Journal articles: 'Defence and Trade'

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O'Connor, Bernard. "In Defence of Trade Defence." Global Trade and Customs Journal 2, Issue 2 (February 1, 2007): 95–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2007015.

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Bickel, Fabian. "Brexit and Trade Defence: Effects of a Changed Territory." Journal of International Economic Law 24, no. 1 (February 22, 2021): 5–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiel/jgab005.

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ABSTRACT After the UK’s withdrawal from the European Union (EU), the EU’s trade defence measures no longer applied to the territory of the UK. This means that the UK now applies its own trade defence measures and has transitioned some of the EU’s trade defence measures. The EU applies its trade defence measures to the reduced territory of the EU27, while third parties that had imposed trade defence measures against the EU now apply them against the EU27 and the UK. This article analyses the compatibility of these changed measures with WTO law. It argues first that in principle WTO law allows changes in the territorial scope of trade defence measures if the investigation and imposition of the measures remain attributable to the imposing WTO Member. This defends the EU’s and the UK’s approaches. Second, changed circumstances’ reviews or adaptations of the measures by the EU or the UK may be necessary. However, this happens rarely and only if specific evidence is provided. Third, subject to review or adaptations where warranted, third countries can apply their measures targeting the EU against the EU27 and the UK.

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Boots, Mike, and Alex Best. "The evolution of constitutive and induced defences to infectious disease." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285, no. 1883 (July 25, 2018): 20180658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0658.

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In response to infectious disease, hosts typically mount both constitutive and induced defences. Constitutive defence prevents infection in the first place, while induced defence typically shortens the infectious period. The two routes to defence, therefore, have very different implications not only to individuals but also to the epidemiology of the disease. Moreover, the costs of constitutive defences are likely to be paid even in the absence of disease, while induced defences are likely to incur the most substantial costs when they are used in response to infection. We examine theoretically the evolutionary implications of these fundamental differences. A key result is that high virulence in the parasite typically selects for higher induced defences even if they result in immunopathology leading to very high disease mortality. Disease impacts on fecundity are critical to the relative investment in constitutive and induced defence with important differences found when parasites castrate their hosts. The trade-off between constitutive and induced defence has been cited as a cause of the diversity in defence, but we show that the trade-off alone is unlikely to lead to diversity. Our models provide a framework to examine relative investment in different defence components both experimentally and in the field.

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Park, Gihong, and Hans G. Dam. "Cell-growth gene expression reveals a direct fitness cost of grazer-induced toxin production in red tide dinoflagellate prey." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288, no. 1944 (February 10, 2021): 20202480. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.2480.

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Induced prey defences against consumers are conspicuous in microbes, plants and animals. In toxigenic prey, a defence fitness cost should result in a trade-off between defence expression and individual growth. Yet, previous experimental work has failed to detect such induced defence cost in toxigenic phytoplankton. We measured a potential direct fitness cost of grazer-induced toxin production in a red tide dinoflagellate prey using relative gene expression (RGE) of a mitotic cyclin gene ( cyc ), a marker that correlates to cell growth. This approach disentangles the reduction in cell growth from the defence cost from the mortality by consumers. Treatments where the dinoflagellate Alexandrium catenella were exposed to copepod grazers significantly increased toxin production while decreasing RGE of cyc , indicating a defence-growth trade-off. The defence fitness cost represents a mean decrease of the cell growth rate of 32%. Simultaneously, we estimate that the traditional method to measure mortality loss by consumers is overestimated by 29%. The defence appears adaptive as the prey population persists in quasi steady state after the defence is induced. Our approach provides a novel framework to incorporate the fitness cost of defence in toxigenic prey–consumer interaction models.

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Chatterjee, Tonmoy, and Nilendu Chatterjee. "National Defence Under Alternative Trade Policy Regimes: Theory and Evidence from Developing Countries." Foreign Trade Review 56, no. 1 (November 2, 2020): 31–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0015732520961346.

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Defence mechanism for any nation is the way through which internal as well as external geo-political condition can be stabilised. Moreover, defence sector can also be treated as one of the most potential sectors regarding financial transactions and the relevance of it is valid both in autarky and in the regime of international trade. Using Granger Causality for a panel of 27 developing countries across Asian and South American continents, we have found that different trade measures are playing major role in the way of functioning of national defence. For further analytical purpose and also to select the most effective trade policy regime among the alternatives, we have adopted a trade theoretic framework. In this regard, we have used a four-sector general equilibrium trade model with special emphasis on defence as well as R&D to defence to illustrate the impact of trade liberalisation on defence system. From such setup and by using bootstrap policy simulation we have found that trade liberalisation in the form foreign direct investment (specific to the R&D to defence) as the most effective trade regime to claim gains from trade in the presence of defence dualism for any small open developing economy. Such comparative statics is critical from the policy perspective. Policymakers should be cautious before defence industry liberalisation. JEL Codes: H56, C33, F11, F14, F21, D58

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Wischhoff, Uschi, Fernando Marques-Santos, Giselle Bonetti, Lilian T. Manica, James J. Roper, and Marcos Rodrigues. "Are nest defense behaviours and fitness components linked in white-rumped swallows (Tachycineta leucorrhoa)?" Behaviour 156, no. 2 (2019): 181–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003535.

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Abstract How are personalities maintained in wild animal populations? A possible mechanism is the existence of trade-offs between fitness components (survival and reproductive success) among behavioural types. We investigated this trade-off in white-rumped swallows (Tachycineta leucorrhoa) by capturing adults and monitoring their reproduction over time. We focused on the personality trait of nest defence against a human. We found that swallows with different levels of nest defence had similar probability to return from migration between two years (a proxy for survival). In one year, swallows that defended their nests more boldly were also more likely to succeed. However, nest defence was not linked to nestling weight or number of fledglings. Thus, we found no evidence of a trade-off between fitness components. It is possible that the investigated relationships become relevant only in extreme years that severely alter the costs and benefits of this behaviour.

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Melin, Yves. "Protective Orders in Trade Defence Investigations." Global Trade and Customs Journal 9, Issue 7/8 (July 1, 2014): 287–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2014034.

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Vaerenbergh, Pieter Van. "The EU’s Commitment to Social and Environmental Standards in its Modernised Trade Defence Instruments." Zeitschrift für europarechtliche Studien 25, no. 4 (2022): 843–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/1435-439x-2022-4-843.

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Since the modernisation of the Basic Regulations in 2017 and 2018, the EU explicitly exerts social and environmental goals through the application of its trade defence instruments. Whereas the Commission portrayed the new rules as a guarantee that high European standards would not disadvantage the European industry in application of trade defence instruments, commentators were quick to question the EU’s true intentions behind the inclusion of social and environmental considerations. This article reviews three major aspects of social and environmental considerations in trade defence practice: the significant distortions methodology, the new calculation of the injury margin and the application of the Union interest test. This article commends the EU’s effort to reconcile the two seemingly opposing goals of trade defence and social and environmental protection, and identifies areas of improvement as well as possibilities to options to further “green” the trade defence instruments.

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Lindgren, B. S., and K. F. Raffa. "Evolution of tree killing in bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): trade-offs between the maddening crowds and a sticky situation." Canadian Entomologist 145, no. 5 (June 11, 2013): 471–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/tce.2013.27.

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AbstractBark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) play important roles in temperate conifer ecosystems, and also cause substantial economic losses. Although their general life histories are relatively similar, different species vary markedly in the physiological condition of the hosts they select. Most of ∼6000 known species colonise dead or stressed trees, a resource they share with a large diversity of insects and other organisms. A small number of bark beetle species kill healthy, live trees. These few are of particular interest as they compete directly with humans for resources. We propose that tree killing evolved when intense interspecific competition in the ephemeral, scarce resource of defence-impaired trees selected for genotypes that allowed them to escape this limitation by attacking relatively healthy trees. These transitions were uncommon, and we suggest they were facilitated by (a) genetically and phenotypically flexible host selection behaviours, (b) biochemical adaptations for detoxifying a wide range of defence compounds, and (c) associations with symbionts, which together aided bark beetles in overcoming formidable constitutive and induced host defences. The ability to detoxify terpenes influenced the evolutionary course of pheromonal communication. Specifically, a mate attraction system, which was exploited by intraspecific competitors in locating poorly defended hosts, became a system of cooperative attack in which emitters benefit from the contributions responders make in overcoming defence. This functional shift in communication was driven in part by linkage of beetle semiochemistry to host defence chemistry. Behavioural and phenological adaptations also improved the beetles’ abilities to detect when tree defences are impaired, and, where compatible with life history adaptations to other selective forces, for flight to coincide with seasonally predictable host stress agents. We propose a conceptual model, whereby the above mechanisms enable beetles to concentrate on those trees that offer an optimal trade-off between host defence and interspecific competition, along dynamic gradients of tree vigour and stand-level beetle density. We offer suggestions for future research on testing elements of this model.

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Fones, Helen N., Gail M. Preston, and J. Andrew C. Smith. "Variation in defence strategies in the metal hyperaccumulator plant Noccaea caerulescens is indicative of synergies and trade-offs between forms of defence." Royal Society Open Science 6, no. 1 (January 2019): 172418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.172418.

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In the metal hyperaccumulator plant Noccaea caerulescens, zinc may provide a defence against pathogens. However, zinc accumulation is a variable trait in this species. We hypothesize that this variability affects the outcome of interactions between metal accumulation and the various constitutive and inducible defences that N. caerulescens shares with non-accumulator plants. We compare zinc concentrations, glucosinolate concentrations and inducible stress responses, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell death, in four N. caerulescens populations, and relate these to the growth of the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae , its zinc tolerance mutants and Pseudomonas pathogens isolated from a natural population of N. caerulescens. The populations display strikingly different combinations of defences. Where defences are successful, pathogens are limited primarily by metals, cell death or organic defences; there is evidence of population-dependent trade-offs or synergies between these. In addition, we find evidence that Pseudomonas pathogens have the capacity to overcome any of these defences, indicating that the arms race continues. These data indicate that defensive enhancement, joint effects and trade-offs between different forms of defence are all plausible explanations for the variation we observe between populations, with factors including metal availability and metal-tolerant pathogen load probably shaping the response of each population to infection.

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Moroni, Alessandra, Bregt Natens, and Arnoud Willems. "Hurdles to Litigating Trade Defence Measures Before the EU Courts." Journal of World Trade 54, Issue 6 (December 1, 2020): 919–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2020039.

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EU institutions often use trade defence measures to shield EU industries from competition. These measures come at the expense of importers and foreign exporting producers. The most feasible avenue for importers and exporting producers to obtain a practicable remedy is by challenging an adverse trade defence measure before the EU Courts. However, the EU Courts have adopted a strict approach to challenges to trade defence measures, which increasingly requires sophisticated litigation strategies to overcome multiple hurdles. First, the standing requirements to have a case admitted are stringent. Second, the burden to prove substantive or procedural errors in trade defence proceedings is high. Third, even if a case is successful, the EU Courts recognize that the EU institutions almost unbridled discretion in implementing judgments. These hurdles to litigating trade defence measures risk curtailing the role of the EU Courts in limiting the Commission’s powers in a way that maintains proper checks and balances. They also put on applicants the task to develop tools and arguments to address and overcome these hurdles.

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12

Cowshish, Amit. "India–Israel Defence Trade: Issues and Challenges." Strategic Analysis 41, no. 4 (June 16, 2017): 401–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2017.1330445.

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13

Pančić, Marina, and Thomas Kiørboe. "Phytoplankton defence mechanisms: traits and trade-offs." Biological Reviews 93, no. 2 (January 21, 2018): 1269–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12395.

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Beck, Jochen, and Laurent Ruessmann. "Enforcement of EU TDI Measures: Addressing the Challenges of the 21st Century." Global Trade and Customs Journal 15, Issue 9 (August 1, 2020): 423–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2020082.

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The EU’s trade defence instruments (TDI) enforcement tools are around twenty-five years old and circumvention activities have expanded considerably beyond what the existing rules initially sought to address. This article examines the main enforcement challenges and suggests legislative changes to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the EU TDI enforcement tools. subsidies, anti-subsidy, countervail, dumping, anti-dumping, circumvention, enforcement, trade, trade defence, absorption, transhipment, channelling, simple assembly, non-cooperation

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Thu, Trang Lu Thi. "Trade Defence Instruments in Vietnam: Reality and Solutions." Global Trade and Customs Journal 7, Issue 7/8 (July 1, 2012): 331–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2012043.

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Increasing international trade liberalization has dramatically dropped tariff and non-tariff barriers in the last decade in line with the commitments of WTO Members. Anti-dumping, anti-subsidy and safeguard measures, three pillars of trade defence instruments (TDIs), are considered as an effective means of protectionism for countries to reversely impose tariff barriers against their trading partners for the benefit of domestic industries. WTO accession and regional economic integration presented Vietnam with considerable potential and opportunities to expand and to intensify its trade relations with the world. At the same time, growing trade may also bring many challenges, including issues related to unfair trade practices and fierce competition to domestic industries from imported products. Therefore, it is necessary for Vietnam to make effective use of TDIs for the legitimate benefits of domestic industries. Against this backdrop, although Vietnam's legislation on anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard measures had been sufficiently promulgated since 2004, there has been only one case on safeguard measure ending up with nonaffirmative result. The article aims at providing the general overview of the TDIs system in Vietnam and the application of the Vietnamese regulation on TDIs to explore the reasons for the inactiveness of TDIs in Vietnam before coming up with the recommendations for the better use of TDIs in the future.

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Lux, Michael. "EU Initiative on Modernization of Trade Defence Instruments." Global Trade and Customs Journal 7, Issue 11/12 (November 1, 2012): 507–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2012061.

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Hindley, Brian. "The Green Paper on Trade Defence Instruments: Antidumping." Global Trade and Customs Journal 2, Issue 10 (October 1, 2007): 339–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2007039.

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18

Wong, Kar‐Yiu. "Foreign trade, military alliance, and defence‐burden sharing." Defence Economics 2, no. 2 (April 1991): 83–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10430719108404683.

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Forganni, Antonella, and Heidi Reed. "Circumvention of Trade Defence Measures and Business Ethics." Journal of Business Ethics 155, no. 1 (April 12, 2017): 29–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3536-0.

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Panagariya, Arvind. "Miracles and Debacles: In Defence of Trade Openness." World Economy 27, no. 8 (August 2004): 1149–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2004.00650.x.

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21

Benson, Sumner. "DEFENCE‐RELATED EXPORT CONTROLS AND US FOREIGN TRADE." International Marketing Review 4, no. 1 (January 1987): 65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb008325.

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22

Van Scherpenberg, Jens. "Transatlantic competition and European defence industries: a new look at the trade—defence linkage." International Affairs 73, no. 1 (January 1997): 99–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2623552.

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23

BUCKLEY, JOHN. "Contradictions in British Defence Policy 1937–1939 The RAF and the Defence of Trade." Twentieth Century British History 5, no. 1 (1994): 100–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/tcbh/5.1.100.

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Vaerenbergh, Pieter Van. "The Role of Trade Defence Instruments in EU Trade Agreements: Theory versus Practice." Zeitschrift für europarechtliche Studien 21, no. 2 (2018): 217–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/1435-439x-2018-2-217.

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Poecher, Harald. "Defence Market Trends in the 21st Century and Opportunities for the European Defence Sector." Haditechnika 56, no. 1 (February 17, 2022): 37–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.23713/ht.56.1.08.

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The arms trade is good business. At the beginning of the 21st century, the countries of Europe no longer play the central role in this business as they did more than 100 years ago. The most recent efforts made by the European Union indicate that there is an intention to give more importance to the development and production of armament goods in Europe again.

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Behera, Laxman Kumar, and G. Balachandran. "Indo-US Defence Industry Cooperation: A Prognosis." India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 74, no. 3 (August 21, 2018): 337–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0974928418785455.

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The defence industrial cooperation is a clear missing link in an otherwise expanding strategic relationship between India and the US. The one-way defence trade is not only out of sync with India’s traditional demand for technology transfer and license production from its arms suppliers, but is also contrary to Make in India initiative of the Indian government. It is, therefore, imperative for New Delhi in particular to find an industrial solution to its increasing yet skewed defence trade relationship with the Washington. Besides demanding industrial benefits from all possible defence deals with the US in the future, New Delhi has to do a few more things to deepen the industry-to-industry cooperation with the US. Among others, it has to use its defence offset policy carefully to facilitate greater military-specific technology transfers for its industry; and at the same time lay a strong foundation for a robust in-house industrial base which can receive and absorb all such transfers.

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Alagic, Ognjen. "Customs Valuation: A Bosnian and Herzegovinian Perspective." Global Trade and Customs Journal 15, Issue 2 (February 1, 2020): 69–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2020011.

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When is litigation successful? Using the example of trade defence measures, this article addresses the effect of and compliance with judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union. Its premise is that if a favourable judgment does not result in an improvement of the legal or economic position of the applicant, there is no incentive to litigate. This reduces accountability for EU institutions, turning the effect of and compliance with judgments into a fundamental question of judicial protection. With that in mind, this article sets out the differences in the effect of annulments and invalidations. It then turns to how this effect translates into compliance obligations, and how the EU institutions have complied with judgments in trade defence cases. Court of Justice of the European Union, litigation, effect of judgments, annulment, invalidation, implementation, measures taken to comply, Article 266 TFEU, trade defence, anti-dumping, anti-subsidy

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Natens, Bregt, Arnoud Willems, and Sven de Knop. "Effect of and Compliance with Judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union: The Case of Trade Defence Measures." Global Trade and Customs Journal 15, Issue 2 (February 1, 2020): 54–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2020010.

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When is litigation successful? Using the example of trade defence measures, this article addresses the effect of and compliance with judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union. Its premise is that if a favourable judgment does not result in an improvement of the legal or economic position of the applicant, there is no incentive to litigate. This reduces accountability for EU institutions, turning the effect of and compliance with judgments into a fundamental question of judicial protection. With that in mind, this article sets out the differences in the effect of annulments and invalidations. It then turns to how this effect translates into compliance obligations, and how the EU institutions have complied with judgments in trade defence cases. Court of Justice of the European Union, litigation, effect of judgments, annulment, invalidation, implementation, measures taken to comply, Article 266 TFEU, trade defence, anti-dumping, anti-subsidy

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Kuplewatzky, Nicolaj. "Balancing Disclosure and Access to Documents in EU Trade Defence Investigations." Global Trade and Customs Journal 15, Issue 8 (August 1, 2020): 366–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2020077.

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The European Union’s founding treaties recognize the need for a balancing exercise between protective interests and the principles of openness, transparency, and the right of access to documents. Nowhere is that balancing exercise as evident as in the field of trade defence investigations. There, primary EU law principles meet the restrictions arising from the Union’s international law obligations under the WTO Agreements as well the sectoral EU law system of protection of confidential information. What is more, to-date, the Court of Justice of the European Union is yet to provide guidance on how that system should be untangled. This article assesses the interplay between those (at first sight competing) frameworks. In so doing, it will look at the intricacies of the law surrounding EU trade defence investigations and the public right of access to information under Regulation (EC) 1049/2001. Guided by the case-law in those areas and other fields of EU law, the article will discuss how that interplay of rights and restrictions should be resolved if and when the issue is put before the General Court or the European Court of Justice. Trade defence, disclosure, rights of defence, access to documents, Regulation (EC) 1049/2001

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Laprévote, François-Charles, and Wanjie Lin. "Between State Aid, Trade and Antitrust: The Mixed Procedural Heritage of the Foreign Subsidies Regulation and the Overarching Principle of Non- Discrimination." Zeitschrift für europarechtliche Studien 25, no. 3 (2022): 443–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/1435-439x-2022-3-443.

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The FSR intends to fill a regulatory gap between trade law, State aid and antitrust law, and achieves this through a unique blend of familiar concepts and rules, drawing from the rich legal traditions of the EU State aid, antitrust, and trade defense regimes. This legal inheritance can be observed throughout the FSR’s procedural framework, including the structure of its review procedures, the Commission’s investigative powers, and the rights of defence of undertakings. Given its legacy, there will be a continuing dialogue between the FSR and these other regulatory systems, possibly with the FSR exerting its own influence, such as on due process rights under the State aid regime.

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Smith, Paul. "In Defence of Trade-Unionism: Bill Wedderburn and Rookes v. Barnard." Historical Studies in Industrial Relations 42, no. 1 (September 1, 2021): 75–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/hsir.2021.42.3.

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Bill Wedderburn (1927-2012) - from 1977, Lord Wedderburn of Charlton - was a towering figure in the world of labour law. His commitment to trade-unionism and the right of workers to take industrial action, given the asymmetrical nature of the employment relationship, ran deep, pervading every aspect of his forensic, sometimes biting, analysis of labour law and the role of the common law. Prompted by the Rookes decision in the High Court, 1961, and the subsequent decision of the House of Lords Judicial Committee, 1964, Wedderburn launched a wide-ranging defence - academic and public - of trade unions’ freedom to strike and the Trade Disputes Act (TDA) 1906. He argued that the House of Lords’ decision had created a new common law liability which evaded the protections in the TDA 1906. This was neutralized by the Trade Disputes Act 1965, but a new wider version of the TDA had to wait for the passage of the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act, as amended in 1976.

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Vyboldina, Elena. "The Green Paper on Trade Defence Instruments: Anti-dumping." Global Trade and Customs Journal 2, Issue 11/12 (November 1, 2007): 411–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2007050.

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Antonini, Renato. "Access to (Confidential) Data in EU Trade Defence Proceedings." Global Trade and Customs Journal 9, Issue 7/8 (July 1, 2014): 334–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2014041.

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In trade defence proceedings, confidential information warrants protection. At the same time, access to confidential information can be vital for interested parties to defend their interests. The system in place in the European Union ('EU') does not allow interested parties to access confidential information. This article provides some suggestions concerning the possible introduction in the EU of a mechanism whereby, under certain conditions, representatives of interested parties are allowed access to the confidential information submitted by all other interested parties.

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Martin, Lynn B., Zachary M. Weil, and Randy J. Nelson. "Seasonal changes in vertebrate immune activity: mediation by physiological trade-offs." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363, no. 1490 (July 18, 2007): 321–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2142.

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Animals living in temporally dynamic environments experience variation in resource availability, climate and threat of infection over the course of the year. Thus, to survive and reproduce successfully, these organisms must allocate resources among competing physiological systems in such a way as to maximize fitness in changing environments. Here, we review evidence supporting the hypothesis that physiological trade-offs, particularly those between the reproductive and immune systems, mediate part of the seasonal changes detected in the immune defences of many vertebrates. Abundant recent work has detected significant energetic and nutritional costs of immune defence. Sometimes these physiological costs are sufficiently large to affect fitness (e.g. reproductive output, growth or survival), indicating that selection for appropriate allocation strategies probably occurred in the past. Because hormones often orchestrate allocations among physiological systems, the endocrine mediators of seasonal changes in immune activity are discussed. Many hormones, including melatonin, glucocorticoids and androgens have extensive and consistent effects on the immune system, and they change in systematic fashions over the year. Finally, a modified framework within which to conduct future studies in ecological immunology is proposed, viz. a heightened appreciation of the complex but intelligible nature of the vertebrate immune system. Although other factors besides trade-offs undoubtedly influence seasonal variation in immune defence in animals, a growing literature supports a role for physiological trade-offs and the fitness consequences they sometimes produce.

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Taweel, Khaled El, and Gustav Brink. "Trade Defence Instruments in Africa: Possible Scenarios for Implementation under the TFTA." African Journal of International and Comparative Law 26, no. 2 (May 2018): 157–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/ajicl.2018.0226.

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Africa is moving towards more economic integration, leading to the conclusion of the Tripartite Free Trade Agreement (TFTA). The trade remedies annex, essential to ensure economic survival of industries in member states, must still be developed. This article proposes a gradual approach to achieve integration and a regional trade defence system.

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Cayetano, Luis, Lukas Rothacher, Jean-Christophe Simon, and Christoph Vorburger. "Cheaper is not always worse: strongly protective isolates of a defensive symbiont are less costly to the aphid host." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1799 (January 22, 2015): 20142333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2333.

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Defences against parasites are typically associated with costs to the host that contribute to the maintenance of variation in resistance. This also applies to the defence provided by the facultative bacterial endosymbiont Hamiltonella defensa, which protects its aphid hosts against parasitoid wasps while imposing life-history costs. To investigate the cost–benefit relationship within protected hosts, we introduced multiple isolates of H. defensa to the same genetic backgrounds of black bean aphids, Aphis fabae , and we quantified the protection against their parasitoid Lysiphlebus fabarum as well as the costs to the host (reduced lifespan and reproduction) in the absence of parasitoids. Surprisingly, we observed the opposite of a trade-off. Strongly protective isolates of H. defensa reduced lifespan and lifetime reproduction of unparasitized aphids to a lesser extent than weakly protective isolates. This finding has important implications for the evolution of defensive symbiosis and highlights the need for a better understanding of how strain variation in protective symbionts is maintained.

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Costa, Fernanda Vieira da, Antônio César Medeiros de Queiroz, Maria Luiza Bicalho Maia, Ronaldo Reis Júnior, and Marcílio Fagundes. "Resource allocation in Copaifera langsdorffii (Fabaceae): how a supra-annual fruiting affects plant traits and herbivory?" Revista de Biología Tropical 64, no. 2 (May 13, 2016): 507. http://dx.doi.org/10.15517/rbt.v64i2.18586.

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Plants have limited resources to invest in reproduction, vegetative growth and defence against herbivorous. Trade-off in resources allocation promotes changes in plant traits that may affect higher trophic levels. The trade-off between vegetative growth and defence, and their indirect effects on herbivory in Copaifera langsdorffii was evaluated during two consecutive years of high and low reproductive investment of host plant. We asked: (i) does the resource investment on reproduction causes a depletion in vegetative growth as predicted by CNBH, resulting in more availability of resources to be allocated for defence? (ii) does the variation in resource allocation for growth and defence between years of high and low fruiting leads to indirect changes in herbivory? Thirty-five trees located in a cerrado area were monitored during 2008 (high fruiting) and 2009 (no fruiting) years to evaluate the differential investment in vegetative traits (biomass, growth and number of ramifications), plant defence (tannin concentration and plant hypersensitivity) and herbivory. During fruiting year, woody biomass negatively affected tannin concentration, indicating that fruit production restricted the resources which could be invested both in growth and defence. In addition, plant resistance and galling attack were positively influenced by tannin concentration and leaf biomass, suggesting that plants’ resistance to herbivory is a good proxy of plant defence and an effective defence strategy for C. langsdorffii. In summary, the supra-annual fruiting pattern promoted several effects on plant development, demonstrating the importance of evaluating different plants traits when characterizing the vegetative investment of a species. As expected, the trade-off promoted changes in defence compounds production and patterns of herbivory. The understanding of this important element of insect-plant interactions will be fundamental to decipher coevolutionary life histories and interactions between plants reproduction and herbivores attack. These direct and indirect trajectories of animal-plant interactions are important keys for the development of appropriate strategies for diversity conservation in tropical areas.

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Cech, Lubomír. "The United Kingdom and the European Union and their post-brexit trade in heavy conventional weapons." Vector European, no. 2 (November 2021): 76–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.52507/2345-1106.2021-2.16.

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The United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union in early 2020 brought new changes and challenges concerning also the heavy conventional weapons trade. Both the UK and the EU now have an opportunity to strengthen their position in the global conventional arms trade and revise territorial structures of their defence industries. The author attempts to analyse the positions of the United Kingdom and the European Union in the global heavy conventional arms trade over the past five years and to outline their future prospects after Brexit. The main source of the paper comes from quantitative data available in world databases monitoring conventional arms transfers as well as the UK’s new defence strategy.

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Piérola, Fernando. "Practical Considerations for Trade Remedies Disputes at the National And World Trade Organization Levels Part 4: How to Act in WTO Disputes on Trade Remedies." Global Trade and Customs Journal 2, Issue 5 (May 1, 2007): 209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2007026.

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In this article, the author presents considerations of a practical nature that may be relevant in a WTO dispute on trade remedies. The author assumes the perspective of both an exporting country challenging a trade remedy and its related investigation, and an importing countrymaking the corresponding defence. These considerations are presented in accordance with the sequence of procedural steps that arise in a WTO dispute, including panel proceedings and appellate review.

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Whitehead, Susan R., and Katja Poveda. "Resource allocation trade-offs and the loss of chemical defences during apple domestication." Annals of Botany 123, no. 6 (February 16, 2019): 1029–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcz010.

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Abstract Background and Aims Most crops have been dramatically altered from their wild ancestors with the primary goal of increasing harvestable yield. A long-held hypothesis is that increased allocation to yield has reduced plant investment in defence and resulted in crops that are highly susceptible to pests. However, clear demonstrations of these trade-offs have been elusive due to the many selective pressures that occur concurrently during crop domestication. Methods To provide a robust test of whether increased allocation to yield can alter plant investment in defence, this study examined fruit chemical defence traits and herbivore resistance across 52 wild and 56 domesticated genotypes of apples that vary >26-fold in fruit size. Ninety-six phenolic metabolites were quantified in apple skin, pulp and seeds, and resistance to the codling moth was assessed with a series of bioassays. Key Results The results show that wild apples have higher total phenolic concentrations and a higher diversity of metabolites than domesticated apples in skin, pulp and seeds. A negative phenotypic relationship between fruit size and phenolics indicates that this pattern is driven in part by allocation-based trade-offs between yield and defence. There were no clear differences in codling moth performance between wild and domesticated apples and no overall effects of total phenolic concentration on codling moth performance, but the results did show that codling moth resistance was increased in apples with higher phenolic diversity. The concentrations of a few individual compounds (primarily flavan-3-ols) also correlated with increased resistance, primarily driven by a reduction in pupal mass of female moths. Conclusions The negative phenotypic relationship between fruit size and phenolic content, observed across a large number of wild and domesticated genotypes, supports the hypothesis of yield–defence trade-offs in crops. However, the limited effects of phenolics on codling moth highlight the complexity of consequences that domestication has for plant–herbivore interactions. Continued studies of crop domestication can further our understanding of the multiple trade-offs involved in plant defence, while simultaneously leading to novel discoveries that can improve the sustainability of crop production.

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Hartley, Keith. "Defence Industrial Policy in a Military Alliance." Journal of Peace Research 43, no. 4 (July 2006): 473–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022343306064976.

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Much of the alliance literature has focused on the collective defence benefits and burden-sharing. This article considers the potential for developing a defence industrial policy in a military alliance. Previous proposals from the literature are reviewed, especially proposals for economic specialization based on comparative advantage applied to both armed forces and defence industries in a military alliance. European Union (EU) defence policy is outlined, including its armaments agencies (OCCAR and the European Defence Agency), and inefficiencies in EU defence markets are identified. Economic theory offers some policy guidelines for an efficient defence industrial policy in a military alliance, including gains from trade and competition, from learning and scale economies, and from reducing the duplication of costly R&D. These economic principles are applied to the EU and are also applicable to NATO. Evidence of efficiency gains from trade and from economies of scale and learning is reviewed and applied to various scenarios for the creation of a Single European Market for defence equipment. The scenarios include a liberalized competitive market, a centralized EU procurement agency and a ‘twin-track’ model. Estimates are presented of the cost savings from these scenarios. However, proposals for an efficient defence industrial policy will be opposed by the potential losers who will prefer alternative industrial policies involving international collaboration and offsets. Among these alternatives, collaboration is assessed as a distinctive European policy. The inefficiencies of collaboration are reviewed, including its impact on development and production costs and on delays in delivery. Consideration is given to the research issues to be addressed by an economic evaluation of European collaborative projects. The article concludes by stressing the inefficiencies of current procurement policies in the EU and NATO and the potential cost savings from the adoption of a more efficient defence industrial policy within an alliance.

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Rimmer, Matthew. "The Global Tobacco Epidemic, the Plain Packaging of Tobacco Products, and the World Trade Organization." QUT Law Review 17, no. 2 (March 29, 2018): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/qutlr.v17i2.695.

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In response to complaints by Ukraine, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Indonesia, the government of Australia has defended the introduction of plain packaging of tobacco products in the World Trade Organization. This article focuses upon the legal defence of Australia before the WTO Panel. A key part of its defence has been the strong empirical evidence for the efficacy of plain packaging of tobacco products as a legitimate health measure designed to combat the global tobacco epidemic. Australia has provided a convincing case that plain packaging of tobacco products is compatible with the TRIPS Agreement 1994, particularly the clauses relating to the aims and objectives of the agreement; the requirements in respect of trade mark law; and the parallel measures in relation to access to essential medicines. Australia has also defended the consistency of plain packaging of tobacco products with the TBT Agreement 1994. Moreover, Australia has provided clear reasons for why the plain packaging of tobacco products is compatible with GATT. The position of Australia has been reinforced by a number of third parties — such as New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Norway, Canada, and others — which have also been pioneers in tobacco control and public health. Australia’s leadership in respect of tobacco control and plain packaging of tobacco products is further supported by larger considerations in respect of international public health law, human rights, and sustainable development.

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Bastías, Daniel A., Ernesto Gianoli, and Pedro E. Gundel. "Fungal endophytes can eliminate the plant growth–defence trade‐off." New Phytologist 230, no. 6 (April 3, 2021): 2105–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.17335.

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Senduk, Jeffry H. "A Survey of EU Trade Defence Case Law in 2009." Global Trade and Customs Journal 5, Issue 6 (June 1, 2010): 213–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2010027.

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The EU Trade Defence Instruments (TDIs), namely anti-dumping and anti-subsidy duties, are highly technical subjects that one might think should fall within the realm of specialized lawyers and EU officials only. With this survey however, the authors demonstrate that technicalities, such as inter alia ‘Market Economy Treatment’ (MET) and the methodology applied to calculate dumping or injury margins, are very often of great importance, in economic terms to companies. The level of a duty that is to be paid by companies often depends on such technicalities. After the Council has adopted a final anti-dumping or anti-subsidy Regulation, economic operators have the legal right to challenge the determination of such TDIs before the General Court and the Court of Justice of the European Union (EU). This survey, which follows an earlier paper by the authors concerning the same subject matter, illustrates how the case law of the EU Courts developed in a, in the authors’ opinion, positive direction over 2009 by allowing for a higher degree of successful judicial review with regard to TDI matters than in previous years. This survey will also highlight the topics for which a challenge in EU Courts is possible and effective and topics for which, by contrast, success is less likely. In doing so, the authors provide a helpful overview to all parties that deal with TDIs on a regular basis.

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Waddington, Jeremy. "Trade unions and the defence of the European social model." Industrial Relations Journal 36, no. 6 (November 2005): 518–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.2005.00380.x.

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Davis, J. S. "THE BREACH OF THE “EURO DEFENCE” TO TRADE MARK INFRINGEMENT." Cambridge Law Journal 72, no. 1 (March 2013): 31–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197313000275.

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Gatta, Cam. "Estoppel is not a valid defence for trade mark infringement." Journal of Intellectual Property Law & Practice 11, no. 9 (September 2016): 651–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiplp/jpw098.

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Disney, Richard, and Howard Gospel. "The Seniority Model of Trade Union Behaviour: A (Partial) Defence." British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 2 (July 1989): 179–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.1989.tb00216.x.

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Muñiz, Pablo. "Preferential Origin Disputes: Is the Good Faith Defence under EU Law Being Eroded?" Global Trade and Customs Journal 10, Issue 11/12 (December 1, 2015): 368–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2015045.

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Under certain circumstances, importers in the EU can invoke the so-called good faith defence when goods imported, pursuant to preferential trade arrangements, which are accompanied by certificates of origin, are later found not to qualify for such preferential duty treatment. The application of the good faith defence is already subject to strict conditions. This article will review whether certain developments, such as, in particular, the replacement of certificates of origin by systems of self-certification of origin, may erode the good faith defence under EU law, and in general what effects such developments may have on this defence.

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Contrepois, Sylvie, and Steve Jefferys. "Trade unionism under challenge from offshoring and globalisation." Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research 11, no. 4 (November 2005): 549–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/102425890501100406.

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Trade unionism in western Europe is facing the growing challenge of the relocation of work to other parts of the world. This article focuses on the major banking trade unions in France and the UK. It discusses the unions' responses to globalisation in a sector where information technology has exposed firms to intense competitive pressures and has encouraged not just relocation but also business mergers and concentration combined with widespread outsourcing. The authors find that there is often a tension between the day-to-day defence of the workers and broader trade union aspirations to develop alternatives to the arbitrariness of an economic system where labour power is reduced to a commodity to be bought and sold. The article concludes that the dual purposes of union activity, the defence and improvement of workers' immediate working conditions, and the projection of alternative people-friendly forms of social and economic organisation, are being made more difficult by globalisation.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Defence and Trade'

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