Journal articles on the topic 'DED metal additive manufacturing'
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1
Peyre, Patrice. "Additive Layer Manufacturing using Metal Deposition." Metals 10, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 459. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met10040459.
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Among the additive layer manufacturing techniques for metals, those involving metal deposition, including laser cladding/Direct Energy Deposition (DED, with powder feeding) or Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM, with wire feeding), exhibit several attractive features [...]
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Zhang, Wenjun, Chunguang Xu, Cencheng Li, and Sha Wu. "Advances in Ultrasonic-Assisted Directed Energy Deposition (DED) for Metal Additive Manufacturing." Crystals 14, no. 2 (January 24, 2024): 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cryst14020114.
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Directed Energy Deposition (DED), a branch of AM processes, has emerged as a significant technique for fabricating large metal components in sectors such as aerospace, automotive, and healthcare. DED is characterized by its high deposition rate and scalability, which stand out among other AM processes. However, it encounters critical issues such as residual stresses, distortion, porosity, and rough surfaces resulting from rapid melting and solidification. As a novel advancement, Ultrasonic-Assisted Directed Energy Deposition (UA-DED) integrates ultrasonic oscillations into DED aimed at addressing these challenges. Herein, the latest research related to the UA-DED process and the current major challenges of the DED process, residual stresses, porosity, and crack defects are critically reviewed. Subsequently, the paper also details the working principle and system components of UA-DED technology and reviews the material improvement by introducing UA into the DED process, grain, porosity, tensile properties, and deposition defects. The most critical optimization methods of process parameter variables for UA and the different material interaction mechanisms between UA and DED processes are identified and discussed in detail. Finally, the perspectives on the research gap and potential future developments in UA-DED are also discussed.
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Ziesing, Ulf, Jonathan Lentz, Arne Röttger, Werner Theisen, and Sebastian Weber. "Processing of a Martensitic Tool Steel by Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing." Materials 15, no. 21 (October 22, 2022): 7408. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15217408.
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This work investigates the processability of hot-work tool steels by wire-arc additive manufacturing (DED-Arc) from metal-cored wires. The investigations were carried out with the hot-work tool steel X36CrMoWVTi10-3-2. It is shown that a crack-free processing from metal-cored wire is possible, resulting from a low martensite start (Ms) temperature, high amounts of retained austenite (RA) in combination with increased interpass temperatures during deposition. Overall mechanical properties are similar over the built-up height of 110 mm. High alloying leads to pronounced segregation during processing by DED-Arc, achieving a shift of the secondary hardness maximum towards higher temperatures and higher hardness in as-built + tempered condition in contrast to hardened + tempered condition, which appears to be beneficial for applications of DED-Arc processed material at elevated temperatures.
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Strong, Danielle, Michael Kay, Thomas Wakefield, Issariya Sirichakwal, Brett Conner, and Guha Manogharan. "Rethinking reverse logistics: role of additive manufacturing technology in metal remanufacturing." Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 31, no. 1 (August 7, 2019): 124–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jmtm-04-2018-0119.
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Purpose Although the adoption of metal additive manufacturing (AM) for production has continuously grown, in-house access to production grade metal AM systems for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is a major challenge due to costs of acquiring metal AM systems, specifically powder bed fusion AM. On the other hand, AM technology in directed energy deposition (DED) has been evolving in both: processing capabilities and adaptable configuration for integration within existing traditional machines that are available in most SME manufacturing facilities, e.g. computer numerical control (CNC) machining centers. Integrating DED with conventional processes such as machining and grinding into Hybrid AM is well suited for remanufacturing of metal parts. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach Classical facility location models are employed to understand the effects of SMEs adopting DED systems to offer remanufacturing services. This study identifies strategically located counties in the USA to advance hybrid AM for reverse logistics using North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) data on geographical data, demand, fixed and transportation costs. A case study is also implemented to explore its implications on remanufacturing of high-value parts on the reverse logistics supply chain using an aerospace part and NAICS data on aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul facilities. Findings The results identify the candidate counties, their allocations, allocated demand and total costs. Offering AM remanufacturing services to traditional manufacturers decreases costs for SMEs in the supply chain by minimizing expensive new part replacement. The hubs also benefit from hybrid AM to repair their own parts and tools. Originality/value This research provides a unique analysis on reverse logistics through hybrid AM focused on remanufacturing rather than manufacturing. Facility location using real data is used to obtain results and offers insights into integrating AM for often overlooked aspect of remanufacturing. The study shows that SMEs can participate in the evolving AM economy through remanufacturing services using significantly lower investment costs.
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Dass, Adrita, and Atieh Moridi. "State of the Art in Directed Energy Deposition: From Additive Manufacturing to Materials Design." Coatings 9, no. 7 (June 29, 2019): 418. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings9070418.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) is a new paradigm for the design and production of high-performance components for aerospace, medical, energy, and automotive applications. This review will exclusively cover directed energy deposition (DED)-AM, with a focus on the deposition of powder-feed based metal and alloy systems. This paper provides a comprehensive review on the classification of DED systems, process variables, process physics, modelling efforts, common defects, mechanical properties of DED parts, and quality control methods. To provide a practical framework to print different materials using DED, a process map using the linear heat input and powder feed rate as variables is constructed. Based on the process map, three different areas that are not optimized for DED are identified. These areas correspond to the formation of a lack of fusion, keyholing, and mixed mode porosity in the printed parts. In the final part of the paper, emerging applications of DED from repairing damaged parts to bulk combinatorial alloys design are discussed. This paper concludes with recommendations for future research in order to transform the technology from “form” to “function,” which can provide significant potential benefits to different industries.
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Rodríguez-González, Paula, Erich Neubauer, Enrique Ariza, Leandro Bolzoni, Elena Gordo, and Elisa María Ruiz-Navas. "Assessment of Plasma Deposition Parameters for DED Additive Manufacturing of AA2319." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 7, no. 3 (June 8, 2023): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp7030113.
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Arc-directed energy deposition using wire as feedstock is establishing itself as a 3D printing method capable of obtaining additively manufactured large structures. Contrasting results are reported in the literature about the effect of the deposition parameters on the quality of the deposited tracks, as it is highly dependent on the relationship and intercorrelations between the individual input parameters, which are generally deposition-technique-dependent. This study comprehensively analysed the effect of several deposition parameters and clarified their interactions in plasma metal deposition of Al alloys. It was found that, although no straightforward correlation between the individual input parameters investigated and the measured output deposition track’s quality aspects existed, the input current had the greatest effect, followed by the wire feed speed and its interaction with the input current. Moreover, the greatest effect of changing the shielding gas atmosphere, including the gas mixture, flow rate and plasma flow, was on the penetration depth, and fine-tuning the frequency/balance ratio and the preheating of the deposition substrates reduced the amount of porosity. This study demonstrates that well-deposited multi-layer walls made out of Al alloys can successfully be achieved via plasma metal deposition.
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Saboori, Abdollah, Mostafa Toushekhah, Alberta Aversa, Manuel Lai, Mariangela Lombardi, Sara Biamino, and Paolo Fino. "Critical Features in the Microstructural Analysis of AISI 316L Produced By Metal Additive Manufacturing." Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis 9, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 92–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13632-019-00604-6.
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AbstractDirected energy deposition (DED) process is recognized as an alternative technology to produce the complex-shape AISI 316L components. The critical production step in this technology is the optimization of process parameters that can directly affect the final properties of the components. To optimize the process parameters, the residual defects of specimens produced with different combinations of process parameters are evaluated, and the optimum condition is chosen. Therefore, the residual defects assessment is a vital step in finding the optimum process parameters; therefore, this evaluation should be carried out carefully. One of the main issues in the production of AISI 316L by DED process is oxidation during the process that should be considered besides the other defects such as porosity and cracks. However, the identification between the oxides and porosities is not an easy task, and so this study aims to provide more clear insight into the evaluation of pores and oxides in DED 316L samples. The outcomes of this work show that at the best process parameters suitable for a porosity-free sample, there are some oxides that can be misinterpreted as porosity and consequently deteriorate the mechanical properties of the dense sample.
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Ko, Ui Jun, Ju Hyeong Jung, Jung Hyun Kang, Kyunsuk Choi, and Jeoung Han Kim. "Enhanced Microstructure and Wear Resistance of Ti–6Al–4V Alloy with Vanadium Carbide Coating via Directed Energy Deposition." Materials 17, no. 3 (February 3, 2024): 733. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma17030733.
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Ti–6Al–4V alloys are known for their suboptimal tribological properties and are often challenged by durability issues under severe wear conditions. This study was conducted to enhance the alloy’s wear resistance by forming a hardened surface layer. Utilizing directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing with a diode laser, vanadium carbide particles were successfully integrated onto a Ti–6Al–4V substrate. This approach deviates from traditional surface enhancement techniques like surface hardening and cladding, as it employs DED additive manufacturing under parameters akin to those used in standard Ti–6Al–4V production. The formed vanadium carbide layer achieved a remarkable thickness of over 400 µm and a Vickers hardness surpassing 1500 HV. Pin-on-disk test results further corroborated the enhanced surface wear properties of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy following the additive-manufacturing process. These findings suggest that employing vanadium carbide additive manufacturing, under conditions similar to the conventional DED process with a diode laser, significantly improves the surface wear properties of Ti–6Al–4V in metal 3D-printing applications.
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Saboori, Abdollah, Alberta Aversa, Giulio Marchese, Sara Biamino, Mariangela Lombardi, and Paolo Fino. "Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AISI 316L Produced by Directed Energy Deposition-Based Additive Manufacturing: A Review." Applied Sciences 10, no. 9 (May 9, 2020): 3310. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10093310.
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Directed energy deposition (DED) as a metal additive manufacturing technology can be used to produce or repair complex shape parts in a layer-wise process using powder or wire. Thanks to its advantages in the fabrication of net-shape and functionally graded components, DED could attract significant interest in the production of high-value parts for different engineering applications. Nevertheless, the industrialization of this technology remains challenging, mainly because of the lack of knowledge regarding the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of as-built parts, as well as the trustworthiness/durability of engineering parts produced by the DED process. Hence, this paper reviews the published data about the microstructure and mechanical performance of DED AISI 316L stainless steel. The data show that building conditions play key roles in the determination of the microstructure and mechanical characteristics of the final components produced via DED. Moreover, this review article sheds light on the major advancements and challenges in the production of AISI 316L parts by the DED process. In addition, it is found that in spite of different investigations carried out on the optimization of process parameters, further research efforts into the production of AISI 316L components via DED technology is required.
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Sarzyński, Bartłomiej, Lucjan Śnieżek, and Krzysztof Grzelak. "Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM) Applications in Production of Vehicle Parts and Components—A Review." Metals 14, no. 2 (February 5, 2024): 195. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met14020195.
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In this article, the significance of additive manufacturing techniques in the production of vehicle parts over the past several years is highlighted. It indicates the industries and scientific sectors in which these production techniques have been applied. The primary manufacturing methods are presented based on the materials used, including both metals and non-metals. The authors place their primary focus on additive manufacturing techniques employing metals and their alloys. Within this context, they categorize these methods into three main groups: L-PBF (laser-powder bed fusion), sheet lamination, and DED (directed energy deposition) techniques. In the subsequent stages of work on this article, specific examples of vehicle components produced using metal additive manufacturing (MAM) methods are mentioned.
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Jeon, Seoyeon, and Hyunjoo Choi. "Trends in Materials Modeling and Computation for Metal Additive Manufacturing." journal of Korean Powder Metallurgy Institute 31, no. 3 (June 30, 2024): 213–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4150/jpm.2024.00150.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM) is a process that fabricates products by manufacturing materials according to a three-dimensional model. It has recently gained attention due to its environmental advantages, including reduced energy consumption and high material utilization rates. However, controlling defects such as melting issues and residual stress, which can occur during metal additive manufacturing, poses a challenge. The trial-and-error verification of these defects is both time-consuming and costly.Consequently, efforts have been made to develop phenomenological models that understand the influence of process variables on defects, and mechanical/electrical/thermal properties of geometrically complex products. This paper introduces modeling techniques that can simulate the powder additive manufacturing process. The focus is on representative metal additive manufacturing processes such as Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), Direct Energy Deposition (DED), and Binder Jetting (BJ) method.To calculate thermal-stress history and the resulting deformations, modeling techniques based on Finite Element Method (FEM) are generally utilized. For simulating the movements and packing behavior of powders during powder classification, modeling techniques based on Discrete Element Method (DEM) are employed. Additionally, to simulate sintering and microstructural changes, techniques such as Monte Carlo (MC), Molecular Dynamics (MD), and Phase Field Modeling (PFM) are predominantly used.
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Uralde, Virginia, Fernando Veiga, Alfredo Suarez, Eider Aldalur, and Tomas Ballesteros. "Symmetry Analysis in Wire Arc Direct Energy Deposition for Overlapping and Oscillatory Strategies in Mild Steel." Symmetry 15, no. 6 (June 9, 2023): 1231. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym15061231.
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The field of additive manufacturing has experienced a surge in popularity over recent decades, particularly as a viable alternative to traditional metal part production. Directed energy deposition (DED) is one of the most promising additive technologies, characterized by its high deposition rate, with wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) being a prominent example. Despite its advantages, DED is known to produce parts with suboptimal surface quality and geometric accuracy, which has been a major obstacle to its widespread adoption. This is due, in part, to a lack of understanding of the complex geometries produced by the additive layer. To address this challenge, researchers have focused on characterizing the geometry of the additive layer, particularly the outer part of the bead. This paper specifically investigates the geometrical characteristics and symmetry of walls produced by comparing two different techniques: an oscillated strategy and overlapping beads.
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Ayed, Achraf, Guénolé Bras, Henri Bernard, Pierre Michaud, Yannick Balcaen, and Joel Alexis. "Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V with Wire Laser Metal Deposition Process." Materials Science Forum 1016 (January 2021): 24–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1016.24.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) using wire as an input material is currently in full swing, with very strong growth prospects thanks to the possibility of creating large parts, with high deposition rates, but also a low investment cost compared to the powder bed fusion machines. A versatile 3D printing device using a Direct Energy Deposition Wire-Laser (DED-W Laser) with Precitec Coaxprinter station to melt a metallic filler wire is developed to build titanium parts by optimizing the process parameters. The geometrical and metallurgical of produced parts are analyzed. In the literature, several authors agree to define wire feed speed, travel speed, and laser beam power as first-order process parameters governing laser-wire deposition. This study shows the relative importance of these parameters taking separately as well as the importance of their sequencing at the start of the process. Titanium deposit are obtained with powers never explored in bibliography (up to 5 kW), and wire feed speed up to 5 m.min-1 with a complete process repeatability.
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Gong, Xi, Willem Groeneveld-Meijer, and Guha Manogharan. "Additive manufacturing: Application and validation of machine learning-based process-structure-property linkages in Ti-6Al-4V." Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing 2, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 0999. http://dx.doi.org/10.36922/msam.0999.
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In the field of metal additive manufacturing (AM), various processes and heat treatments can yield unique grain morphologies, thereby influencing material properties and machining behavior. In this study, a novel workflow using a machine learning-based approach that combines statistical descriptors of textured AM-process induced microstructure, cutting force model (as a material response), and a data-mining method is established. It is proven to be a valid method for creating process-structure-property linkages for metal AM. This study focuses on two highly varied metal AM processes: Powder bed fusion (PBF, e.g., laser PBF and electron beam PBF) and directed energy deposition (DED, e.g., wire-fed plasma-directed energy deposition). The study also accounted for the effects of post-AM heat treatment and build orientation. It was found that the accuracy of material behavior predictions is highly correlated with AM processing conditions, building orientations, and machining conditions. Specifically, while initially applying PBF training data to DED samples resulted in a 15% root mean square prediction error, this error was subsequently reduced to <1% through cross-training using combined microstructure training data sets. This discrepancy could be attributed to the significantly different thermal cycling conditions in L-PBF and DED, which resulted in highly varied textured microstructures. Residual stresses generated during AM processing and the selection of machining parameters exert the highest impact on the machining behavior. The implications of these findings extend to the use of statistically descriptive microstructures for various AM processing conditions and build orientations in computational methods and other machining learning approaches.
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Mutswatiwa, Lovejoy, Judith A. Todd, Edward Reutzel, and Christopher M. Kube. "Influence of ultrasonic parameters on microstructural refinement and defect elimination in ultrasound-assisted laser-based metal additive manufacturing." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 155, no. 3_Supplement (March 1, 2024): A266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/10.0027449.
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Acoustic cavitation, streaming, and energy absorption during solidification in ultrasound-assisted direct energy deposition additive manufacturing (DED-AM) have been reported to drive microstructural refinement, defect elimination, and mechanical property improvement. However, the influence of individual ultrasonic parameters such as frequency, amplitude, intensity, and sonication duration remains unknown. This is mainly because of challenges in real-time quantification of the influence of ultrasound on the rapid solidification and microstructural development processes encountered in ultrasound-assisted AM. High temperature and opaque molten metal confined within micro-length scale melt pools further challenge the characterization of ultrasound’s influence on microstructural development. Building upon our recent in situ observation of acoustic cavitation and streaming in sonicated laser-generated melt pools, this talk will highlight our efforts to correlate vibration frequency, amplitude, and intensity with grain size and texture of Al7075 alloy fabricated using ultrasound-assisted DED-AM. DED additively manufactured Al7075 is susceptible to solidification cracking. Therefore, this presentation will also showcase the influence of ultrasonic parameters on cracking suppression and defect elimination. In addition, the effect of sonication duration on microstructure will also be elaborated. Lastly, the presentation will showcase our future work toward upscaling ultrasound-assisted AM to large parts with complex geometries.
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Furumoto, Tatsuaki. "Special Issue on Additive Manufacturing with Metals." International Journal of Automation Technology 13, no. 3 (May 5, 2019): 329. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/ijat.2019.p0329.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) with metals is currently one of the most promising techniques for 3D-printed structures, as it has tremendous potential to produce complex, lightweight, and functionally-optimized parts. The medical, aerospace, and automotive industries are some of the many expected to reap particular benefits from the ability to produce high-quality models with reduced manufacturing costs and lead times. The main advantages of AM with metals are the flexibility of the process and the wide variety of metal materials that are available. Various materials, including steel, titanium, aluminum alloys, and nickel-based alloys, can be employed to produce end products. The objective of this special issue is to collect recent research works focusing on AM with metals. This issue includes 5 papers covering the following topics: ===danraku===- Powder bed fusion (PBF) ===danraku===- Directed energy deposition (DED) ===danraku===- Wire and arc-based AM (WAAM) ===danraku===- Binder jetting (BJT) ===danraku===- Fused deposition modeling (FDM) This issue is expected to help readers understand recent developments in AM, leading to further research. We deeply appreciate the contributions of all authors and thank the reviewers for their incisive efforts.
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Park, Seong-Hyun, Kiyoon Yi, Peipei Liu, Gwanghwo Choi, Kyung-Young Jhang, and Hoon Sohn. "In situ and layer-by-layer grain size estimation in additively manufactured metal components using femtosecond laser ultrasonics." Journal of Laser Applications 35, no. 2 (May 2023): 022002. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/7.0000938.
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Directed energy deposition (DED) is an additive manufacturing technique wherein a focused thermal energy source and a coaxial powder delivery system are combined for the fabrication of metallic parts. Although rapid progress has been made in DED, the amount of research performed for in situ quality monitoring during fabrication is limited. Grain size monitoring during DED is particularly important because the grain size is directly related to the mechanical strength and stiffness of the final products. In this study, a layer-by-layer grain size estimation technique using femtosecond laser ultrasonics is developed for in situ monitoring during DED. The proposed technique employs fully noncontact and nondestructive testing for grain size estimation and uses the relationship between the laser-induced ultrasonic waves and the grain size. In addition to the in situ operation of the technique, spatial resolution in the micrometer range was achieved. The developed technique was validated using Ti-6Al-4V specimens fabricated by DED. The results of the quantitative grain sizes measured by the developed method were consistent with those measured through independent metallography conducted after the completion of DED.
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Khanna, Navneet, Harsh Salvi, Büşra Karaş, Ishrat Fairoz, and Alborz Shokrani. "Cost Modelling for Powder Bed Fusion and Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 8, no. 4 (July 4, 2024): 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8040142.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) is increasingly used for fabricating parts directly from digital models, usually by depositing and bonding successive layers of various materials such as polymers, metals, ceramics, and composites. The design freedom and reduced material consumption for producing near-net-shaped components have made AM a popular choice across various industries, including the automotive and aerospace sectors. Despite its growing popularity, the accurate estimation of production time, productivity and cost remains a significant challenge due to the ambiguity surrounding the technology. Hence, reliable cost estimation models are necessary to guide decisions throughout product development activities. This paper provides a thorough analysis of the state of the art in cost models for AM with a specific focus on metal Directed Energy Deposition (DED) and Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) processes. An overview of DED and PBF processes is presented to enhance the understanding of how process parameters impact the overall cost. Consequently, suitable costing techniques and significant cost contributors in AM have been identified and examined in-depth. Existing cost modelling approaches in the field of AM are critically evaluated, leading to the suggestion of a comprehensive cost breakdown including often-overlooked aspects. This study aims to contribute to the development of accurate cost prediction models in supporting decision making in the implementation of AM.
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Kim, Kang-Hyung, Chan-Hyun Jung, Dae-Yong Jeong, and Soong-Keun Hyun. "Preventing Evaporation Products for High-Quality Metal Film in Directed Energy Deposition: A Review." Metals 11, no. 2 (February 19, 2021): 353. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met11020353.
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Directed energy deposition (DED), a type of additive manufacturing (AM) is a process that enables high-speed deposition using laser technology. The application of DED extends not only to 3D printing, but also to the 2D surface modification by direct laser-deposition dissimilar materials with a sub-millimeter thickness. One of the reasons why DED has not been widely applied in the industry is the low velocity with a few m/min, but thin-DED has been developed to the extent that it can be over 100 m/min in roller deposition. The remaining task is to improve quality by reducing defects. Thus far, defect studies on AM, including DED, have focused mostly on preventing pores and crack defects that reduce fatigue strength. However, evaporation products, fumes, and spatters, were often neglected despite being one of the main causes of porosity and defects. In high-quality metal deposition, the problems caused by evaporation products are difficult to solve, but they have not yet caught the attention of metallurgists and physicists. This review examines the effect of the laser, material, and process parameters on the evaporation products to help obtain a high-quality metal film layer in thin-DED.
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Sidun, Muhammad Irfan Syahmi, and Ismayuzri Ishak. "Bead Characterization for Wire Based Laser Directed Energy Deposition Fabrication Process." Jurnal Teknologi 13, no. 2 (December 30, 2023): 58–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.35134/jitekin.v13i2.98.
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A three-dimensional, solid object of almost any shape or design can be created using metal additive manufacturing, often known as metal 3D printing. One of the most popular materials utilized in additive manufacturing is metal. The far more complicated procedure of directed energy deposition (DED) is frequently employed to upgrade or repair existing components. DED fabrication process will be able to construct a 3D metal object with consideration of the weld bead characteristics. Without knowing the weld bead characteristics, the mechanical integrity will not hold as the bead size is not suitable for the product. In the current study, we will study the effect of variation of parameters of the DED machine to be able to print in a continuous deposition and we will also investigate the weld bead characteristics printed by the variation of parameters with the use of DED machine. The variation of parameters of the machine are the laser power with the unit of Watt and the feedrate of the machine with the unit of mm per minute. Nine preliminary samples are printed to check whether the bead can be printed in a continuous line or not. The value of variation of parameters that bring about a continuous deposition will be jotted and continued to be taken to bead characterization for study. Six samples were printed, and the bead width and height are calculated based on the variation of parameters. Based on the result, we found that laser power will increase the bead width, but the bead height needs optimal laser power which is at 473 Watt and optimal feedrate which is on 60 mm per min to reach optimal bead height which is at 2.1162 mm. The effect of the machine feedrate on the other hand is inconsistent, thus more samples need to be gathered.
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Wang, Min, Qican Zhang, Qian Li, Zhoujie Wu, Chaowen Chen, Jin Xu, and Junpeng Xue. "Research on Morphology Detection of Metal Additive Manufacturing Process Based on Fringe Projection and Binocular Vision." Applied Sciences 12, no. 18 (September 14, 2022): 9232. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12189232.
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This paper considers the three-dimensional (3D) shape measurement of metal parts during an additive manufacturing process in a direct energy deposition (DED) printing system with high temperature and strong light; a binocular measurement system based on ultraviolet light source projection is built using fringe projection and Fourier analysis. Firstly, ultraviolet light projection and an optical filter are used to obtain high-quality fringe patterns in an environment with thermal radiation. Then, Fourier analysis is carried out by using a single deformed fringe, and a spatial phase unwrapping algorithm is applied to obtain an unambiguous unwrapping phase, which is used as the guiding basis for the binocular matching process and 3D shape reconstruction. Finally, the accuracy of the measuring system is evaluated using a standard ball-bar gauge and the measurement error of this system is within 0.05 mm @ 100 × 100 mm. The results show that the system can measure 3D shape changes of metal parts in the additive manufacturing process. The proposed method and system have the potential to be used for online inspection and quality control of additive manufacturing.
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van Ree, Marelizé, Sonette du Preez, and Johan L. du Plessis. "Emissions and Exposures Associated with the Use of an Inconel Powder during Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 13 (June 22, 2023): 6206. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20136206.
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Additive manufacturing (AM) has been linked to potential exposure-related health risks, however, there is a paucity of sufficient research. This study aimed to supply information regarding emissions and exposure during directed energy deposition (DED) AM using inconel 718, with the main constituents being nickel, chromium, and cobalt. By using standardized occupational hygiene methods, the measurement strategy consisted of a combined approach, including powder characterization, particle emission monitoring, and personal exposure monitoring of AM operators. Powder characterization of virgin and used powder indicated no significant difference in particle size, shape, or elemental composition. Particle number emissions ranged between 102 and 105 p/cm3 for submicron particles (<1 µm in size). There was no significant difference in the particle emission rate between the three phases of AM or the two types of DED machines (p > 0.05). The particle emission rate for submicron particles peaked at 2.8 × 109 p/min. Metals of concern to human health were detected during the AM process but were considerably lower than the relevant exposure limits. This study confirms particle emissions, predominantly in the submicron range, above the background concentration during DED AM and, although insignificant in terms of potential health effects, AM operators are exposed to detectable concentrations of the metal constituents of inconel.
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Aldalur, Eider, Fernando Veiga, Alfredo Suárez, Jon Bilbao, and Aitzol Lamikiz. "Analysis of the Wall Geometry with Different Strategies for High Deposition Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Mild Steel." Metals 10, no. 7 (July 4, 2020): 892. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met10070892.
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Additive manufacturing has gained relevance in recent decades as an alternative to the manufacture of metal parts. Among the additive technologies, those that are classified as Directed Energy Deposition (DED) are characterized by their high deposition rate, noticeably, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). However, having the inability to produce parts with acceptable final surface quality and high geometric precision is to be considered an important disadvantage in this process. In this paper, different torch trajectory strategies (oscillatory motion and overlap) in the fabrication of low carbon steel walls will be compared using Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)-based WAAM technology. The comparison is done with a study of the mechanical and microstructural characteristics of the produced walls and finally, addressing the productivity obtained utilizing each strategy. The oscillation strategy shows better results, regarding the utilization rate of deposited material and the flatness of the upper surface, this being advantageous for subsequent machining steps.
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Kovalchuk, Dmytro, Orest Ivasishin, and Dmytro Savvakin. "Microstructure and Properties of 3D Ti-6Al-4V Articles Produced with Advanced Co-axial Electron Beam & Wire Additive Manufacturing Technology." MATEC Web of Conferences 321 (2020): 03014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202032103014.
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Ti-6Al-4V articles were produced with advanced additive manufacturing technology of Direct Energy Deposition (DED) type using profile electron beam and wire as feedstock material. The key distinctive feature of this additive manufacturing process is the applying of the hollow conical electron beam generated by low-voltage (<20kV) gas-discharge EB gun for heating and melting of the substrate and co-axially fed wire. Such configuration ensures precisely controllable liquid metal transfer from the wire end to the substrate, specific temperature gradients at the fusion area and heat flow from liquid metal pool. Such conditions of heating, melting and cooling during 3D manufacturing processing provide the ability for controllable microstructure formation, including grain size and material texture. Influence of processing parameters and cooling conditions on crystallization, grain formation and intragrain structure of solidified material is discussed. Optimization of processing parameters allowed production of 3D Ti-6Al- 4V articles with isotropic microstructure and mechanical properties which met standard requirements for Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
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Ostolaza, Marta, Jon Iñaki Arrizubieta, Aitzol Lamikiz, Soraya Plaza, and Naiara Ortega. "Latest Developments to Manufacture Metal Matrix Composites and Functionally Graded Materials through AM: A State-of-the-Art Review." Materials 16, no. 4 (February 20, 2023): 1746. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16041746.
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Multi-material structure fabrication has the potential to address some critical challenges in today’s industrial paradigm. While conventional manufacturing processes cannot deliver multi-material structures in a single operation, additive manufacturing (AM) has come up as an appealing alternative. In particular, laser-directed energy deposition (L-DED) is preferred for multi-material AM. The most relevant applications envisioned for multi-material L-DED are alloy design, metal matrix composites (MMC), and functionally graded materials (FGM). Nonetheless, there are still some issues that need to be faced before multi-material L-DED is ready for industrial use. Driven by this need, in this literature review, the suitability of L-DED for multi-material component fabrication is first demonstrated. Then, the main defects associated with multi-material L-DED and current opportunities and challenges in the field are reported. In view of the industrial relevance of high-performance coatings as tools to mitigate wear, emphasis is placed on the development of MMCs and FGMs. The identified challenges include—but are not limited to—tightly controlling the composition of the multi-material powder mixture injected into the melt pool; understanding the influence of the thermal history of the process on microstructural aspects, including the interactions between constituents; and studying the in-service behaviours of MMCs and FGMs with regard to their durability and failure modes.
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Son, Jong-Youn, Ki-Yong Lee, Seung Hwan Lee, and Chang-Hwan Choi. "Effects of Oxidized Metal Powders on Pore Defects in Powder-Fed Direct Energy Deposition." Micromachines 15, no. 2 (February 6, 2024): 243. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi15020243.
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Laser-based additive manufacturing processes, particularly direct energy deposition (DED), have gained prominence for fabricating complex, functionally graded, or customized parts. DED employs a high-powered heat source to melt metallic powder or wire, enabling precise control of grain structures and the production of high-strength objects. However, common defects, such as a lack of fusion and pores between layers or beads, can compromise the mechanical properties of the printed components. This study focuses on investigating the recurrent causes of pore defects in the powder-fed DED process, with a specific emphasis on the influence of oxidized metal powders. This research explores the impact of intentionally oxidizing metal powders of hot work tool steel H13 by exposing them to regulated humidity and temperature conditions. Scanning electron microscopy images and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results demonstrate the clumping of powders and the deposition of iron oxides in the oxidized powders at elevated temperatures (70 °C for 72 h). Multi-layered depositions of the oxidized H13 powders on STD61 substrate do not show significant differences in cross sections among specimens, suggesting that oxidation does not visibly form large pores. However, fine pores, detected through CT scanning, are observed in depositions of oxidized powders at higher temperatures. These fine pores, typically less than 250 µm in diameter, are irregularly distributed throughout the deposition, indicating a potential degradation in mechanical properties. The findings highlight the need for careful consideration of oxidation effects in optimizing process parameters for enhanced additive manufacturing quality.
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Lhabitant, Solène, Alain Toufine, and Anis Hor. "Heat Treatments of P295GH Steel Made by Directed Energy Deposition: Metallography and Hardness." Materials Science Forum 1046 (September 22, 2021): 65–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1046.65.
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Directed energy deposition (DED) is an Additive Manufacturing process deposing fused metal powder on a preexisting substrate. This document shows the influence of heat treatment on P295GH deposit made by DED, for hybridization process. The heat treatment must reduce the macroscopic differences between the rolled substrate and the deposited DED material. The experimental plan has been defined around AC3 temperature, according to P295GH existing literature. XRD analysis, hardness measurements and metallographic inspections have been performed on samples before and after heat treatment. XRD analysis and hardness measurements have shown an isotropic material. The as-built microstructure is ferritic and acicular, but coarsens after the heat treatment. The study promotes a heat treatment at 800°C during 3 hours to obtain the best compromise between properties, impact on the substrate and differences with the rolled substrate.
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Rodríguez-González, Paula, Elisa María Ruiz-Navas, and Elena Gordo. "Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for Aluminum-Lithium Alloys: A Review." Materials 16, no. 4 (February 6, 2023): 1375. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16041375.
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Out of all the metal additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, the directed energy deposition (DED) technique, and particularly the wire-based one, are of great interest due to their rapid production. In addition, they are recognized as being the fastest technique capable of producing fully functional structural parts, near-net-shape products with complex geometry and almost unlimited size. There are several wire-based systems, such as plasma arc welding and laser melting deposition, depending on the heat source. The main drawback is the lack of commercially available wire; for instance, the absence of high-strength aluminum alloy wires. Therefore, this review covers conventional and innovative processes of wire production and includes a summary of the Al-Cu-Li alloys with the most industrial interest in order to foment and promote the selection of the most suitable wire compositions. The role of each alloying element is key for specific wire design in WAAM; this review describes the role of each element (typically strengthening by age hardening, solid solution and grain size reduction) with special attention to lithium. At the same time, the defects in the WAAM part limit its applicability. For this reason, all the defects related to the WAAM process, together with those related to the chemical composition of the alloy, are mentioned. Finally, future developments are summarized, encompassing the most suitable techniques for Al-Cu-Li alloys, such as PMC (pulse multicontrol) and CMT (cold metal transfer).
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Ang, Yao Ting, Swee Leong Sing, and Joel Choon Wee Lim. "Process study for directed energy deposition of 316L stainless steel with TiB2 metal matrix composites." Materials Science in Additive Manufacturing 1, no. 2 (June 29, 2022): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.18063/msam.v1i2.13.
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In addition to laser powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition (DED) is also gaining interest as an effective metal additive manufacturing technique. Due to its system configuration, it is more efficient and flexible for materials development. Therefore, it can be used for processing of metal matrix composites (MMCs) through the use of powder mixture as feedstock. 316L stainless steel has high corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and ductility. Several studies have shown the feasibility of using DED to process 316L stainless steel. The material properties of 316L stainless steel can be improved using reinforcement particles such as TiB2 to form MMCs. In this study, the effects of process parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel reinforced with TiB2 (316L/TiB2) MMC were studied. The process parameters, including laser power, scanning speed, and hopper speed, were varied and analyzed using Taguchi L9 array. It was found that the process parameters have insignificant effect on the bulk density of the samples produced. Through this study, it is also found that tumble mixing was not suitable for the powder feedstock preparation for MMCs to be processed by DED. The microstructure of DED 316L/TiB2 MMC samples consists of columnar and equiaxed grains. Columnar grains were located within the layers while equiaxed grains were located at the interlayer zones. Fine sub-grains were also observed within these grains and their boundaries were enriched with molybdenum and chromium segregations. Precipitates containing titanium were also observed to segregate at the sub-grain boundaries. Finally, the Vickers microhardness of the DED 316L/TiB2 MMC was found to be similar to pure 316L stainless steel produced by DED.
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Kwon, Yongjae, SeongSeon Shin, SangEun Joo, JongHoon Lee, JunHo Hwang, and HyunDeok Kim. "Optimization of Additive Manufacturing of Precipitation Hardening Type STS630 by DED (Direct Energy Deposition) Process." Journal of Welding and Joining 39, no. 6 (December 30, 2021): 590–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.5781/jwj.2021.39.6.3.
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The quality and properties of products manufactured using metal three dimensional (3D) printing technology differs based on the process parameters. In addition, the characteristics and uses vary depending on the material used. In this study, the Direct Energy Deposition(DED) technology using a precipitation hardening type STS630 was investigated. The experimental process parameters, namely, the beam size, powder feeding rate, laser header moving speed, laser output power were set, and the deposition height and dilution were analyzed through deposition cross-section analysis after experiments according to each Additive Manufacturing(AM) process variable. The results showed that the deposition height decreased as the laser header moved faster. It was further observed that the dilution ratio and the width of the heat affected zone depended on the laser power and powder feed rate. The optimal process parameters were identified as a beam size of 1 mm, powder feeding rate of 6 g/min, laser header moving speed of 500 mm/min, and a laser output power of 500 W.
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Aydogan, Beytullah, and Himanshu Sahasrabudhe. "Enabling Multi-Material Structures of Co-Based Superalloy Using Laser Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing." Metals 11, no. 11 (October 27, 2021): 1717. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met11111717.
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Cobalt superalloys such as Tribaloys are widely used in environments that involve high temperatures, corrosion, and wear degradation. Additive manufacturing (AM) processes have been investigated for fabricating Co-based alloys due to design flexibility and efficient materials usage. AM processes are suitable for reducing the manufacturing steps and subsequently reducing manufacturing costs by incorporating multi-materials. Laser directed energy deposition (laser DED) is a suitable AM process for fabricating Co-based alloys. T800 is one of the commercially available Tribaloys that is strengthened through Laves phases and of interest to diverse engineering fields. However, the high content of the Laves phase makes the alloy prone to brittle fracture. In this study, a Ni-20%Cr alloy was used to improve the fabricability of the T800 alloy via laser DED. Different mixture compositions (20%, 30%, 40% NiCr by weight) were investigated. The multi-material T800 + NiCr alloys were heat treated at two different temperatures. These alloy chemistries were characterized for their microstructural, phase, and mechanical properties in the as-fabricated and heat-treated conditions. SEM and XRD characterization indicated the stabilization of ductile phases and homogenization of the Laves phases after laser DED fabrication and heat treatment. In conclusion, the NiCr addition improved the fabricability and structural integrity of the T800 alloy.
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Illarionov, Anatoliy G., Stepan I. Stepanov, Inna A. Naschetnikova, Artemiy A. Popov, Prasanth Soundappan, K. H. Thulasi Raman, and Satyam Suwas. "A Review—Additive Manufacturing of Intermetallic Alloys Based on Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide Ti2AlNb." Materials 16, no. 3 (January 20, 2023): 991. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16030991.
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Titanium alloys based on orthorhombic titanium aluminide Ti2AlNb are promising refractory materials for aircraft engine parts in the operating temperature range from 600–700 °C. Parts made of Ti2AlNb-based alloys by traditional technologies, such as casting and metal forming, have not yet found wide application due to the sensitivity of processability and mechanical properties in chemical composition and microstructure compared with commercial solid-solution-based titanium alloys. In the last three decades, metal additive manufacturing (MAM) has attracted the attention of scientists and engineers for the production of intermetallic alloys based on Ti2AlNb. This review summarizes the recent achievements in the production of O-phase-based Ti alloys using MAM, including the analysis of the feedstock materials, technological processes, machines, microstructure, phase composition and mechanical properties. Powder bed fusion (PBF) and direct energy deposition (DED) are the most widely employed MAM processes to produce O-phase alloys. MAM provides fully dense, fine-grained material with a superior combination of mechanical properties at room temperature. Further research on MAM for the production of critical parts made of Ti2AlNb-based alloys can be focused on a detailed study of the influence of post-processing and chemical composition on the formation of the structure and mechanical properties, including cyclic loading, fracture toughness, and creep resistance.
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Tariq, Usman, Sung-Heng Wu, Muhammad Arif Mahmood, Michael M. Woodworth, and Frank Liou. "Effect of Pre-Heating on Residual Stresses and Deformation in Laser-Based Directed Energy Deposition Repair: A Comparative Analysis." Materials 17, no. 10 (May 7, 2024): 2179. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma17102179.
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Laser-directed energy deposition (DED), a metal additive manufacturing method, is renowned for its role in repairing parts, particularly when replacement costs are prohibitive. Ensuring that repaired parts avoid residual stresses and deformation is crucial for maintaining functional integrity. This study conducts experimental and numerical analyses on trapezoidal shape repairs, validating both the thermal and mechanical models with experimental results. Additionally, the study presents a methodology for creating a toolpath applicable to both the DED process and Abaqus CAE software. The findings indicate that employing a pre-heating strategy can reduce residual stresses by over 70% compared to no pre-heating. However, pre-heating may not substantially reduce final distortion. Notably, final distortion can be significantly mitigated by pre-heating and subsequently cooling to higher temperatures, thereby reducing the cooling rate. These insights contribute to optimizing DED repair processes for enhanced part functionality and longevity.
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Grüger, Lennart, Benjamin Sydow, Ralf Woll, and Johannes Buhl. "Design of a Cost-Effective and Statistically Validated Test Specification with Selected Machine Elements to Evaluate the Influence of the Manufacturing Process with a Focus on Additive Manufacturing." Metals 13, no. 11 (November 17, 2023): 1900. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met13111900.
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Due to their versatile advantages, the use of additively manufactured components is growing. In addition, new additive manufacturing processes are constantly being developed, so that a wide range of printing processes are now available for metal. Despite the same starting material, the microstructure and thus also the final mechanical properties differ greatly compared to conventional processes. In most cases, only direction-dependent characteristic values from the uniaxial tension are used to qualify a printing process before it is used. The literature, on the other hand, demonstrates that the results are not transferable to other loading conditions. In this work, several engineering tests were integrated into a single test specimen so that they can be determined on the same specimen. The test specimen can be used to test tooth root strength, bending strength, notched bar impact energy, and thread strength depending on the mounting direction, thus representing industrial loading cases. In this study, test specimens were fabricated by conventional manufacturing (machining), L-PBF (Laser Powder Bed Fusion), and WA-DED (Wire Arc Direct Energy Deposition), and the results were compared using statistical methods. Factors to capture manufacturing influence and buildup direction were statistically validated on 316L. The work shows a benchmark with a typical initial microstructure of rolled and milled material, L-PBF, and WA-DED parts on loads close to the application and thus simplifies an industry-oriented evaluation of a new manufacturing process.
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Borovkov, Herman, Aitor Garcia de la Yedra, Xabier Zurutuza, Xabier Angulo, Pedro Alvarez, Juan Carlos Pereira, and Fernando Cortes. "In-Line Height Measurement Technique for Directed Energy Deposition Processes." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 5, no. 3 (August 5, 2021): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp5030085.
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Directed energy deposition (DED) is a family of additive manufacturing technologies. With these processes, metal parts are built layer by layer, introducing dynamics that propagate in time and layer-domains, which implies additional complexity and consequently, the resulting part quality is hard to predict. Control of the deposit layer thickness and height is a critical issue since it impacts on geometrical accuracy, process stability, and the overall quality of the product. Therefore, online feedback height control for DED processes with proper sensor strategies is required. This work presents a novel vision-based triangulation technique through an off-axis located CCD camera synchronized with a 640 nm wavelength pulsed illumination laser. Image processing and machine vision techniques allow in-line height measurement right after metal solidification. The linearity and the precision of the proposed setup are validated through off-and in-process trials in the laser metal deposition (LMD) process. Besides, the performance of the developed in-line inspection system has also been tested for the Arc based DED process and compared against experimental weld bead characterization data. In this last case, the system additionally allowed for the measurement of weld bead width and contact angles, which are critical in first runs of multilayer buildups.
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Lee, Jinsun, Md Shahjahan Hossain, Mohammad Taheri, Awse Jameel, Manas Lakshmipathy, and Hossein Taheri. "Characterization of Surface Topography Features for the Effect of Process Parameters and Their Correlation to Quality Monitoring in Metal Additive Manufacturing." Metrology 2, no. 1 (February 7, 2022): 73–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metrology2010005.
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Layering deposition methodology in metal additive manufacturing (AM) and the influence of different processing parameters, such as energy source level and deposition speed, which can change the melt pool condition, are known to be the important influencing factors on properties of components fabricated via AM. The effect of melt pool conditions and geometry on properties and quality of fabricated AM components has been widely studied through experimental and simulation techniques. There is a need for better understanding the influence of solidified melt pool topography on characteristics of next deposition layer that can be applied to complex surfaces, especially those with sparse topographical features, such as those that occur in AM deposition layers. Topography of deposited layers in metal additive manufacturing is a significant aspect on the bonding condition between the layers and defect generation mechanism. Characterization of the topography features in AM deposition layers offers a new perspective into investigation of defect generation mechanisms and quality evaluation of AM components. In this work, a feature-based topography study is proposed for the assessment of process parameters’ influence on AM deposition layers topography and defect generation mechanism. Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) samples deposited on steel substrate, by direct energy deposition (DED) AM technique at different process conditions, were used for the assessment. Topography datasets and analysis of shape and size differences pertaining to the relevant topographic features have been performed. Different AM process parameters were investigated on metallic AM samples manufactured via direct energy deposition (DED) and the potential defect generation mechanism was discussed. The assessment of the topography features was used for correlation study with previously published in-situ monitoring and quality evaluation results, where useful information was obtained through characterization of signature topographic formations and their relation to the in-situ acoustic process monitoring, as the indicators of the manufacturing process behavior and performance.
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Jing, Hang, Peng Ge, Zhao Zhang, Jun-Qi Chen, Zhong-Ming Liu, and Wei-Wei Liu. "Numerical Studies of the Effects of the Substrate Structure on the Residual Stress in Laser Directed Energy Additive Manufacturing of Thin-Walled Products." Metals 12, no. 3 (March 9, 2022): 462. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met12030462.
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A new method of controlling the residual stress in laser directed energy deposition additive manufacturing (DED AM) products proposed based on constraints used in manufacturing and the substrate design. The simulation results of the residual stress, which were validated with the experimental measured data, showed that weaker constraints on the substrate could greatly decrease the residual stress in the laser DED AM products. In addition, by designing local reduced thickness regions into the substrate, such as long strip holes or support legs, the residual stress in DED AM products could be further decreased. In this study, when long strip holes were designed in the substrate, the tensile residual stress was decreased by 28%. An even smaller amount of residual stress was achieved when the design structure was changed to support legs. The tensile residual stress decreased by more than 30%. The fewer support legs, the smaller the residual stress. The residual stress in DED AM products could be well-controlled by design, while the stiffness can be weakened with fewer constraints.
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Ratnala, Dilipkumar Choudary, Joel Andersson, and Shrikant Joshi. "Development of Functionally Graded Metal-Ceramic Systems by Directed Energy Deposition: A Review." Materials Science Forum 1107 (December 6, 2023): 105–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/p-4ekatd.
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Ceramics and metals are the two vastly explored classes of materials whose individual characteristics and targeted applications differ significantly. Continuous thrust for space exploration and energy generation demands materials with a wide range of properties. To tackle this demand, ceramic-metal combined structures that club heat, wear, and corrosion resistance of ceramics to the high toughness, good strength, and better machinability of metals are desirable. While various processing routes to combine ceramics and metals have been developed through the years, solutions to address problems associated with the interface, thermal property mismatch, and poor adhesion need to be explored. In this context, Functional Graded Materials (FGMs) have attracted particular attention by virtue of their ability to avoid sharp interfaces and local stress concentrations. Out of all, Additive Manufacturing (AM) routes, particularly the Directed Energy Deposition (DED) technique, is emerging as a productive technique capable of fabricating a wide range of metal-ceramic graded structures. This paper specifically discusses metal-ceramic FGMs ́ capability as a potential high-temperature material with customized multifunctional material properties. It further outlines the primary concerns with the realization of metal-ceramic graded structures and major techniques developed to mitigate problems encountered in processing them. Specific emphasis is laid on the powder-based Laser DED (L-DED) technique of FGM fabrication owing to its control over complex geometries and microstructural engineering.
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Klein Fiorentin, Felipe, Duarte Maciel, Jorge Gil, Miguel Figueiredo, Filippo Berto, and Abílio de Jesus. "Fatigue Assessment of Inconel 625 Produced by Directed Energy Deposition from Miniaturized Specimens." Metals 12, no. 1 (January 14, 2022): 156. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met12010156.
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In recent years, the industrial application of Inconel 625 has grown significantly. This material is a nickel-base alloy, which is well known for its chemical resistance and mechanical properties, especially in high-temperature environments. The fatigue performance of parts produced via Metallic Additive Manufacturing (MAM) heavily rely on their manufacturing parameters. Therefore, it is important to characterize the properties of alloys produced by a given set of parameters. The present work proposes a methodology for characterization of the mechanical properties of MAM parts, including the material production parametrization by Laser Directed Energy Deposition (DED). The methodology consists of the testing of miniaturized specimens, after their production in DED, supported by a numerical model developed and validated by experimental data for stress calculation. An extensive mechanical characterization, with emphasis on high-cycle fatigue, of Inconel 625 produced via DED is herein discussed. The results obtained using miniaturized specimens were in good agreement with standard-sized specimens, therefore validating the applied methodology even in the case of some plastic effects. Regarding the high-cycle fatigue properties, the samples produced via DED presented good fatigue performance, comparable with other competing Metallic Additive Manufactured (MAMed) and conventionally manufactured materials.
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Price, Stephen, Kiran Judd, Matthew Gleason, Kyle Tsaknopoulos, Danielle L. Cote, and Rodica Neamtu. "Advancing Wire Arc Directed Energy Deposition: Analyzing Impact of Materials and Parameters on Bead Shape." Metals 14, no. 3 (February 28, 2024): 282. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met14030282.
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This study advances foundational knowledge regarding the impact of processing parameters and material selection on bead shape in Wire Arc directed energy deposition (Wire Arc DED) additive manufacturing. Through the collection and analysis of the largest Wire Arc DED bead shape dataset to date, this work confirms the dominant roles of the feed rate and travel speed on bead shape. Specifically, an increasing feed rate correlates with an increased bead size, while increasing the travel speed decreases the bead size. Furthermore, as the first dataset to directly compare bead shape across different wire–substrate combinations, this research identified that material selection has a smaller, but still relevant, impact on bead shape compared to the feed rate and travel speed. These insights into the roles of parameters and materials are critical for improving large-scale manufacturing efficiency and quality with Wire Arc DED. By generating a robust, multi-material dataset, this work enables applications of machine learning to optimize Wire Arc DED through quicker manufacturing, reduced material waste, and improved structural integrity.
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Weiss, Klaus-Peter, Nadezda Bagrets, and Camelia Schulz. "Cryogenic thermo-physical properties of additive manufactured materials." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1302, no. 1 (May 1, 2024): 012005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1302/1/012005.
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Abstract Environmentally friendly aviation is one of the great challenges of this century. One promising approach is electric flight, in which an energy carrier (e.g. liquid Hydrogen LH2) and an electric powertrain work together. Within the scope of the joint project AdHyBau, the overarching goal is the development of new additive processes and fibre composite-metal hybrid designs for use in the cryogenic environment of such an electric propulsion system. Additive manufacturing of complex components for use in the cryogenic temperature range down to 20K (LH2) is one essential component in the production. For the design and optimization of the different components it is necessary to know the thermo-physical behaviour of such materials like high purity copper, Ti6Al4V alloy, Al-Mg-Sc alloy, and Inconell 718. The thermo-physical parameters investigated are thermal expansion, thermal & electrical conductivity and heat capacity. Further production-related influences coming from the method used (SLM, DED or Cold-Spray) and orientational dependences are discussed. Supported by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action of the Federal Republic of Germany. Grant-No.: 20M1904D.
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Sotelo, Luz D., Cody Pratt, Rakeshkumar Karunakaran, Michael P. Sealy, and Joseph A. Turner. "Microstructure quality assessment for hybrid additive manufactured Ti6Al4V components via ultrasonics." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 154, no. 4_supplement (October 1, 2023): A294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1121/10.0023573.
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Metal components with functionally organized microstructures for specific applications are emerging thanks to hybrid additive manufacturing (AM). The customization of these high value components accentuates the need for nondestructive methods to characterize their microstructural functional patterns. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods that are economical, fast, energy efficient, and easy to integrate into routine component inspections are preferred. Most importantly, NDE methods must be sensitive to changes in the microstructure such that regions that do not satisfy the design requirements (i.e. out-of-spec regions) can be detected. In this work, ultrasonic NDE methods grounded in diffuse backscatter modeling were used to detect and quantify spatial property variations resulting from a hybrid AM process. The manufacturing process coupled directed energy deposition (DED) with milling in a cyclical manner. These methods were successfully implemented to evaluate the microstructural uniformity of Ti6Al4V samples as well as to make comparisons across an ensemble of samples manufactured with identical parameters. Out-of-spec regions were mapped with respect to the sample geometry on a layer-by-layer basis. The results of this work are expected to inform future NDE strategies for both research and practitioner contexts, and limitations are discussed.
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Zhang, Xiaoyu, Dichen Li, and Weijun Zhu. "Numerical Modeling Design for the Hybrid Additive Manufacturing of Laser Directed Energy Deposition and Shot Peening Forming Fe–Cr–Ni–B–Si Alloy." Materials 13, no. 21 (October 30, 2020): 4877. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13214877.
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Hybrid additive manufacturing is of great significance to make up for the deficiency of the metal forming process; it has been one of the main trends of additive manufacturing in recent years. The hybrid process of laser directed energy deposition (laser DED) and shot peening is a new technology combining the principles of surface strengthening and additive manufacturing, whose difficulty is to reduce the interaction between the two processes. In this paper, a new model with a discrete phase and fluid–solid interaction method is established, and the location of the shot peening point in the hybrid process is optimized. The distributions of the temperature field and powder trajectory were researched and experiments were carried out with the optimized parameters to verify simulation results. It was found that the temperature field and the powder trajectory partly change, and the optimized injection point is located in the stress relaxation zone of the material. The densities and surface residual stresses of samples were improved, and the density increased by 8.83%. The surface stress changed from tensile stress to compressive stress, and the introduced compressive stress by shot peening was 2.26 times the tensile stress produced by laser directed energy deposition.
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Lu, Xufei, Miguel Cervera, Michele Chiumenti, Junjie Li, Xianglin Ji, Guohao Zhang, and Xin Lin. "Modeling of the Effect of the Building Strategy on the Thermomechanical Response of Ti-6Al-4V Rectangular Parts Manufactured by Laser Directed Energy Deposition." Metals 10, no. 12 (December 6, 2020): 1643. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met10121643.
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Part warpage and residual stress are two of the main challenges for metal additive manufacturing (AM) as they result in lower geometric precision and poor mechanical properties of the products. This work investigates the effect of the building strategy on the heat transfer process and the evolution of the thermally induced mechanical variables in laser directed energy deposition (L-DED) in order to minimize residual stresses and deformations. A 3D finite element (FE) thermo-mechanical model is firstly calibrated through in-situ experiments of rectangular workpieces fabricated by L-DED technology, and, secondly, the coupled thermo-mechanical responses for different process parameters and scanning patterns are discussed in detail. On the calibration stage, the remarkable agreement is achieved between predicted results and experimental data. Regarding the modeling stage, the numerical results indicate that minimization of the part warpage is achieved by reducing the back speed and shortening the scanning lines during the building process. Both residual stress and deformation can be further reduced if preheating the baseplate is added before L-DED.
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Ben Hammouda, Adem, Hatem Mrad, Haykel Marouani, Ahmed Frikha, and Tikou Belem. "Process Optimization and Distortion Prediction in Directed Energy Deposition." Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 8, no. 3 (May 30, 2024): 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030116.
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Directed energy deposition (DED), a form of additive manufacturing (AM), is gaining traction for its ability to produce complex metal parts with precise geometries. However, defects like distortion, residual stresses, and porosity can compromise part quality, leading to rejection. This research addresses this challenge by emphasizing the importance of monitoring process parameters (overlayer distance, powder feed rate, and laser path/power/spot size) to achieve desired mechanical properties. To improve DED quality and reliability, a numerical approach is presented and compared with an experimental work. The parametric finite element model and predictive methods are used to quantify and control material behavior, focusing on minimizing residual stresses and distortions. Numerical simulations using the Abaqus software 2022 are validated against experimental results to predict distortion and residual stresses. A coupled thermomechanical analysis model is employed to understand the impact of thermal distribution on the mechanical responses of the parts. Finally, new strategies based on laser scan trajectory and power are proposed to reduce residual stresses and distortions, ultimately enhancing the quality and reliability of DED-manufactured parts.
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Langebeck, Anika, Annika Bohlen, Hannes Freisse, and Frank Vollertsen. "Additive manufacturing with the lightweight material aluminium alloy EN AW-7075." Welding in the World 64, no. 3 (December 4, 2019): 429–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40194-019-00831-z.
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AbstractAs a widely used additive manufacturing technique, the laser metal deposition process (LMD) also known as direct energy deposition (DED) is often used to manufacture large-scale parts. Advantages of the LMD process are the high build-up rate as well as its nearly limitless build-up volume. To manufacture large-scale parts in lightweight design with high strength aluminium alloy EN AW-7075, the LMD process has a disadvantage that must be considered. During the process, the aluminium alloy is melted and has therefore a high solubility for hydrogen. As soon as the melt pool solidifies again, the hydrogen cannot escape the melt and hydrogen pores are formed which weakens the mechanical properties of the manufactured part. To counter this disadvantage, the hydrogen must be successfully kept away from the process zone. Therefore, the covering of the process zone with shielding gas can be improved by an additional shielding gas shroud. Furthermore, the process parameters energy input per unit length as well as the horizontal overlapping between two single tracks can be varied to minimize the pore volume. Best results can be achieved in single tracks with an elevated energy input per unit length from 3000 to 6000 J/cm. To manufacture layers, a minimal horizontal overlapping will lead to lowest pore volume, although this results in a very wavy surface, as a compromise of low pore volume and a nearly even surface a horizontal overlapping of 30 to 37% leads to a pore volume of 0.95% ± 0.50%.
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Koike, Ryo, Iori Unotoro, Yasuhiro Kakinuma, and Yohei Oda. "Graded Inconel 625 – SUS316L Joint Fabricated Using Directed Energy Deposition." International Journal of Automation Technology 13, no. 3 (May 5, 2019): 338–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/ijat.2019.p0338.
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The joining of dissimilar materials is an important process to produce a large production. In other words, the reliability of such a production is determined by the joining technique because the joint interface often becomes the weakest point against stress. In case of metals, welding and riveting are popular approaches for joining dissimilar materials. However, these techniques generally involve manual and complex operations; therefore, the production quality cannot be maintained, because the accuracy and efficiency of these operations strongly depend on the worker’s skill. From this viewpoint, additive manufacturing (AM) can be useful to produce parts using a combination of dissimilar metals. Metal AM has attracted considerable attention from aerospace and automobile industries recently because of its flexibility and applicability in the production of various complex-shaped parts. Directed energy deposition (DED), one such metal AM method, forms a deposit of powder material and simultaneously irradiates a laser beam on the baseplate. DED can be applied to cladding and repairs as it can be conducted on the surface of the part. In particular, a combined part of dissimilar metals can be easily and directly produced from scratch by changing the powder material of the process. A graded material can also be produced by blending different powders and changing their ratios appropriately. In order to realize such applications of DED, the mechanical properties of the produced part must be evaluated in detail. In this study, a part combining a nickel-based superalloy (Inconel 625) and a stainless steel alloy (SUS316L) is produced using DED; the produced part is evaluated through a tensile strength test, Vickers hardness measurement, metal structure observation, and element distribution analysis. In addition, a graded material is also produced to evaluate the basic characteristics of the joint produced using DED. The experimental results show that the produced joint is sufficiently stiff against tensile stress and its hardness is increased because of the solid solution of niobium in the stainless steel area. The results of the elemental distribution analysis and the Vickers hardness test indicate that a graded joint of Inconel 625 and SUS316L can certainly be produced using DED.
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Kim, Kang-Hyung, Chan-Hyun Jung, Dae-Yong Jeong, and Soong-Keun Hyun. "Causes and Measures of Fume in Directed Energy Deposition: A Review." Korean Journal of Metals and Materials 58, no. 6 (June 5, 2020): 383–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3365/kjmm.2020.58.6.383.
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Pores and cracks are known as the main defects in metal additive manufacturing (MAM), including directed energy deposition(DED). A gaseous fume is often produced by laser flash (instantaneous high temperature) during laser processing, which may cause various defects such as porosity, lack of fusion, inhomogeneity, low flowability and composition change, either. However the cause and harmful effects of fume generation in DED are known little. In laser processing, especially laser welding, many studies have been conducted on the prevention of fume because it generates defects that hinder uniform reactions between the laser beam and the materials. Generally, the fume occurs with easily vaporizing low melting point components or sensitive oxidizing elements. Unsuitable conditions are also known to have an effect, including laser power, travel speed, powder feed rate and shielding gas supply. Practically, there are many more fume generating factors in the DED process, and the lack of understanding requires a lot of trial and error. In this article the laser-related and weld metallurgy literatures were reviewed, focusing on the prevention of fume in powder DED. The causes of the fume, were explained to result from the stages of cavitation bubbles generated by the laser induced plasma and the nanoparticles released. Additionally, the effects of alloying components and environmental conditions for fume generation in the DED process were investigated, and suggestions are proposed to prevent fume.
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Shin, Hyewon, Junsoo Ahn, Seung Woo Beak, and Sang Won Lee. "Development of 1D-convolutional Neural Network-based Height Profile Prediction Model in Directed Energy Deposition Process Using Melt-pool Image Data." International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing-Smart Technology 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2024): 57–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.57062/ijpem-st.2023.0129.
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Directed energy deposition (DED) process is a representative metal additive manufacturing technology that uses a flexible deposition head mainly used for repairs in space and marine industries. The DED process saves time and money as it repairs only damaged parts and components. Therefore, a geometric control is important to fill the volume of the target damaged area economically and accurately. However, efficiency depends on process parameters such as laser power, scanning speed. This study proposes a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) model to predict the height profile of the DED parts utilizing melt-pool image data. First, DED experiments were performed for a total of nine cases considering laser power and scanning speed as parameters. The collected melt-pool image data was pre-processed and only those related to the regions of interest were extracted. Initially, a total of 15 features were extracted from size, shape, location, and brightness from the melt-pool images. Then, 10 critical ones, selected through a permutation feature importance evaluation method, were input to the 1D-CNN algorithm to predict height profiles of the deposited layers. In testing phase, a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 9.55% was achieved, and thus, applicability of the proposed model was verified.
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Becker, Julia, Sven Schmigalla, Sabine Schultze, Silja-Katharina Rittinghaus, Andreas Weisheit, Janett Schmelzer, and Manja Krüger. "High Temperature Oxidation Performance of an Additively Manufactured Mo–9Si–8B Alloy." Oxidation of Metals 97, no. 1-2 (October 12, 2021): 167–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11085-021-10082-3.
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AbstractAs reported in previous studies, the processing of Mo–Si–B alloys using additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, like directed energy deposition (DED) shows a high technical feasibility. The present work investigates the cyclic oxidation performance of an AM DED Mo–9Si–8B alloy. Depending on the temperature (800 °C, 1100 °C, 1300 °C), the oxidation mechanisms vary, which is due to different reactions at the surface of the alloys accompanied with mass changes of samples. These mass changes can be explained on the basis of microstructural investigations. However, compared to a powder metallurgically processed Mo–9Si–8B alloy, the AM-DED alloy shows competitive oxidation performance at potential application temperatures of 1100 °C and 1300 °C, while a catastrophic materials degradation occurs at 800 °C as also observed in other Mo-rich Mo–Si–B alloys.