potential method to increase the damage caused to cancerous cells during the course of radiotherapy. The distribution of these particles in a given targeted tumour is a relevant factor in determining the efficacy of nanoparticle-enhanced treatment. In this study, a three-part mathematical model is shown to predict the distribution of nanoparticles after direct injection into a tumour. In contrast with previous studies, here, a higher value of diffusivity for charged particles was used and the concentration profile of deposited particles was studied. Simulation results for particle concentrations both in the interstitial fluid and deposited onto cells are compared for different values of particle surface charges during and after injection. Our results show that particles with a negative surface charge can spread farther from the injection location as compared to uncharged particles with charged particles occupying 100% of the tumour volume compared to 8.8% for uncharged particles. This has implications for the future development of radiosensitizers and any associated trials.

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El Osta, Badi Edmond, Gerald Steven Falchook, Diane Schaub, Harihara Subramanian, Maryam Daneshmand, Dina Harleaux, and Daniel D. Karp. "Economic analysis of pharmacokinetic (PK) studies in phase I clinical trials." Journal of Clinical Oncology 31, no. 15_suppl (May 20, 2013): 3103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2013.31.15_suppl.3103.

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3103 Background: Although PK evaluation is a prevalent and critical component of cancer drug development, optimization of the cost-value relationship of PK studies has not been evaluated. Methods: We reviewed 26 phase I protocols that were activated and performed in the Clinical & Translational Research Center at U.T. MD Anderson Cancer Center from 2010 to 2012. 23 protocols met the residual analysis criteria of a normal and independent distribution. We collected protocol-specific data including medication, route, frequency, mechanism of action, number of enrolled patients, number of PK time points, and PK charges. Results: All 23 protocols were funded by industry sponsors. During 2010-2012: the total number of patients was 560; the median number of patients enrolled per protocol at our site was 18 (range 3-84); the median number of total PK studies per patient performed on each protocol was 19.46 (4.11-36.92); the median charge of PK time points was $42.33 (35.02-80.00); the median charge of all PK time points per patient on a protocol was $813.00 (329.00-1676.00); the median number of total PK studies per patient on a protocol during cycle 1 was 15.20 (2.40-27.47); the median charge of PK studies during cycle 1 was $43.24 (36.93-80). The number of PK time points and the amount of PK charges did not significantly correlate with monotherapy vs. combination regimens, oral vs. parenteral route, or small molecules vs. other (cytotoxic, vaccine, monoclonal antibodies). However, protocols (all cycles combined) with small molecules had a trend of lower PK time point median charges (41.97 vs. 52.67; p=0.09). Analysis of PKs in cycle 1 demonstrated that protocols with small molecules had a trend of higher PK time point median charges (61.33 vs. 42.38; p=0.08). Conclusions: The number and charges of PK studies was independent of the study drug or route. Future studies comparing budgeted vs. performed PKs and industry vs. investigator-initiated trials are warranted.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Development charges'

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