Academic literature on the topic 'Data protection – European Union countries'
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Journal articles on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
1
Economou, Athina, and Iacovos N. Psarianos. "Revisiting Okun’s Law in European Union countries." Journal of Economic Studies 43, no. 2 (May 9, 2016): 275–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-05-2013-0063.
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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine Okun’s Law in European countries by distinguishing between the transitory and the permanent effects of output changes upon unemployment and by examining the effect of labor market protection policies upon Okun’s coefficients. Design/methodology/approach – Quarterly data for 13 European Union countries, from the second quarter of 1993 until the first quarter of 2014, are used. Panel data techniques and Mundlak decomposition models are estimated. Findings – Okun’s Law is robust to alternative specifications. The effect of output changes to unemployment rates is weaker for countries with increased labor market protection expenditures and it is more persistent for countries with low labor market protection. Originality/value – The paper provides evidence that the permanent effect of output changes upon unemployment rates is quantitatively larger than the transitory impact. In addition, it provides evidence that increased labor market protection mitigates the adverse effects of a decrease in output growth rate upon unemployment.
2
Mutiara, Upik, and Romi Maulana. "PERLINDUNGAN DATA PRIBADI SEBAGAI BAGIAN DARI HAK ASASI MANUSIA ATAS PERLINDUNGAN DIRI PRIBADI." Indonesian Journal of Law and Policy Studies 1, no. 1 (May 31, 2020): 42. http://dx.doi.org/10.31000/ijlp.v1i1.2648.
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Protection of personal data as closely related to the protection of personal and private rights. Indonesia does not yet have legislation that specifically regulates the protection of personal data. then the problem that the author raises is: the comparison of the right to personal protection as part of human rights in Indonesia with the constitution in other countries and the concept of comparing the protection of personal data as a manifestation of the human rights of personal protection in Indonesia and other countries. related to the protection of personal rights in Indonesia is a state constitutional obligation regulated in the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia Article 28G Paragraph (1). The constitutions of other countries such as in several Asian, African, and European countries as mentioned above have explicitly regulated and mentioned the protection of guarantees and personal rights or privacy rights of their citizens. while in Indonesia such as Saudi Arabia and Madagascar it does not explicitly mention anything about the right of privacy in their constitution. it can be concluded that the concept of personal data protection can be found in international and regional instruments such as the European Union Data Protection Directive, the European Union Data Protection Convention, and the OECD Guidelines.
3
Kuner, Christopher. "The European Union and the Search for an International Data Protection Framework." Groningen Journal of International Law 2, no. 2 (December 5, 2014): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/5a86a82b67dab.
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The European Union (EU) has supported the growing calls for the creation of an international legal framework to safeguard data protection rights. At the same time, it has worked to spread its data protection law to other regions, and recent judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) have reaffirmed the autonomous nature of EU law and the primacy of EU fundamental rights law. The tension between initiatives to create a global data protection framework and the assertion of EU data protection law raises questions about how the EU can best promote data protection on a global level, and about the EU’s responsibilities to third countries that have adopted its system of data protection.
4
Huang, Xiaoqing. "Ensuring Taxpayer Rights in the Era of Automatic Exchange of Information: EU Data Protection Rules and Cases." Intertax 46, Issue 3 (March 1, 2018): 225–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/taxi2018024.
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With the automatic exchange of information on tax matters (AEOI) developing into the new international standard, large quantities of information have been or will be subject to cross-border transfer. As a result, data play a significant role in the mechanism. Although the European Union is equipped with various legal sources in data protection, guarantees provided to taxpayers in AEOI legal instruments need to be further developed in order to be consistent with those provided by data protection rules in the European Union. This article analyses taxpayers’ right to data protection by studying the interrelationships between rules in EU Directives regarding administrative administration and those regarding data protection. Moreover, relevant Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) case law will be discussed in light of the afore-mentioned rules, highlighting the insufficiencies of prevailing AEOI legislation in ensuring proportionality and taxpayer protection in third countries. Finally, the newly adopted General Data Protection Regulation will be assessed.
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ORTEGA GIMÉNEZ, ALFONSO. "THE IMPACT OF THE GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION ON THE LEGAL REGIME OF INTERNATIONAL TRANSFERS OF PERSONAL DATA." Spanish Journal of Legislative Studies, no. 3 (December 1, 2019): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.21134/sjls.vi3.1432.
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International data transfers involve a flow of personal data from Spanish territory to recipients established in countries outside the European Economic Area. It is the European Commission that decides, with effects for the whole Union, that a third country, a territory or a specific sector of a third country, or an international organisation offers an adequate level of data protection, thus providing legal certainty and uniformity throughout the Union with regard to the third country or international organisation.
6
Barrell, Alan, Pawel Dobrzanski, Sebastian Bobowski, Krzysztof Siuda, and Szymon Chmielowiec. "Efficiency of Environmental Protection Expenditures in EU Countries." Energies 14, no. 24 (December 14, 2021): 8443. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14248443.
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Environmental protection policy is a widely discussed issue in scientific works. However, special attention should be also paid to the effectiveness of expenditures on environmental protection, and this is the main goal of this paper. The countries of the European Union were selected for this analysis due to the fact that, in recent years, this region has become an informal world leader with respect to the implementation of policy measures in the field of environmental protection. For that reason, the data envelopment analysis methodology was used, which allows the calculation of input-output efficiency for the years 2005–2015. The analysis shows that, among the 30 analyzed countries, the most effective in environmental protection actions is Finland. The hypothesis that higher environmental protection expenditures does not result in better environmental results has been confirmed. Our analysis confirmed the problem of the deteriorating efficiency of environmental expenditures across the selected European Union Member States, caused by increases in spending. This research may contribute to the discussion on environmental protection policy design and its assessment, as well as environmental policy results measurement.
7
Kuzmin, Sergey B. "Risk of Environmental Management in Countries of European Union." Issues of Risk Analysis 18, no. 3 (July 2, 2021): 46–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.32686/1812-5220-2021-18-3-46-63.
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An assessment of the risk of environmental management for the countries of the European Union was carried out on the basis of two main criteria — natural hazard and protection from natural disasters. Natural hazard consists of natural processes of various origins — lithospheric, hydrospheric, atmospheric and biospheric, which are considered dangerous within the entire state according to official data, as well as protection from natural disasters and disasters at the state level. The last criterion is calculated on the basis of a number of socio-economic and environmental indicators for the EU countries: gross domestic product, the share of the working-age population and the population living below the poverty line, telecommunications and transport coefficients, life expectancy and literacy of the population, child mortality, and the intensity of environmental problems. The relationship between the level of economic development and the level of risk of environmental management in individual EU countries has not been established. So, highly developed countries fall into all risk categories: Italy. Austria and Germany — high risk, France, Netherlands and Belgium — medium risk, Luxembourg, Sweden, Denmark — low risk. Conversely, underdeveloped countries are also present in all categories: Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania — high risk, Latvia. Lithuania — medium risk, Estonia — low risk. Therefore, when assessing the risk of environmental management, its subsequent analysis and management of natural and natural-man-made emergencies, one should not rely only on indicators of the level of economic development in countries, for example, GDP, as well as on environmental standards established, albeit at the international level, such as MPC, MPI of harmful substances in soils, plants, water bodies, atmospheric air, etc. Taking into account direct indicators and damage from past events in assessing the risk of natural resource use also suffers from a number of drawbacks. A differentiated approach is required.
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Batara Randa, Indira Despuanitara, and Imam Haryanto. "PERLINDUNGAN HUKUM ATAS DATA WAJIB PAJAK DALAM SISTEM AUTOMATIC EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION (AEoI) STUDI PERBANDINGAN INDONESIA UNI EROPA." Legal Standing : Jurnal Ilmu Hukum 5, no. 1 (January 29, 2021): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.24269/ls.v5i1.3563.
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The system of exchanging information on taxpayer data between countries called as AEoI is follow up action on tax amesty which provides many benefits for the country but has risks for taxpayers data. Law 9/2017 concerning the AEoI merely governs technical issues and does not regulate regarding taxpayer data protection even if taxpayer data protection is guaranteed in article 28G paragraph (1) of the 1945 Constitution. Personal data in Indonesia is currently not regulated in a specific law. The need for personal data protection arrangements is an urgent matter because personal data stores human dignity, especially in the AEoI system that has data permissions. This paper compares the personal data protection arrangements in the European Union and the regulatory principles applied in Indonesia because it is important for Indonesia to meet European Union standards regarding personal data protection.
9
Lowe, David. "The European Union’s Passenger Name Record Data Directive 2016/681: Is it Fit for Purpose?" International Criminal Law Review 17, no. 1 (February 19, 2017): 78–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718123-01701004.
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In 2016 the European Union (eu) introduced a Passenger Name Record Data (pnr) Directive. There has been controversy in the eu over the acquisition and sharing of pnr data, related mainly to the lack of safeguards and protection of personal data protection. This article examines these issues related to earlier eu pnr agreements with third countries and why previous eu attempts to legislate in this area failed. By drawing a comparison with the 2011 pnr Directive proposal, the article argues that by meeting the strict eu law on data protection as well as being necessary to assist in preventing and detecting acts of terrorism and serious crime it is submitted the 2016 Directive is fit for purpose and able to withstand scrutiny by the Court of Justice of the European Union.
10
Bazina, Olga O. "Human rights and biometric data. Social credit system." Przegląd Europejski, no. 4-2020 (December 14, 2020): 36–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.31338/1641-2478pe.4.20.3.
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Biometrics, as a field of science, analyzes the physical and behavioral characteristics of people in order to identify their personality. A huge amount of technology in the field of biometric data collection is developed by IT giants like Google, Facebook, or Alibaba. The European Union (EU) took an important step towards biometric data confidentiality by developing a unified law on the protection of personal data (General Data Protection Regulation, GDPR). The main goal of this action is to return control over personal data to European citizens and at the same time simplify the regulatory legal basis for companies. While European countries and organisations are introducing the GDPR into force, China since 2016 has launched a social credit system as a pilot project. The Social Credit Score (SCS) is based on collecting the maximum amount of data about citizens and assessing the reliability of residents based on their financial, social and online behavior. Only critical opinions can be read about the social credit system in European literature, although the opinions of persons being under this system – Chinese citizens – are quite positive. In this context, we should not forget about the big difference in the mentality of Asians and Europeans. The aim of this article is to compare EU law and the legislation of the People's Republic of China regarding the use and storage of biometric data. On the basis of statistical data and materials analysed, key conclusions will be formulated, that will allow to indicate differences in the positions of state institutions and the attitude of citizens to the issue of personal data protection in China and the European Union.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
1
Lynskey, Orla. "Identifying the objectives of EU data protection regulation and justifying its costs." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2013. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.608116.
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D'AMICO, Alessia. "Optimising regulatory responses to consumer disempowerment over personal data in the digital world." Doctoral thesis, European University Institute, 2021. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/71844.
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Defence date: 06 July 2021Examining Board: Professor Giorgio Monti (Tilburg University); Professor Michal Gal (University of Haifa); Professor Orla Lynskey (London School of Economics); Professor Peter Drahos (European University Institute)
This thesis addresses the problem of individuals’ lack of control over personal data in the digital world. It sheds light on market and regulatory failures that lie behind the status quo and proposes a framework to improve regulatory responses. The two regulatory regimes that are at the core of this thesis are EU data protection regulation, which protects individuals’ fundamental rights over data, and EU competition law, which safeguards the sound functioning of the market and consumers’ economic interests. Despite the existence of these two regulatory regimes, individuals do not have sufficient control over personal data collected by digital firms, whose control over large datasets is a factor contributing to market monopolisation. The thesis argues that one reason for the shortcomings of today’s regulatory framework is that the market failure is composed of a combination of factors, which are currently addressed by the different regimes relatively independently. This dichotomy hinders the development of an effective strategy to tackle the market failure in its entirety. The approach taken in this thesis is that by integrating the two regimes, it might be possible to close the gaps deriving from a narrow perception of their regulatory spaces. Hence, the thesis formulates a holistic approach, encompassing data protection regulation and competition law, designed to increase the effectiveness of the regulatory framework as a whole. Different dimensions of the regimes’ interrelation are analysed, to uncover new ways to harness their complementarity and minimise their inconsistencies and overlaps. The thesis looks at how the regimes can incorporate elements from each other to inform their policies and application of their rules, as well as developing a complementary enforcement strategy. The holistic framework ultimately allows both regimes to better tailor their regulatory responses to the functioning of the digital market and take account of the diverse elements that constitute the market failure they seek to correct.
3
Tassanakunlapan, Tossapon. "Protection of personal data in cyberspace: the EU-US E-market regime." Doctoral thesis, Universitat de Barcelona, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/463075.
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The object of study of this research is the right to Personal Data Protection within the framework of the EU-US E-Market legal regime. Its characteristics, as well as the features of the main actors participating into that E-Market, make possible to consider it as a proper basis for the development of an International/Universal legal system treaty-based.
The Actors and Relations included by the research are the duty bearers of Personal Data Protection law, both State and Private Entity Activities. Nonetheless, the Informal Power Relation between State and Private organization is also taken into account since there are some informal agreements or coordination between State Agencies and IT Corporations on data sharing and processing. The time frame of the research is 2001-2016 (after the terrorist’s attack in USA on 9/11 until the most recent reform of the EU-US E-Market regime in 2016).
The research’s point of departure is International Human Rights Law, as far as it recognizes a general framework to support and regulate personal data protection on cyberspace realm. Nonetheless, the distinctive characters of cyberspace demand a well designed, at universal level, specific regulation and mechanisms to guarantee such fundamental rights relating personal data protection internationally. Accordingly, Research Hypothesis is represented in double issues: first, effective personal data protection on cyberspace needs the establishment of an International/Universal legal system treaty-based; second, EU Regime on personal data protection in cyberspace and current EU-US agreements on this issue can be used as a model for initiating such International/Universal Treaty.
The structure of the thesis is divided into six chapters, being Chapter 1 the research design and Chapter 6 the conclusions and recommendations coming from the research. So, Chapter 2 analyzes Universal Legal Instruments, EU Laws and EU-US Agreements in force before 5th June 2013 (critical turning point date because of the revelations of Mass Electronic Surveillance presented then on World Wide Web).
Within this legal framework, Chapter 3 studies hard cases about personal data protection in US domestic courts and in the Court of Justice of European Union, in order to search for precise interpretation of the right to personal data protection in cyberspace that, later, had to be taken into account by US and EU in their further legal reforms. Chapter 4 analyses and reviews the legal instruments enacted through the reform of the EU personal data protection regime and the new EU-US Bilateral Agreements currently in force. Finally, Chapter 5 evaluates the possibility to initiate an International Treaty for regulating data using across borders. Considering the initiatives of either international governmental organizations or non-governmental movements in the field, the chapter shows how a set of principles can be extracted from the reforms in the EU and EU-US regime and how they can be used to create an International Regime for protection of personal data in cyberspace.L'objecte d'estudi d'aquesta recerca és el dret a la protecció de les dades personals en el marc del règim jurídic aplicable al mercat electrònic UE-Estats Units. Les seves característiques, així com les dels principals actors que intervenen en aquest mercat, permeten considerar aquest règim jurídic com una base adequada per al possible desenvolupament d'un tractat internacional de vocació universal sobre protecció de dades personals en el ciberespai. Els actors i les relacions incloses en la recerca són els responsables de les obligacions jurídiques en matèria de protecció de dades personals, tant entitats públiques com a privades. Malgrat això, també es tenen en compte les ‘relacions informals de poder’ entre Estat i organitzacions privades, donada l'existència d'acords informals o coordinació entre tots dos per a l'intercanvi i processament de dades. El marc temporal de la recerca és 2001-2016 (després dels atemptats del 9/11 a Estats Units i fins a la més recent reforma del règim UE-EUA culminada en 2016). El punt de partida d’aquesta recerca és el Dret Internacional dels Drets Humans, que conté el marc general per al suport i regulació de la protecció de dades personals en el ciberespai. Ara bé, els caràcters distintius del ciberespai exigeixen una regulació i mecanismes específics ben dissenyats, a nivell universal, per garantir internacionalment els esmentats drets fonamentals relatius a la protecció de dades personals. Conseqüentment, la hipòtesi de recerca es formula de la següent manera: en primer lloc, la protecció eficaç de les dades personals en el ciberespai necessita l'establiment d'un sistema jurídic internacional d'abast universal basat en tractats; en segon lloc, el règim de la UE sobre protecció de dades personals en el ciberespai i els actuals acords UE- Estats Units sobre aquesta qüestió poden utilitzar-se com a model per a l'elaboració d'aquest Tractat Internacional. L'estructura de la tesi es divideix en sis capítols, essent el Capítol 1 el disseny de la recerca i el Capítol 6 les conclusions i recomanacions que es desprenen de la recerca. Així, el Capítol 2 analitza els Instruments Jurídics Universals, les normes de la UE i els acords UE-EUA vigents abans 5 de juny de 2013 (data crítica a causa de les revelacions sobre Vigilància Electrònica en massa, presentades mundialment aquest dia). Dins d'aquest marc jurídic, el Capítol 3 realitza una anàlisi jurisprudencial i analitza una selecció de casos sobre protecció de dades personals suscitades davant els tribunals interns d'Estats Units i davant el Tribunal de Justícia de la Unió Europea, amb l'objectiu d'identificar la interpretació precisa del dret a la protecció de dades personals en el ciberespai que, posteriorment, ha hagut de tenir en compte la reforma normativa a Estats Units i en la UE sobre aquesta matèria. El Capítol 4 analitza i revisa els instruments jurídics promulgats en virtut de la reforma del règim de protecció de dades personals de la UE i els nous acords bilaterals entre la UE i els Estats Units actualment en vigor. Finalment, el Capítol 5 avalua la possibilitat d'elaborar un Tractat Internacional d'abast universal que garanteixi el dret a la protecció de dades personals que ‘circulen’ pel ciberespai. Tenint en compte les iniciatives formulades per organitzacions governamentals internacionals i pels moviments no governamentals especialitzats, el capítol mostra com es poden extreure un conjunt de principis de les reformes de la UE i del règim aplicable a l'espai UE-EUA i com aquests principis poden utilitzar-se per a la creació d'un règim internacional de protecció de dades personals en el ciberespai.
El objeto de estudio de esta investigación es el derecho a la protección de los datos personales en el marco del régimen jurídico aplicable al mercado electrónico UE- Estados Unidos. Sus características, así como las de los principales actores que intervienen en este mercado, permiten considerar este régimen jurídico como una base adecuada para el posible desarrollo de un tratado internacional de vocación universal sobre protección de datos personales en el ciberespacio. Los actores y las relaciones incluidas en la investigación son los responsables de las obligaciones jurídicas en materia de protección de datos personales, tanto entidades públicas como privadas. No obstante, también se tienen en cuenta las ‘relaciones informales de poder’ entre Estado y organizaciones privadas, dada la existencia de acuerdos informales o coordinación entre ambos para el intercambio y procesamiento de datos. El marco temporal de la investigación es 2001-2016 (después de los atentados del 9/11 en Estados Unidos y hasta la más reciente reforma del régimen UE-EEUU culminada en 2016). El punto de partida de la investigación es el Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, que contiene el marco general para el apoyo y regulación de la protección de datos personales en el ciberespacio. Sin embargo, los caracteres distintivos del ciberespacio exigen una regulación y mecanismos específicos bien diseñados, a nivel universal, para garantizar internacionalmente tales derechos fundamentales relativos a la protección de datos personales. Consecuentemente, la hipótesis de investigación se formula del siguiente modo: en primer lugar, la protección eficaz de los datos personales en el ciberespacio necesita el establecimiento de un sistema jurídico internacional de alcance universal basado en tratados; en segundo lugar, el régimen de la UE sobre protección de datos personales en el ciberespacio y los actuales acuerdos UE-Estados Unidos sobre esta cuestión pueden utilizarse como modelo para la elaboración de dicho Tratado Internacional. La estructura de la tesis se divide en seis capítulos, siendo el Capítulo 1 el \diseño de la investigación y el Capítulo 6 las conclusiones y recomendaciones que se desprenden de la investigación. Así, el Capítulo 2 analiza los Instrumentos Jurídicos Universales, las normas de la UE y los acuerdos UE-EEUU vigentes antes del 5 de junio de 2013 (fecha crítica debido a las revelaciones sobre Vigilancia Electrónica en Masa presentadas mundialmente ese día). Dentro de ese marco jurídico, el Capítulo 3 realiza un análisis jurisprudencial y analiza una selección de casos sobre protección de datos personales suscitados ante los tribunales internos de Estados Unidos y ante el Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea, con el objetivo de identificar la interpretación precisa del derecho a la protección de datos personales en el ciberespacio que, posteriormente, ha debido tener en cuenta la reforma normativa en Estados Unidos y en la UE sobre esta materia. El Capítulo 4 analiza y revisa los instrumentos jurídicos promulgados en virtud de la reforma del régimen de protección de datos personales de la UE y los nuevos acuerdos bilaterales entre la UE y los Estados Unidos actualmente en vigor. Por último, el Capítulo 5 evalúa la posibilidad de elaborar un Tratado Internacional de alcance universal que garantice el derecho a la protección de datos personales que ‘circulan’ en el ciberespacio. Teniendo en cuenta las iniciativas formuladas por organizaciones gubernamentales internacionales y por los movimientos no gubernamentales especializados, el capítulo muestra cómo se pueden extraer un conjunto de principios de las reformas de la UE y del régimen aplicable en el espacio UE-EEUU y cómo esos principios pueden utilizarse para la creación de un régimen internacional de protección de datos personales en el ciberespacio.
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Klien, Michael, Markus Leibrecht, and Özlem Onaran. "Globalization, welfare regimes and social protection expenditures in Western and Eastern European countries." SFB International Tax Coordination, WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, 2010. http://epub.wu.ac.at/1608/1/document.pdf.
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This paper analyzes the effects of globalization on social protection expenditures in European countries. The analysis adds to the literature due to its special focus on (a) the Eastern European countries and (b) on differences in globalization effects between welfare regimes. We find evidence in favor of the compensation hypothesis in Western Europe which is driven by the conservative welfare regime, outweighing the efficiency effect of globalization in the social-democratic welfare regime. In Eastern European countries the efficiency effect is predominant. No globalization effect is found for the liberal and the southern welfare regimes. Our results indicate some convergence within Western Europe and a divergence between the East and the West of Europe. We stress the importance of disaggregating by welfare regimes when exploring the effects of globalization on public social protection expenditures. (author's abstract)Series: Discussion Papers SFB International Tax Coordination
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Toguz, Ozlem. "Data Protection And Intellectual Property In The Eu And Turkey." Master's thesis, METU, 2010. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12611940/index.pdf.
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This research had two main purposes. Firstly it aimed at showing the regulatory framework of both data protection and intellectual property in the European Union and thus making the privacy complications of Digital Rights Managements systems clear in the developed world. This research also aimed at disclosing the complications of employment of DRMs systems in developing countries. To that end Turkey&rsquos copyright framework has been reviewed. It was found out that DRMs systems employed in Turkey went beyond the scope of Turkish Copyright Legislation and restricted also legitimate acts which fall within the scope of fair use. DRMs also have hindered development since it restricted availability of educational and cultural works. The review of Turkey&rsquo
s Data Protection regime disclosed that the most important reason behind the non adoption of the draft law was related to the legislators&rsquo
confusion of first pillar and third pillar data protection. It was concluded that Turkey lacked a data protection policy and the lack of such a policy led to the surveillance of the people to such a degree that almost no private space is left for them. The main finding of the research was that Turkey has been one of the best markets for the employment of DRMs with its current copyright regime and lack of data protection rules. The research concluded with proposals of action concerning data protection and DRMs.
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Bribosia, Emmanuelle. "La protection des droits fondamentaux dans l'ordre juridique communautaire: le poids respectif des logiques fonctionnelle et autonome dans le cadre normatif et jurisprudentiel." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/211769.
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Escudero-Pascual, Alberto. "Privacy in the next generation Internet. Data proection in the context of European Union policy." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Microelectronics and Information Technology, IMIT, 2002. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3435.
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With the growth in social, political and economic importanceof the Internet, it has been recognized that the underlyingtechnology of the next generation Internet must not only meetthe many technical challenges but must also meet the socialexpectations of such a pervasive technology. As evidence ofthe strategic importance of the development of the Internet,the European Union has adopted a communication to the Counciland the European Parliament focusing on the next generationInternet and the priorities for action in migrating to the newInternet protocol IPv6 andalso a new Directive (2002/58/EC) on'processing of personal data and protection of privacy in theelectronic communication sector'. The Data Protection Directiveis part of a package of proposals for initiatives which willform the future regulatory framework for electroniccommunications networks and services. The new Directive aims toadapt and update the existing Data ProtectionTelecommunications Directive (97/66/EC) to take account oftechnological developments. However, it is not well undersoodhow this policy and the underlying Internet technology can bebrought into alignment.
This dissertation builds upon the results of my earlierlicentiate thesis by identifying three specific, timely, andimportant privacy areas in the next generation Internet: uniqueidentifiers and observability, privacy enhanced location basedservices, and legal aspects of data traffic.
Each of the three areas identified are explored in the eightpublished papers that form this dissertation. The paperspresent recommendations to technical standarization bodies andregulators concerning the next generation Internet so that thistechnology and its deployment can meet the specific legalobligations of the new European Union data protectiondirective.
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Derin, Pinar. "Endogenous Growth Testing In The European Union And Developing Countries: Taxation, Public Expenditure And Growth." Master's thesis, METU, 2003. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/1112127/index.pdf.
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In endogenous growth models, in contrast to the neoclassical growth models,
government expenditure and taxation have an effect on the long run growth rate. In
this thesis I examine whether the empirical evidence support the predictions of
endogenous growth models or the neoclassical growth models in relation to fiscal
policy. For this purpose I use panel data for fifteen European Union (EU) member and
thirty-three developing countries between the years 1970 and 1999. I specifically test
the following two propositions. The first proposition states that distortionary taxation
decreases growth while non-distortionary taxation does not. The second, states that
productive government expenditure increases growth while non-productive
expenditure does not. The empirical results are quite different between European Union countries and developing countries. The results do not support endogenous
growth especially for developing countries.
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RAVALLI, Rebecca. "Externalities of production in GVCs : an EU consumer perspective." Doctoral thesis, European University Institute, 2021. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/73849.
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Defence date: 21 December 2021Examining Board: Professor Hans – W. Micklitz, European University Institute (Supervisor), Professor Martijn W. Hesselink, European University Institute, Professor Anna Beckers, Maastricht University, Professor Fernanda Nicola, Washington College of Law.
This doctoral dissertation examines the EU consumer perspective on externalities of production in global value chains (GVCs). Whether as part of the discourse on development or global economic governance, externalities of production are a long-standing issue that has been problematised not only by lawyers but also by economists, anthropologists, sociologists and social scientists at large. In the legal field, the analysis has struggled to contextualise consumer law and policy together with the peculiarities of GVCs as a distinct model of business organisation characterised by contractualisation of processes of production. The thesis argues that contractualisation of production establishes a relationship between consumers and processes of production, also in relation to externalities. Such a relation is not mirrored either by the voluntary self-regulation through which enterprises regulate externalities nor by EU consumer law. The present dissertation addresses this matter and argues that EU consumer law limits the involvement of consumers in the process of self-regulation that leading enterprises of GVCs undertake to prevent and/or remedy externalities of production and that results into a unilateral exercise of epistemic authority. The exercise of epistemic authority is favoured by a ‘communication paradigm’ framing EU consumer law, according to which consumer claims’ on sustainability and externalities of production depend on the content of the communication consumers receive prior or via the contract. This paradigm prevents consumers involvement, in all phases of the contractual relationship, in the definition of a legal episteme of sustainability in line with the core constitutional principles and values as enshrined in the EU Treaties and constitutional charters of member states. The final part of the thesis suggests that the limits deriving by the communication paradigm can be overcome by the CJEU that, by relying on the principle of effectiveness can integrate the communication paradigm with a consumer perspective on externalities of production in the post-contractual phase.
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Petroiu, Marius. "Forms of trade secret protection : a comparative analysis of the United States, Canada, the European Union and Romania." Thesis, McGill University, 2005. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=99150.
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This thesis is as an attempt to overview the forms of trade secret protection presently in place in the United States, Canada, the European Union and Romania. These jurisdictions were selected because they present a diversity of legal background and a variety of forms of trade secret protection.The introductory chapter deals with the historical and economic backgrounds of the trade secret protection. An overview of trade secret protection at international scale is also provided. The thesis compares the forms of trade secret protection available in each jurisdiction. Based on the survey, the thesis comes to an answer of the question of "What is the most appropriate form of trade secrets protection?".
The final chapter provides a number of conclusions and recommendations.
Books on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
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Kuner, Christopher. European data protection law: Corporate compliance and regulation. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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Sjaak, Nouwt, Poullet Yves, Hert Paul, Terwangne Cécile, and SpringerLink (Online service), eds. Reinventing Data Protection? Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2009.
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Comans, Clemens David. Ein "modernes" europäisches Datenschutzrecht: Bestandsaufnahme und Analyse praktischer Probleme des europäischen Datenschutzes unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Richtlinie zur Vorratsdatenspeicherung. Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang, 2012.
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Carey, Peter. Data protection: A practical guide to UK and EU law. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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M, Carey Peter LL, ed. Data protection: A practical guide to UK and EU law. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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M, Carey Peter LL, ed. Data protection: A practical guide to UK and EU law. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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The emergence of personal data protection as a fundamental right of the EU. Cham: Springer, 2014.
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Kelleher, Denis. IT law in the European Union. London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1999.
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Mario Viola de Azevedo Cunha. Market Integration Through Data Protection: An Analysis of the Insurance and Financial Industries in the EU. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2013.
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Commission, European, ed. Data protection in the European Union. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2000.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
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Naef, Tobias. "The Restrictive Effect of the Legal Mechanisms for Data Transfers in the European Union." In European Yearbook of International Economic Law, 115–230. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19893-9_3.
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AbstractThe right to data protection in Article 8 CFR has an extraterritorial dimension, which requires continuous protection for personal data that is essentially equivalent to the protection guaranteed within the EU. This right to continuous protection of personal data is an unwritten constituent part of the right to data protection in Article 8 CFR. Primary Union law in Article 16(2) TFEU instructs the European Parliament and the Council to establish rules relating to the protection of individuals regarding the processing of their personal data. This mandate also extends to the extraterritorial dimension of the right to data protection. Accordingly, Chapter V GDPR sets out the system for the transfer of personal data from the EU to third countries. The first section of this chapter defines the legal concept of “data transfers” and introduces the three legal mechanisms for the transfer of personal data in Chapter V GDPR (Sect. 3.1). The following sections address the three legal mechanism and their role in guaranteeing the right to continuous protection for personal data. Each section entails a fundamental rights analysis for the transfer of personal data on the basis of a legal mechanism in Chapter V GDPR. The second section is dedicated to data transfers based on adequacy decisions for third countries following Article 45 GDPR (Sect. 3.2). The third section is dedicated to data transfers based on the instruments providing appropriate safeguards in Article 46 GDPR such as standard data protection clauses and binding corporate rules (BCRs) (Sect. 3.3). Finally, the fourth section is dedicated to data transfers subject to contract-based and consent-based derogations in Article 49 GDPR (Sect. 3.4).
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Celeste, Edoardo, and Federico Fabbrini. "Competing Jurisdictions: Data Privacy Across the Borders." In Palgrave Studies in Digital Business & Enabling Technologies, 43–58. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54660-1_3.
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Abstract Borderless cloud computing technologies are exacerbating tensions between European and other existing regulatory models for data privacy. On the one hand, in the European Union (EU), a series of data localisation initiatives are emerging with the objective of preserving Europe’s digital sovereignty, guaranteeing the respect of EU fundamental rights and preventing foreign law enforcement and intelligence agencies from accessing personal data. On the other hand, foreign countries are unilaterally adopting legislation requiring national corporations to disclose data stored in Europe, in this way bypassing jurisdictional boundaries grounded on physical data location. The chapter investigates this twofold dynamic by focusing particularly on the current friction between the EU data protection approach and the data privacy model of the United States (US) in the field of cloud computing.
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Hoen, Ellen ‘t. "Protection of Clinical Test Data and Public Health: A Proposal to End the Stronghold of Data Exclusivity." In Access to Medicines and Vaccines, 183–200. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83114-1_7.
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AbstractTest data demonstrating the efficacy, safety and quality of a medicine is required by drug regulatory agencies before a new treatment obtains marketing approval and can be made available to patients. Because test data can be costly and time-consuming to produce, certain countries have ‘data exclusivity’ regimes that restrict use of test data to the originator company for a period of time. Generic and biosimilar companies rely on originator test data to obtain marketing approval for generic products, so data exclusivity periods can delay entry of lower-cost treatments to the market. While data exclusivity is not required by the World Trade Organization, countries such as the United States and the European Union often push their stronger data exclusivity provisions on other countries through free trade agreements (FTAs). While a small number of countries have waivers to data exclusivity for cases of emergency or other public health need, most do not. This can hamper the timely and affordable availability of needed medicines. Waivers to data exclusivity should be included in legislation to protect public health, and other ways to protect test data against unfair commercial use should be explored.
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Kolb, Marina. "Data Protection." In The European Union and the Council of Europe, 63–86. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137023636_4.
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Easton, Catherine. "European Union Data Protection Supervisor." In Encyclopedia of Big Data, 465–66. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32010-6_90.
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Easton, Catherine. "European Union Data Protection Supervisor." In Encyclopedia of Big Data, 1–2. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32001-4_90-1.
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Buzogány, Aron. "Neighbourhood Countries: Promoting Environmental Protection Close to Home." In European Union External Environmental Policy, 233–52. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60931-7_12.
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Ellermann, Franz. "Twinning — a challenge for both candidate countries and Member States." In Environmental Protection in the European Union, 135–53. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09714-4_12.
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Freitas, Pedro Miguel, Teresa Coelho Moreira, and Francisco Andrade. "Data Protection and Biometric Data: European Union Legislation." In Signal Processing for Security Technologies, 413–21. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47301-7_16.
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Christou, George. "European Union privacy and data protection policy." In The Routledge Handbook of European Public Policy, 179–90. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018.: Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315682723-19.
Full textConference papers on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
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Gökçek Karaca, Nuray, and Semra Saruç. "International Migration Trends in Turkey and European Union Candidate Transition Economies." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c05.00871.
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In this study, international migration trends were evaluated in Turkey and European Union (EU) Candidate Transition Economies by means of data obtained from HDI Report developed by UNDP. The aim of this study is analyzing international migration trends in relation with other dimension of integration such as economics, social protection and social policy. In this study, the subject was carried out through comparative relation scanning model and literature model, the sample group was established EU candidate transition economies (Montenegro, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina) with Turkey. The research data was collected by means of data from HDI Report developed by UNDP. The findings from this study revealed that the population of Montenegro and Serbia among EU candidate transition economies less emigrated and more immigrated than other countries. It can also be concluded that the emigration trend of Turkey presents similar tendency with Montenegro and Serbia whereas immigration rate of Turkey is lower than the other countries except for Bosnia Herzegovina.
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Čović, Ana. "PRENOS LIČNIH PODATAKA NAKON ODLUKE EVROPSKOG SUDA PRAVDE SCHREMS II." In XVIII Majsko savetovanje. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Law, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/xviiimajsko.415c.
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The paper will analyze the judgment of the European Court of Justice from July 2020, which declared the transfer of personal data of Europeans to US illegal. The "Privacy Shield" is the legal framework for regulating the transatlantic exchange of personal data for commercial purposes between the European Union and the United States, which allowed US authorities to collect personal data about entities in the European Union, but without adequate safeguards, the court said. From Facebook, dissatisfied with the verdict, which is important for multinational companies, they point out that stopping the transfer of data will have negative consequences on the results of targeted online advertising. It was determined that the principles of the American "Privacy Shield" are not in line with European laws, nor with the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), and that they are therefore invalid. This verdict affects every American company, not only Facebook аnd Instagram, so the consequences of its adoption will be felt by companies such as Google and Amazon. In the meantime, the question of the impact of this verdict on the transfer of data to other countries, such as China and Russia, was raised, especially when it comes to transmission via the current social network TikTok or through the technology of the Chinese company Huawei, аnd Yandex taxi applications.
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Broniewicz, Elzbieta. "Environmental goods and services sector." In Business and Management 2016. VGTU Technika, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/bm.2016.28.
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The main objective of the following paper is to present the Environmental Goods and Services Sector (EGSS) in European Union countries. The Environmental Goods and Services Sector is one of the modules of environmental economic accounts, as satellite accounts in relation to national accounts. The first part of the paper gives an overiew of EGSS definitions and classifications. In second part, the comparison between the EGSS variables in certain EU countries was made. The output, export and employment of the Environmental Goods and Services System were analyzed. The data is presented by environmental protection domains and natural resources managements domains, as well as by economic activity.
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Banciu, Doina, and Arja Mantykangas. "LIBRARY MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GDPR." In eLSE 2018. Carol I National Defence University Publishing House, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.12753/2066-026x-18-266.
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In April 2016, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the European Commission adopted a major new regulation, entitled the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 696/2016, requiring that institutions that process personal data take appropriate measures to safeguard that data. It is generally acknowledged that all European countries must adopt the rules set forth in this regulation. The main objective of the GDPR is to protect personal data privacy and obligate the holders of personal data to use it for their declared purposes only. The GDPR will come into force on 25 May 2018. It is proposed that the role of Data Protection Officer (DPO) be employed as a strategy for implementing the GDPR from the perspective of library managers. There are so far no concrete measures in place that would facilitate the application of the GDPR. The most appropriate measures would seem to be to appoint a DPO and to define adequate strategies that could be implemented at the library level. These two measures are the manager’s responsibilities. The arguments for a library-level DPO arise from GDPR Article 39 regarding the responsibilities of a DPO. The conclusions are related to findings regarding the roles of library managers in Romania and Sweden and to existing library legislation in these two European countries.
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Torlak, Sülün Evinç, and Bilsev Gürsan. "A Study on the Regional Development Agencies as Project Based Development Model." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c03.00472.
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Development concept, especially regional development concept has become the most important topic to even out the regional imbalances after the Second World War. The most important date has been after 1929, beginning with big crisis in the world. Regional development agencies which are the role of growth and development key have been established since the early of 1930’s, initially in America, and then in European Countries together with in some other Eastern Countries. Today, the key role of the development within the framework of ‘new development perception’ form the basis of project logic, in other words; project based development model which the agencies are intervening notably. This model is on the agenda, with the strong impact of regional and cohesion politics of European Union and takes the role excessively through grants and funds which development agencies are seen as the place of implementation of those policies. Many different sector-specific projects from infrastructure to protection of heritage, presented to the related authorities are being executed. Supported projects within grants and funds help people changing viewpoints; improve competences and direct people to act through project logic as well. This case carries the meaning of the strong impact of development by relieving the problems or needs through projects. In this study, some definitions related with development, development project examples to the published extent by European Commission and the case of the model that is very new to Turkey within project examples of development agencies have been examined using the comparative analysis method.
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Mazure, Gunita. "INVESTMENT AND EXPENDITURE OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT SECTOR." In 22nd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2022. STEF92 Technology, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2022/5.1/s21.077.
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The waste management sector as one of the most significant economic sectors requires effective management not only in Latvia but in the European Union as whole. According to the recent (2020) available Eurostat data, 505 kg of municipal waste per capita were generated in the EU of which 48% were recycled and 22% were landfilled. Latvia ranges in the 11th position among the EU Member States with 478 kg of generated waste per capita. Romania (287 kg), Poland (346 kg) and Hungary (364 kg) are countries having generated the lowest amounts of municipal waste per capita, while Denmark (845 kg) and Luxembourg (790 kg) have been the top countries with the highest amounts of generated municipal waste per capita in 2020. In Latvia, approximately 66% of generated waste were recycled and 19% were landfilled in 2020. Moving towards the green economy and following the EU Directive 2018/851 targets for recycling municipal waste the governments develop investment plans envisaging financial resources for the waste management sector. The research aim is to evaluate environmental protection expenditure in the context of waste management policy. The research employs statistical data analysis to study the problem elements and synthesise coherencies or formulate regularities. The research period covers the years from 2010 to 2020. Starting from 2018, Latvia has essentially increased amounts of total investment and current expenditure for waste collection and treatment. In 2020, investments have increased 3.9 times compared with 2018; thus, amounting to EUR 36 295 thousand, while the current expenditure has grown by 21.9% amounting to EUR 118 182 thousand. The proportion of investment in waste management has also essentially increased, i.e. from 19.50% in 2010 to 49.96% in 2020, while the respective growth for current expenditure has been more moderate, i.e. from 32.79% to 62.42% of total financial resources for environmental protection.
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Pope, Ronald B., Deborah Kopsick, Shih-Yew Chen, Ray Turner, and Martin Magold. "Addressing the Monitoring and Transport of Radioactively Contaminated Scrap Metal: An International Approach." In ASME 2006 Pressure Vessels and Piping/ICPVT-11 Conference. ASMEDC, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/pvp2006-icpvt-11-93668.
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The international metal processing industries are very concerned about the importation of scrap metal contaminated by radioactivity. Many of the problems are being identified while these materials, either unprocessed scrap, or processed materials, are being transported in the public domain. Because of this concern, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), with the support of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) circulated a survey to various countries and interested groups. Following assessment of the survey, a meeting was convened in April 2004 to discuss and evaluate the issues. Three major issues were identified at the initial meeting. • First, an internationally acceptable scrap metal radiation monitoring and response protocol is needed. • Second, international training programs are needed to address multiple areas, almost all having emphasis on the transport mode; these include addressing such topics as protocol implementation, optimum location of monitors, acceptable detector sensitivities, calibration and maintenance needs, incident reporting, handling radioactive materials after detection. • Third, international information exchange within the scrap metal industry is needed to share data and experiences on contaminated scrap incidents, especially those occurring at international borders during the transport of these materials. The “open border” policy of the European Union makes the collection and dissemination of this information sharing particularly time critical. The paper reviews the results of the initial meeting, and elaborates on the efforts undertaken since that meeting.
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NICOLAE, Cristina-Andreea, and Mihai Ioan ROȘCA. "FOOD AND SUSTAINABILITY – ROMANIANS’ EXPECTATIONS." In Competitiveness of Agro-Food and Environmental Economy. Editura ASE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.24818/cafee/2021/10/02.
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The production, processing and distribution of the food we buy and eat put a strain on the environment and the health of the planet. For this reason, by taking a closer look at our eating habits and reconsidering the food we consume, we can significantly reduce our environmental footprint. Using the data sets from the most recent Special Eurobarometer report, the main goal of this paper is to offer a fresh and updated perspective regarding the food shopping and consumption behaviour of Romanian citizens. To understand the attitudes of Romanians towards food and sustainability, this study aims to uncover what are the main factors that drive food purchases and examine what would help citizens adopt a healthy and sustainable diet. Data analysis revealed that when purchasing food, Romanians put taste, food security and price above sustainability matters. Furthermore, Romanians are more likely to adopt a healthy and sustainable diet for personal reasons (their own health), rather than the protection of the environment. Responses are compared between different sociodemographic groups and with other countries from the European Union. These findings can guide the development of national educational strategies that can limit environmental degradation in Romania and lead to real behavioural changes.
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Sinicakova, Marianna. "ENVIRONMENTAL�PROTECTION�EXPENDITURES�IN�THE�EUROPEAN�UNION:�THE�CASE�OF�THE�VISEGRAD�COUNTRIES." In SGEM2012 12th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference and EXPO. Stef92 Technology, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2012/s22.v4017.
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Gumzej, Nina, and Drazen Dragicevic. "Cloud computing data protection aspects under Croatian and European union law." In 2014 22nd International Conference on Software, Telecommunications and Computer Networks (SoftCOM). IEEE, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/softcom.2014.7039084.
Full textReports on the topic "Data protection – European Union countries"
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Kira, Beatriz, Rutendo Tavengerwei, and Valary Mumbo. Points à examiner à l'approche des négociations de Phase II de la ZLECAf: enjeux de la politique commerciale numérique dans quatre pays d'Afrique subsaharienne. Digital Pathways at Oxford, March 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-dp-wp_2022/01.
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Realities such as the COVID-19 pandemic have expedited the move to online operations, highlighting the undeniable fact that the world is continuing to go digital. This emphasises the need for policymakers to regulate in a manner that allows them to harness digital trade benefits while also avoiding associated risk. However, given that digital trade remains unco-ordinated globally, with countries adopting different approaches to policy issues, national regulatory divergence on the matter continues, placing limits on the benefits that countries can obtain from digital trade. Given these disparities, ahead of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Phase II Negotiations, African countries have been considering the best way to harmonise regulations on issues related to digital trade. To do this effectively, AfCFTA members need to identify where divergencies exist in their domestic regulatory systems. This will allow AfCFTA members to determine where harmonisation is possible, as well as what is needed to achieve such harmonisation. This report analyses the domestic regulations and policies of four focus countries – South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya and Senegal – comparing their regulatory approaches to five policy issues: i) regulation of online transactions; ii) cross-border data flows, data localisation, and personal data protection; iii) access to source code and technology transfer; iv) intermediary liability; and v) customs duties on electronic transmissions. The study highlights where divergencies exist in adopted approaches, indicating the need for the four countries – and AfCFTA members in general – to carefully consider the implications of the divergences, and determine where it is possible and beneficial to harmonise approaches. This was intended to encourage AfCFTA member states to take ownership of these issues and reflect on the reforms needed. As seen in Table 1 below, the study shows that the four countries diverge on most of the five policy issues. There are differences in how all four countries regulate online transactions – that is, e-signatures and online consumer protection. Nigeria was the only country out of the four to recognise all types of e-signatures as legally equivalent. Kenya and Senegal only recognise specific e-signatures, which are either issued or validated by a recognised institution, while South Africa adopts a mixed approach, where it recognises all e-signatures as legally valid, but provides higher evidentiary weight to certain types of e-signatures. Only South Africa and Senegal have specific regulations relating to online consumer protection, while Nigeria and Kenya do not have any clear rules. With regards to cross border data flows, data localisation, and personal data protection, the study shows that all four focus countries have regulations that consist of elements borrowed from the European Union (EU) General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In particular, this was regarding the need for the data subject's consent, and also the adequacy requirement. Interestingly, the study also shows that South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria also adopt data localisation measures, although at different levels of strictness. South Africa’s data localisation laws are mostly imposed on data that is considered critical – which is then required to be processed within South African borders – while Nigeria requires all data to be processed and stored locally, using local servers. Kenya imposes data localisation measures that are mostly linked to its priority for data privacy. Out of the four focus countries, Senegal is the only country that does not impose any data localisation laws. Although the study shows that all four countries share a position on customs duties on electronic transmissions, it is also interesting to note that none of the four countries currently have domestic regulations or policies on the subject. The report concludes by highlighting that, as the AfCFTA Phase II Negotiations aim to arrive at harmonisation and to improve intra-African trade and international trade, AfCFTA members should reflect on their national policies and domestic regulations to determine where harmonisation is needed, and whether AfCFTA is the right platform for achieving this efficiently.
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Jones, Emily, Beatriz Kira, Anna Sands, and Danilo B. Garrido Alves. The UK and Digital Trade: Which way forward? Blavatnik School of Government, February 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-wp-2021/038.
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The internet and digital technologies are upending global trade. Industries and supply chains are being transformed, and the movement of data across borders is now central to the operation of the global economy. Provisions in trade agreements address many aspects of the digital economy – from cross-border data flows, to the protection of citizens’ personal data, and the regulation of the internet and new technologies like artificial intelligence and algorithmic decision-making. The UK government has identified digital trade as a priority in its Global Britain strategy and one of the main sources of economic growth to recover from the pandemic. It wants the UK to play a leading role in setting the international standards and regulations that govern the global digital economy. The regulation of digital trade is a fast-evolving and contentious issue, and the US, European Union (EU), and China have adopted different approaches. Now that the UK has left the EU, it will need to navigate across multiple and often conflicting digital realms. The UK needs to decide which policy objectives it will prioritise, how to regulate the digital economy domestically, and how best to achieve its priorities when negotiating international trade agreements. There is an urgent need to develop a robust, evidence-based approach to the UK’s digital trade strategy that takes into account the perspectives of businesses, workers, and citizens, as well as the approaches of other countries in the global economy. This working paper aims to inform UK policy debates by assessing the state of play in digital trade globally. The authors present a detailed analysis of five policy areas that are central to discussions on digital trade for the UK: cross-border data flows and privacy; internet access and content regulation; intellectual property and innovation; e-commerce (including trade facilitation and consumer protection); and taxation (customs duties on e-commerce and digital services taxes). In each of these areas the authors compare and contrast the approaches taken by the US, EU and China, discuss the public policy implications, and examine the choices facing the UK.
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Barradas, Ricardo. Financialisation and the fall in the labour share: a panel data econometric analysis for the european union countries. DINAMIA'CET-IUL, Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.15847/dinamiacet-iul.wp.2017.02.
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Barradas, Ricardo. Why has labour productivity slowed down in the era of financialisation? Insights from the post-Keynesians for the European Union countries. DINÂMIA'CET-Iscte, May 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.15847/dinamiacet-iul.wp.2022.03.
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This paper employs a panel data econometric approach in order to empirically ascertain the role of the phenomenon of financialisation in the deceleration of labour productivity in the European Union (EU) countries from 1980 to 2019. During that time, the EU countries suffered a huge structural transformation based on Reaganomics and Thatcherism and their financial systems have experienced strong liberalisation and deregulation, which have contributed to poor evolution of labour productivity and have revived fears around a new ‘secular stagnation’ in the era of financialisation. Grounded in post-Keynesian literature, the slowdown of labour productivity in the majority of developed economies in the last decades cannot be separated from the phenomenon of financialisation, which has occurred through four different channels, namely the weak economic performance, the decline in the labour income share, the increase in personal income inequality, and strengthening of the degree of financialisation. Our findings confirm that lagged labour productivity, economic performance, and labour income share have a positive impact on labour productivity in the EU countries, while personal income inequality and the degree of financialisation impact it negatively. Our findings also reveal that labour productivity in the EU countries in the last decades would have grown more if there had been a stronger economic performance, a smaller decline (or even a rise) of the labour income share, a smaller increase (or even a decrease) of personal income inequality, and a weakening of the degree of financialisation.
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Durovic, Mateja, and Franciszek Lech. A Consumer Law Perspective on the Commercialization of Data. Universitätsbibliothek J. C. Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.21248/gups.64577.
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Commercialization of consumers’ personal data in the digital economy poses serious, both conceptual and practical, challenges to the traditional approach of European Union (EU) Consumer Law. This article argues that mass-spread, automated, algorithmic decision-making casts doubt on the foundational paradigm of EU consumer law: consent and autonomy. Moreover, it poses threats of discrimination and under- mining of consumer privacy. It is argued that the recent legislative reaction by the EU Commission, in the form of the ‘New Deal for Consumers’, was a step in the right direction, but fell short due to its continued reliance on consent, autonomy and failure to adequately protect consumers from indirect discrimination. It is posited that a focus on creating a contracting landscape where the consumer may be properly informed in material respects is required, which in turn necessitates blending the approaches of competition, consumer protection and data protection laws.
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Martin, Matthew. The Crisis of Extreme Inequality in SADC: Fighting austerity and the pandemic. Oxfam, Development Finance International, Norwegian Church Aid, May 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.21201/2022.8793.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the extreme inequality in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, and pushed millions into poverty. The economic crisis continues due to the obscene global vaccine inequality. As of end March 2022, a dismal 14% of SADC citizens had been fully vaccinated against COVID-19, compared with 65.5% in the United States and 73% in the European Union. In 2021, with infections rising in SADC, the critical health, social protection and economic programmes put in place by most governments in 2020 were rolled back and replaced with austerity, in the context of growing debt burdens and lack of external support for country budgets. Such austerity has been built into IMF programmes in the region. Recovering from the pandemic, however, offers SADC governments a once-in-a-generation opportunity to do what their citizens want: increase taxes on the wealthy and large corporations, boost public spending (especially on healthcare, education and social protection), and increase workers’ rights as well as tackling joblessness and precarious work. With external support, including through debt relief and aid, they could reduce inequality drastically and eliminate extreme poverty by 2030.
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Martin, Matthew. The Crisis of Extreme Inequality in SADC: Fighting austerity and the pandemic. Oxfam, Development Finance International, Norwegian Church Aid, May 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.21201/2022.8793.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the extreme inequality in Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries, and pushed millions into poverty. The economic crisis continues due to the obscene global vaccine inequality. As of end March 2022, a dismal 14% of SADC citizens had been fully vaccinated against COVID-19, compared with 65.5% in the United States and 73% in the European Union. In 2021, with infections rising in SADC, the critical health, social protection and economic programmes put in place by most governments in 2020 were rolled back and replaced with austerity, in the context of growing debt burdens and lack of external support for country budgets. Such austerity has been built into IMF programmes in the region. Recovering from the pandemic, however, offers SADC governments a once-in-a-generation opportunity to do what their citizens want: increase taxes on the wealthy and large corporations, boost public spending (especially on healthcare, education and social protection), and increase workers’ rights as well as tackling joblessness and precarious work. With external support, including through debt relief and aid, they could reduce inequality drastically and eliminate extreme poverty by 2030.
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Bourrier, Mathilde, Michael Deml, and Farnaz Mahdavian. Comparative report of the COVID-19 Pandemic Responses in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. University of Stavanger, November 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31265/usps.254.
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The purpose of this report is to compare the risk communication strategies and public health mitigation measures implemented by Germany, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (UK) in 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic based on publicly available documents. The report compares the country responses both in relation to one another and to the recommendations and guidance of the World Health Organization where available. The comparative report is an output of Work Package 1 from the research project PAN-FIGHT (Fighting pandemics with enhanced risk communication: Messages, compliance and vulnerability during the COVID-19 outbreak), which is financially supported by the Norwegian Research Council's extraordinary programme for corona research. PAN-FIGHT adopts a comparative approach which follows a “most different systems” variation as a logic of comparison guiding the research (Przeworski & Teune, 1970). The countries in this study include two EU member States (Sweden, Germany), one which was engaged in an exit process from the EU membership (the UK), and two non-European Union states, but both members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Norway and Switzerland. Furthermore, Germany and Switzerland govern by the Continental European Federal administrative model, with a relatively weak central bureaucracy and strong subnational, decentralised institutions. Norway and Sweden adhere to the Scandinavian model—a unitary but fairly decentralised system with power bestowed to the local authorities. The United Kingdom applies the Anglo-Saxon model, characterized by New Public Management (NPM) and decentralised managerial practices (Einhorn & Logue, 2003; Kuhlmann & Wollmann, 2014; Petridou et al., 2019). In total, PAN-FIGHT is comprised of 5 Work Packages (WPs), which are research-, recommendation-, and practice-oriented. The WPs seek to respond to the following research questions and accomplish the following: WP1: What are the characteristics of governmental and public health authorities’ risk communication strategies in five European countries, both in comparison to each other and in relation to the official strategies proposed by WHO? WP2: To what extent and how does the general public’s understanding, induced by national risk communication, vary across five countries, in relation to factors such as social capital, age, gender, socio-economic status and household composition? WP3: Based on data generated in WP1 and WP2, what is the significance of being male or female in terms of individual susceptibility to risk communication and subsequent vulnerability during the COVID-19 outbreak? WP4: Based on insight and knowledge generated in WPs 1 and 2, what recommendations can we offer national and local governments and health institutions on enhancing their risk communication strategies to curb pandemic outbreaks? WP5: Enhance health risk communication strategies across five European countries based upon the knowledge and recommendations generated by WPs 1-4. Pre-pandemic preparedness characteristics All five countries had pandemic plans developed prior to 2020, which generally were specific to influenza pandemics but not to coronaviruses. All plans had been updated following the H1N1 pandemic (2009-2010). During the SARS (2003) and MERS (2012) outbreaks, both of which are coronaviruses, all five countries experienced few cases, with notably smaller impacts than the H1N1 epidemic (2009-2010). The UK had conducted several exercises (Exercise Cygnet in 2016, Exercise Cygnus in 2016, and Exercise Iris in 2018) to check their preparedness plans; the reports from these exercises concluded that there were gaps in preparedness for epidemic outbreaks. Germany also simulated an influenza pandemic exercise in 2007 called LÜKEX 07, to train cross-state and cross-department crisis management (Bundesanstalt Technisches Hilfswerk, 2007). In 2017 within the context of the G20, Germany ran a health emergency simulation exercise with WHO and World Bank representatives to prepare for potential future pandemics (Federal Ministry of Health et al., 2017). Prior to COVID-19, only the UK had expert groups, notably the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE), that was tasked with providing advice during emergencies. It had been used in previous emergency events (not exclusively limited to health). In contrast, none of the other countries had a similar expert advisory group in place prior to the pandemic. COVID-19 waves in 2020 All five countries experienced two waves of infection in 2020. The first wave occurred during the first half of the year and peaked after March 2020. The second wave arrived during the final quarter. Norway consistently had the lowest number of SARS-CoV-2 infections per million. Germany’s counts were neither the lowest nor the highest. Sweden, Switzerland and the UK alternated in having the highest numbers per million throughout 2020. Implementation of measures to control the spread of infection In Germany, Switzerland and the UK, health policy is the responsibility of regional states, (Länders, cantons and nations, respectively). However, there was a strong initial centralized response in all five countries to mitigate the spread of infection. Later on, country responses varied in the degree to which they were centralized or decentralized. Risk communication In all countries, a large variety of communication channels were used (press briefings, websites, social media, interviews). Digital communication channels were used extensively. Artificial intelligence was used, for example chatbots and decision support systems. Dashboards were used to provide access to and communicate data.
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Monetary Policy Report - July 2022. Banco de la República, October 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.32468/inf-pol-mont-eng.tr3-2022.
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In the second quarter, annual inflation (9.67%), the technical staff’s projections and its expectations continued to increase, remaining above the target. International cost shocks, accentuated by Russia's invasion of Ukraine, have been more persistent than projected, thus contributing to higher inflation. The effects of indexation, higher than estimated excess demand, a tighter labor market, inflation expectations that continue to rise and currently exceed 3%, and the exchange rate pressures add to those described above. High core inflation measures as well as in the producer price index (PPI) across all baskets confirm a significant spread in price increases. Compared to estimates presented in April, the new forecast trajectory for headline and core inflation increased. This was partly the result of greater exchange rate pressure on prices, and a larger output gap, which is expected to remain positive for the remainder of 2022 and which is estimated to close towards yearend 2023. In addition, these trends take into account higher inflation rate indexation, more persistent above-target inflation expectations, a quickening of domestic fuel price increases due to the correction of lags versus the parity price and higher international oil price forecasts. The forecast supposes a good domestic supply of perishable foods, although it also considers that international prices of processed foods will remain high. In terms of the goods sub-basket, the end of the national health emergency implies a reversal of the value-added tax (VAT) refund applied to health and personal hygiene products, resulting in increases in the prices of these goods. Alternatively, the monetary policy adjustment process and the moderation of external shocks would help inflation and its expectations to begin to decrease over time and resume their alignment with the target. Thus, the new projection suggests that inflation could remain high for the second half of 2022, closing at 9.7%. However, it would begin to fall during 2023, closing the year at 5.7%. These forecasts are subject to significant uncertainty, especially regarding the future behavior of external cost shocks, the degree of indexation of nominal contracts and decisions made regarding the domestic price of fuels. Economic activity continues to outperform expectations, and the technical staff’s growth projections for 2022 have been revised upwards from 5% to 6.9%. The new forecasts suggest higher output levels that would continue to exceed the economy’s productive capacity for the remainder of 2022. Economic growth during the first quarter was above that estimated in April, while economic activity indicators for the second quarter suggest that the GDP could be expected to remain high, potentially above that of the first quarter. Domestic demand is expected to maintain a positive dynamic, in particular, due to the household consumption quarterly growth, as suggested by vehicle registrations, retail sales, credit card purchases and consumer loan disbursement figures. A slowdown in the machinery and equipment imports from the levels observed in March contrasts with the positive performance of sales and housing construction licenses, which indicates an investment level similar to that registered for the first three months of the year. International trade data suggests the trade deficit would be reduced as a consequence of import levels that would be lesser than those observed in the first quarter, and stable export levels. For the remainder of the year and 2023, a deceleration in consumption is expected from the high levels seen during the first half of the year, partially as a result of lower repressed demand, tighter domestic financial conditions and household available income deterioration due to increased inflation. Investment is expected to continue its slow recovery while remaining below pre-pandemic levels. The trade deficit is expected to tighten due to projected lower domestic demand dynamics, and high prices of oil and other basic goods exported by the country. Given the above, economic growth in the second quarter of 2022 would be 11.5%, and for 2022 and 2023 an annual growth of 6.9% and 1.1% is expected, respectively. Currently, and for the remainder of 2022, the output gap would be positive and greater than that estimated in April, and prices would be affected by demand pressures. These projections continue to be affected by significant uncertainty associated with global political tensions, the expected adjustment of monetary policy in developed countries, external demand behavior, changes in country risk outlook, and the future developments in domestic fiscal policy, among others. The high inflation levels and respective expectations, which exceed the target of the world's main central banks, largely explain the observed and anticipated increase in their monetary policy interest rates. This environment has tempered the growth forecast for external demand. Disruptions in value chains, rising international food and energy prices, and expansionary monetary and fiscal policies have contributed to the rise in inflation and above-target expectations seen by several of Colombia’s main trading partners. These cost and price shocks, heightened by the effects of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, have been more prevalent than expected and have taken place within a set of output and employment recovery, variables that in some countries currently equal or exceed their projected long-term levels. In response, the U.S. Federal Reserve accelerated the pace of the benchmark interest rate increase and rapidly reduced liquidity levels in the money market. Financial market actors expect this behavior to continue and, consequently, significantly increase their expectations of the average path of the Fed's benchmark interest rate. In this setting, the U.S. dollar appreciated versus the peso in the second quarter and emerging market risk measures increased, a behavior that intensified for Colombia. Given the aforementioned, for the remainder of 2022 and 2023, the Bank's technical staff increased the forecast trajectory for the Fed's interest rate and reduced the country's external demand growth forecast. The projected oil price was revised upward over the forecast horizon, specifically due to greater supply restrictions and the interruption of hydrocarbon trade between the European Union and Russia. Global geopolitical tensions, a tightening of monetary policy in developed economies, the increase in risk perception for emerging markets and the macroeconomic imbalances in the country explain the increase in the projected trajectory of the risk premium, its trend level and the neutral real interest rate1. Uncertainty about external forecasts and their consequent impact on the country's macroeconomic scenario remains high, given the unpredictable evolution of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, geopolitical tensions, the degree of the global economic slowdown and the effect the response to recent outbreaks of the pandemic in some Asian countries may have on the world economy. This macroeconomic scenario that includes high inflation, inflation forecasts, and expectations above 3% and a positive output gap suggests the need for a contractionary monetary policy that mitigates the risk of the persistent unanchoring of inflation expectations. In contrast to the forecasts of the April report, the increase in the risk premium trend implies a higher neutral real interest rate and a greater prevailing monetary stimulus than previously estimated. For its part, domestic demand has been more dynamic, with a higher observed and expected output level that exceeds the economy’s productive capacity. The surprising accelerations in the headline and core inflation reflect stronger and more persistent external shocks, which, in combination with the strength of aggregate demand, indexation, higher inflation expectations and exchange rate pressures, explain the upward projected inflation trajectory at levels that exceed the target over the next two years. This is corroborated by the inflation expectations of economic analysts and those derived from the public debt market, which continued to climb and currently exceed 3%. All of the above increase the risk of unanchoring inflation expectations and could generate widespread indexation processes that may push inflation away from the target for longer. This new macroeconomic scenario suggests that the interest rate adjustment should continue towards a contractionary monetary policy landscape. 1.2. Monetary policy decision Banco de la República’s Board of Directors (BDBR), at its meetings in June and July 2022, decided to continue adjusting its monetary policy. At its June meeting, the BDBR decided to increase the monetary policy rate by 150 basis points (b.p.) and its July meeting by majority vote, on a 150 b.p. increase thereof at its July meeting. Consequently, the monetary policy interest rate currently stands at 9.0% . 1 The neutral real interest rate refers to the real interest rate level that is neither stimulative nor contractionary for aggregate demand and, therefore, does not generate pressures that lead to the close of the output gap. In a small, open economy like Colombia, this rate depends on the external neutral real interest rate, medium-term components of the country risk premium, and expected depreciation. Box 1: A Weekly Indicator of Economic Activity for Colombia Juan Pablo Cote Carlos Daniel Rojas Nicol Rodriguez Box 2: Common Inflationary Trends in Colombia Carlos D. Rojas-Martínez Nicolás Martínez-Cortés Franky Juliano Galeano-Ramírez Box 3: Shock Decomposition of 2021 Forecast Errors Nicolás Moreno Arias