Journal articles: 'Cyanotoxin'

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Dulić, Tamara, Zorica Svirčev, Tamara Palanački Malešević, Elisabeth J. Faassen, Henna Savela, Qingzhen Hao, and Jussi Meriluoto. "Assessment of Common Cyanotoxins in Cyanobacteria of Biological Loess Crusts." Toxins 14, no. 3 (March 16, 2022): 215. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030215.

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Cyanotoxins are a diverse group of bioactive compounds produced by cyanobacteria that have adverse effects on human and animal health. While the phenomenon of cyanotoxin production in aquatic environments is well studied, research on cyanotoxins in terrestrial environments, where cyanobacteria abundantly occur in biocrusts, is still in its infancy. Here, we investigated the potential cyanotoxin production in cyanobacteria-dominated biological loess crusts (BLCs) from three different regions (China, Iran, and Serbia) and in cyanobacterial cultures isolated from the BLCs. The presence of cyanotoxins microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins, and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, while the presence of cyanotoxin-encoding genes (mcyE, cyrJ, sxtA, sxtG, sxtS, and anaC) was investigated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. We could not detect any of the targeted cyanotoxins in the biocrusts or the cyanobacterial cultures, nor could we amplify any cyanotoxin-encoding genes in the cyanobacterial strains. The results are discussed in terms of the biological role of cyanotoxins, the application of cyanobacteria in land restoration programs, and the use of cyanotoxins as biosignatures of cyanobacterial populations in loess research. The article highlights the need to extend the field of research on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin production to terrestrial environments.

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Veal, Cameron James, Catherine Neelamraju, T. Wolff, A. Watkinson, D. Shillito, and A. Canning. "Managing cyanobacterial toxin risks to recreational users: a case study of inland lakes in South East Queensland." Water Supply 18, no. 5 (December 8, 2017): 1719–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.233.

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Abstract The management of inland waterways to protect recreational users from cyanotoxin exposure is complicated by the common management practice of using proxy indicators of cyanotoxin production (cell counts and biovolumes of potentially toxin species), rather than the cyanotoxin itself. This widely accepted practice is further complicated by a lack of advisory guidelines for non-microcystin-producing cyanotoxins. This study has investigated the effectiveness of this management approach over five and a half years, monitoring 65 different sites in South East Queensland using phycological and toxin-analysis. This study concluded that cell counts of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, the most common potentially toxin producing species of cyanobacteria in South East Queensland's inland lakes, was a poor proxy indicator for cylindrospermopsin toxin production. Seqwater, the local water authority responsible for the management of recreational access to drinking water storage lakes, initiated an alternative management approach for recreational cyanobacterial water quality management in December 2016. This new approach is based on cyanobacterial toxin guideline values for five different cyanotoxins, with closures and warning notices issued based on the actual cyanotoxin concentration, not the proxy indicator. We encourage other recreational water management authorities consider this approach to manage recreational access in the future.

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Abbas, Tauqeer, George William Kajjumba, Meena Ejjada, Sayeda Ummeh Masrura, Erica J. Marti, Eakalak Khan, and Tammy L. Jones-Lepp. "Recent Advancements in the Removal of Cyanotoxins from Water Using Conventional and Modified Adsorbents—A Contemporary Review." Water 12, no. 10 (October 3, 2020): 2756. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12102756.

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The prevalence of cyanobacteria is increasing in freshwaters due to climate change, eutrophication, and their ability to adapt and thrive in changing environmental conditions. In response to various environmental pressures, they produce toxins known as cyanotoxins, which impair water quality significantly. Prolonged human exposure to cyanotoxins, such as microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxins, and anatoxin through drinking water can cause severe health effects. Conventional water treatment processes are not effective in removing these cyanotoxins in water and advanced water treatment processes are often used instead. Among the advanced water treatment methods, adsorption is advantageous compared to other methods because of its affordability and design simplicity for cyanotoxins removal. This article provides a current review of recent developments in cyanotoxin removal using both conventional and modified adsorbents. Given the different cyanotoxins removal capacities and cost of conventional and modified adsorbents, a future outlook, as well as suggestions are provided to achieve optimal cyanotoxin removal through adsorption.

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Jalili, Farhad, Saber Moradinejad, Arash Zamyadi, Sarah Dorner, Sébastien Sauvé, and Michèle Prévost. "Evidence-Based Framework to Manage Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins in Water and Sludge from Drinking Water Treatment Plants." Toxins 14, no. 6 (June 15, 2022): 410. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14060410.

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Freshwater bodies and, consequently, drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) sources are increasingly facing toxic cyanobacterial blooms. Even though conventional treatment processes including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration can control cyanobacteria and cell-bound cyanotoxins, these processes may encounter challenges such as inefficient removal of dissolved metabolites and cyanobacterial cell breakthrough. Furthermore, conventional treatment processes may lead to the accumulation of cyanobacteria cells and cyanotoxins in sludge. Pre-oxidation can enhance coagulation efficiency as it provides the first barrier against cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins and it decreases cell accumulation in DWTP sludge. This critical review aims to: (i) evaluate the state of the science of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin management throughout DWTPs, as well as their associated sludge, and (ii) develop a decision framework to manage cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in DWTPs and sludge. The review identified that lab-cultured-based pre-oxidation studies may not represent the real bloom pre-oxidation efficacy. Moreover, the application of a common exposure unit CT (residual concentration × contact time) provides a proper understanding of cyanobacteria pre-oxidation efficiency. Recently, reported challenges on cyanobacterial survival and growth in sludge alongside the cell lysis and cyanotoxin release raised health and technical concerns with regards to sludge storage and sludge supernatant recycling to the head of DWTPs. According to the review, oxidation has not been identified as a feasible option to handle cyanobacterial-laden sludge due to low cell and cyanotoxin removal efficacy. Based on the reviewed literature, a decision framework is proposed to manage cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins and their associated sludge in DWTPs.

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Cordeiro, Rita, Joana Azevedo, Rúben Luz, Vitor Vasconcelos, Vítor Gonçalves, and Amélia Fonseca. "Cyanotoxin Screening in BACA Culture Collection: Identification of New Cylindrospermopsin Producing Cyanobacteria." Toxins 13, no. 4 (April 3, 2021): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040258.

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Microcystins (MCs), Saxitoxins (STXs), and Cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) are some of the more well-known cyanotoxins. Taking into consideration the impacts of cyanotoxins, many studies have focused on the identification of unknown cyanotoxin(s)-producing strains. This study aimed to screen strains from the Azorean Bank of Algae and Cyanobacteria (BACA) for MCs, STX, and CYN production. A total of 157 strains were searched for mcy, sxt, and cyr producing genes by PCR, toxin identification by ESI-LC-MS/MS, and cyanotoxin-producing strains morphological identification and confirmation by 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis. Cyanotoxin-producing genes were amplified in 13 strains and four were confirmed as toxin producers by ESI-LC-MS/MS. As expected Aphanizomenon gracile BACA0041 was confirmed as an STX producer, with amplification of genes sxtA, sxtG, sxtH, and sxtI, and Microcystis aeruginosa BACA0148 as an MC-LR producer, with amplification of genes mcyC, mcyD, mcyE, and mcyG. Two nostocalean strains, BACA0025 and BACA0031, were positive for both cyrB and cyrC genes and ESI-LC-MS/MS confirmed CYN production. Although these strains morphologically resemble Sphaerospermopsis, the 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis reveals that they probably belong to a new genus.

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Abdallah, Mohamed F., Wannes H. R. Van Hassel, Mirjana Andjelkovic, Annick Wilmotte, and Andreja Rajkovic. "Cyanotoxins and Food Contamination in Developing Countries: Review of Their Types, Toxicity, Analysis, Occurrence and Mitigation Strategies." Toxins 13, no. 11 (November 6, 2021): 786. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13110786.

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Cyanotoxins have gained global public interest due to their potential to bioaccumulate in food, which threatens human health. Bloom formation is usually enhanced under Mediterranean, subtropical and tropical climates which are the dominant climate types in developing countries. In this context, we present an up-to-date overview of cyanotoxins (types, toxic effects, analysis, occurrence, and mitigation) with a special focus on their contamination in (sea)food from all the developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America as this has received less attention. A total of 65 publications have been found (from 2000 until October 2021) reporting the contamination by one or more cyanotoxins in seafood and edible plants (five papers). Only Brazil and China conducted more research on cyanotoxin contamination in food in comparison to other countries. The majority of research focused on the detection of microcystins using different analytical methods. The detected levels mostly surpassed the provisional tolerable daily intake limit set by the World Health Organization, indicating a real risk to the exposed population. Assessment of cyanotoxin contamination in foods from developing countries still requires further investigations by conducting more survey studies, especially the simultaneous detection of multiple categories of cyanotoxins in food.

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Ash, Alexandra K., and Stuart Patterson. "Reporting of Freshwater Cyanobacterial Poisoning in Terrestrial Wildlife: A Systematic Map." Animals 12, no. 18 (September 14, 2022): 2423. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani12182423.

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Global warming and over-enrichment of freshwater systems have led to an increase in harmful cyanobacterial blooms (cyanoHABs), affecting human and animal health. The aim of this systematic map was to detail the current literature surrounding cyanotoxin poisonings in terrestrial wildlife and identify possible improvements to reports of morbidity and mortality from cyanotoxins. A systematic search was conducted using the electronic databases Scopus and Web of Science, yielding 5059 published studies identifying 45 separate case reports of wildlife poisonings from North America, Africa, Europe, and Asia. Currently, no gold standard for the diagnosis of cyanotoxin intoxication exists for wildlife, and we present suggested guidelines here. These involved immunoassays and analytical chemistry techniques to identify the toxin involved, PCR to identify the cyanobacterial species involved, and evidence of ingestion or exposure to cyanotoxins in the animals affected. Of the 45 cases, our recommended methods concurred with 48.9% of cases. Most often, cases were investigated after a mortality event had already occurred, and where mitigation was implemented, only three cases were successful in their efforts. Notably, only one case of invasive cyanobacteria was recorded in this review despite invasive species being known to occur throughout the globe; this could explain the underreporting of invasive cyanobacteria. This systematic map highlights the perceived absence of robust detection, surveillance, and diagnosis of cyanotoxin poisoning in wildlife. It may be true that wildlife is less susceptible to these poisoning events; however, the true rates of poisoning are likely much more than is reported in the literature.

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Máthé, Csaba, Márta M-Hamvas, Gábor Vasas, Tamás Garda, and Csongor Freytag. "Subcellular Alterations Induced by Cyanotoxins in Vascular Plants—A Review." Plants 10, no. 5 (May 14, 2021): 984. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10050984.

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Phytotoxicity of cyanobacterial toxins has been confirmed at the subcellular level with consequences on whole plant physiological parameters and thus growth and productivity. Most of the data are available for two groups of these toxins: microcystins (MCs) and cylindrospermopsins (CYNs). Thus, in this review we present a timely survey of subcellular cyanotoxin effects with the main focus on these two cyanotoxins. We provide comparative insights into how peculiar plant cellular structures are affected. We review structural changes and their physiological consequences induced in the plastid system, peculiar plant cytoskeletal organization and chromatin structure, the plant cell wall, the vacuolar system, and in general, endomembrane structures. The cyanotoxins have characteristic dose-and plant genotype-dependent effects on all these structures. Alterations in chloroplast structure will influence the efficiency of photosynthesis and thus plant productivity. Changing of cell wall composition, disruption of the vacuolar membrane (tonoplast) and cytoskeleton, and alterations of chromatin structure (including DNA strand breaks) can ultimately lead to cell death. Finally, we present an integrated view of subcellular alterations. Knowledge on these changes will certainly contribute to a better understanding of cyanotoxin–plant interactions.

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Facey, Jordan A., Simon C. Apte, and Simon M. Mitrovic. "A Review of the Effect of Trace Metals on Freshwater Cyanobacterial Growth and Toxin Production." Toxins 11, no. 11 (November 5, 2019): 643. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110643.

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Cyanobacterial blooms are becoming more common in freshwater systems, causing ecological degradation and human health risks through exposure to cyanotoxins. The role of phosphorus and nitrogen in cyanobacterial bloom formation is well documented and these are regularly the focus of management plans. There is also strong evidence that trace metals are required for a wide range of cellular processes, however their importance as a limiting factor of cyanobacterial growth in ecological systems is unclear. Furthermore, some studies have suggested a direct link between cyanotoxin production and some trace metals. This review synthesises current knowledge on the following: (1) the biochemical role of trace metals (particularly iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum and zinc), (2) the growth limitation of cyanobacteria by trace metals, (3) the trace metal regulation of the phytoplankton community structure and (4) the role of trace metals in cyanotoxin production. Iron dominated the literature and regularly influenced bloom formation, with 15 of 18 studies indicating limitation or colimitation of cyanobacterial growth. A range of other trace metals were found to have a demonstrated capacity to limit cyanobacterial growth, and these metals require further study. The effect of trace metals on cyanotoxin production is equivocal and highly variable. Better understanding the role of trace metals in cyanobacterial growth and bloom formation is an essential component of freshwater management and a direction for future research.

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Koreivienė, Judita, Olga Belous, and Jūratė Kasperovičienė. "Variations of microcystins in freshwater ecosystems." Botanica Lithuanica 19, no. 2 (December 1, 2013): 139–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/botlit-2013-0017.

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Abstract Koreivienė J., Belous O., Kasperovičienė J., 2012: Variations of microcystins in freshwater ecosystems [Mikrocystinai gėlavandenėse ekosistemose]. - Bot. Lith., 19(2): 139-148 Increased frequency, severity of harmful algae blooms and their extent worldwide have become a global challenge due to the production of toxins that are released to the water. Cyanotoxins are detected in 25-75% of blooms. Hazardous hepatotoxin-microcystin potential producers, spatial and temporal variations of toxins as well as their variations depending on environmental variables are discussed in this overview. The most common species among microcystin producers belong to the genera Dolichospermum and Microcystis. Variations of the amount of microcystins detected through the bloom are associated with the dominant cyanobacteria species or its genotype. The abundance of toxic cyanobacteria genotype and cyanotoxin values increase with the rise of water temperature and nutrient concentrations in the freshwaters. On the seasonal basis, cell-bound microcystin concentrations increase with bloom development, whereas extracellular cyanotoxin values rise with the senescing of bloom after cyanobacterial cell lysis.

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Tokodi, Nada, Damjana Drobac, Jelica Simeunovic, and Zorica Svircev. "Microcystin concentration in fishpond waters." Zbornik Matice srpske za prirodne nauke, no. 127 (2014): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmspn1427035t.

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Cyanobacterial blooming is a worldwide problem which sometimes results in cyanotoxin production. Most commonly produced cyanotoxins are microcystins (MCs), potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases. Protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) is known to be involved in the regulation of a variety of cellular processes. In this study, MC concentration was assessed via inhibition of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1 assay) in water samples taken from 14 lakes of Muzlja fishpond, Vojvodina, Serbia. During the summer of 2011, cyanobacterial growth occured in the fishpond lakes and small, planktonic crustacean Daphnia sp. was used to control or/and prevent further development of cyanobacteria. Different MC concentrations (calculated as microcystin-LR equivalents) were detected, mostly depending on the occurrence and grazing of Daphnia sp. More thorough monitoring of fishponds should be conducted, both in Serbia and around the world, in order to gain more precise estimation of cyanotoxin concentrations and their accumulation in organisms used for human consumption and thus prevent possible negative health effects.

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Gunawardana, Dilantha, Sashika Abeysiri, and Pathmalal Manage. "Legacy of “New Normal” Plastics and “New Nitrogen” in the Cyanotoxin Footprint in Mangrove Ecosystems." Phycology 3, no. 1 (February 7, 2023): 106–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/phycology3010007.

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In a paradigm shift in plastic wastes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, wetlands such as mangroves are threatened by a new form of pollution, plastics, on top of the eutrophication of estuarine waters due to nitrogen and phosphorus wastes/effluents that lead to cyanobacterial proliferation. Both plastic and nutrient pollution lead to prosperity of cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria that flourish in both and disperse leading to the detriment of fauna and flora in the mangrove ecosystem due to resulting toxicities. Although cyanotoxins are still a relatively poorly studied phenomenon in mangroves, their presence does create a focus of attention due to biofilm formation and the resultant flotation and sinking properties that are linked to cyanobacterial mats on plastic debris. Sri Lanka, being the first country in the world to conserve all its mangrove wetlands, does have a responsibility to prevent the invasion of plastics to this protected ecosystem, and binding with the Ramsar Convention, precluding plastic waste and their concomitant footprint, is a task at hand to the relative authorities. The path ahead mandates that we study the properties of plastics for cyanobacterial proliferation, biofilm formation, the fates of such plastics (flotation, dispersal and sinking), the cyanotoxin production changes that are attributed—or linked—to plastic pollution and the resultant impacts on mangrove ecosystems. Cyanotoxins are long-lived, and it is paramount that we find the necessary mechanisms to eliminate or curtail their production in mangrove ecosystems while establishing surveillance and monitoring of both the producers and the harmful agents. Cyanobacteria although vehicles for nitrogen fixation and replenishing of nutrients to an N-depleted ecosystem such as the mangroves, could lead to enhancements in cyanotoxins production. However, this phenomenon remains ambiguous and poorly studied in applied phycology in relation to mangroves. “New normal” plastics are lodged mostly on the surfaces of bark, prop roots, and pneumatophores, which are the localities where the highest level of new nitrogen is fixed, and this may lead to the proliferation of N-fixing, cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria, which may have repercussions on both flora and fauna of mangroves. Therefore, it is crucial that we monitor plastic pollution and find mechanisms for sanitizing plastics-imprinted mangroves to lessen the harmful footprint resulting from plastic overload.

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Wang, Jiayang, Songhe Zhang, Xiaoying Mu, Xiuren Hu, and Yu Ma. "Research Characteristics on Cyanotoxins in Inland Water: Insights from Bibliometrics." Water 14, no. 4 (February 21, 2022): 667. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w14040667.

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Eutrophication is a long-standing ecological and environmental problem, and the severity of harmful algal blooms continues to increase, causing large economic losses globally. One of the most important hazards created by harmful algal blooms is the production of cyanotoxins. This study aimed to analyze the characteristics and development trends of cyanotoxin research through bibliometric analysis. A total of 3265 publications from 1990 to 2020 on cyanotoxins were retrieved from the Science Citation Index (SCI) Expanded database, Web of Science. Over the past 30 years, most research has been concentrated in China (21.4%) and the USA (21.3%). Throughout the study period, microcystin was the focus of the research, accounting for 86% of the total number of publications. A word frequency analysis revealed that as people became more aware of drinking water safety and the construction of large-scale water conservation facilities, “reservoirs” and “rivers” became hot words for researchers, while “lakes” have always been important research objects. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis of studies from the five countries with the largest numbers of publications showed that Chinese researchers typically associate eutrophication with Microcystis, while research subjects in other countries are more extensive and balanced. The development of cyanotoxin research around the world is not even, and we need to push for more research on major lakes that are outside of North America, Europe and China.

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Diez-Quijada, Leticia, Maria del Monte Benítez-González, María Puerto, Angeles Jos, and Ana M. Cameán. "Immunotoxic Effects Induced by Microcystins and Cylindrospermopsin: A Review." Toxins 13, no. 10 (October 8, 2021): 711. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100711.

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Cyanotoxin occurrence is gaining importance due to anthropogenic activities, climate change and eutrophication. Among them, Microcystins (MCs) and Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) are the most frequently studied due to their ubiquity and toxicity. Although MCs are primary classified as hepatotoxins and CYN as a cytotoxin, they have been shown to induce deleterious effects in a wide range of organs. However, their effects on the immune system are as yet scarcely investigated. Thus, to know the impact of cyanotoxins on the immune system, due to its importance in organisms’ homeostasis, is considered of interest. A review of the scientific literature dealing with the immunotoxicity of MCs and CYN has been performed, and both in vitro and in vivo studies have been considered. Results have confirmed the scarcity of reports on the topic, particularly for CYN. Decreased cell viability, apoptosis or altered functions of immune cells, and changed levels and mRNA expression of cytokines are among the most common effects reported. Underlying mechanisms, however, are still not yet fully elucidated. Further research is needed in order to have a full picture of cyanotoxin immunotoxicity.

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Koreivienė, Judita, and Olga Belous. "Methods for Cyanotoxins detection." Botanica Lithuanica 18, no. 1 (October 1, 2012): 58–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10279-012-0008-4.

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Abstract Koreivienė J., Belous O., 2012: Methods for cyanotoxins detection [Cianotoksinų nustatymo metodai]. - Bot. Lith., 18(1): 58-65. Global occurrence and concern about microcystin contamination, the potential consequences of exposure to cyanobacterial toxins in recreational and drinking waters promoted the development of numerous methods to detect the toxin and their producers as well as identification and quantification of toxins. In current study we overview numerous methods that have been developed for the cyanotoxin analysis. We discuss advantages and shortages of their applications to solve different questions.

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Polyak, Yu M., and M. S. Polyak. "The role of cyanotoxins in human and animal pathology (а review)." Journal of microbiology, epidemiology and immunobiology 99, no. 2 (May 12, 2022): 231–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.36233/0372-9311-230.

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Cyanobacteria are the oldest and most widespread form of life on Earth. Many of them produce toxins that are dangerous to humans and animals. The review presents data on the distribution of toxin-producing cyanobacteria, the pathogenesis of the action of toxins on human and animal cells and tissues. A significant consideration is given to the neurotoxic effect of cyanotoxins, which is most common cause of animal death. Cyanotoxins can cause severe damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as the liver, kidneys, reproductive system and digestive tract. Data on hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, cardiotoxic, immunotoxic effects of cyanotoxins are presented. Their role in the human brain degenerative diseases is considered. The possible influence of cyanotoxins on carcinogenesis, especially in the liver, large intestine and rectum, is evaluated. The limitations of the existing data on the pathogenicity of cyanobacteria and medical care necessary for cyanotoxin-induced diseases are noted. The necessity for further studies of clinical manifestations of pathological processes caused by cyanotoxins, the development of diagnostic methods and specific therapy of poisoning is discussed.

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Aklakur, Md, Subham Bakli, Ashutosh D. Deo, D. K. Singh, and G. H. Pailan. "Cyanobacteria toxicity in aquaculture system and its impact on fish physiology." Journal of Aquaculture & Marine Biology 12, no. 1 (2023): 28–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/jamb.2023.12.00353.

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Algae and some Cyanobacteria, being a core part of primary production, act as a food organism for many fishes and other aquatic organisms. But they can also be responsible for fish kill or illness. Review on Cyanobacteria effect on fish growth, survival, and recruitment is the need of the hour. The mechanisms of toxicity of cyanotoxins and their toxic metabolites in fish have been scarcely covered. The effects may be sublethal on growth, physiology, survival, recruitment, and in long run, it may have a role in the fish’s adaptive response to abiotic and other biotic stressors. Around 46 species from genera of Microcystis, Cylindrospermopsis, Synechococcus, Anabaena, Lyngbya, Oscillatoria, etc. have been shown to cause toxic effects in aquatic system. The bloom of these cyanobacteria is primarily associated with altered temperature and nutrient load in water bodies due to effluents from municipal discharge and aquaculture. Their acute or chronic toxic effects may vary depending on the species, type of toxin produced, and concentration. The various cyanotoxins are grouped as hepatotoxins like microcystin, nodularin cylindrospermopsin, neurotoxins; like anatoxins, homoanatoxins, dermatotoxins; like aplysiatoxin, debromoaplysiatoxins, lyngbyatoxins, and pyrogenic component; like lipopolysaccharides (LPS). The concentration of the specific cyanotoxin in the fish body and the water along with other factors such as the length of exposure, fish metabolic processes, water parameters like dissolved oxygen and temperature, are likely to impact cyanotoxin toxicity in freshwater fish. The impact of such toxicity may be reflected on the individual species level, ecosystem level, and even at the culture system level.

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McKindles, Katelyn M., Paul V. Zimba, Alexander S. Chiu, Susan B. Watson, Danielle B. Gutierrez, Judy Westrick, Hedy Kling, and Timothy W. Davis. "A Multiplex Analysis of Potentially Toxic Cyanobacteria in Lake Winnipeg during the 2013 Bloom Season." Toxins 11, no. 10 (October 11, 2019): 587. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100587.

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Lake Winnipeg (Manitoba, Canada), the world’s 12th largest lake by area, is host to yearly cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cHABs) dominated by Aphanizomenon and Dolichospermum. cHABs in Lake Winnipeg are primarily a result of eutrophication but may be exacerbated by the recent introduction of dreissenid mussels. Through multiple methods to monitor the potential for toxin production in Lake Winnipeg in conjunction with environmental measures, this study defined the baseline composition of a Lake Winnipeg cHAB to measure potential changes because of dreissenid colonization. Surface water samples were collected in 2013 from 23 sites during summer and from 18 sites in fall. Genetic data and mass spectrometry cyanotoxin profiles identified microcystins (MC) as the most abundant cyanotoxin across all stations, with MC concentrations highest in the north basin. In the fall, mcyA genes were sequenced to determine which species had the potential to produce MCs, and 12 of the 18 sites were a mix of both Planktothrix and Microcystis. Current blooms in Lake Winnipeg produce low levels of MCs, but the capacity to produce cyanotoxins is widespread across both basins. If dreissenid mussels continue to colonize Lake Winnipeg, a shift in physicochemical properties of the lake because of faster water column clearance rates may yield more toxic blooms potentially dominated by microcystin producers.

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Sundaravadivelu, Devi, Toby T. Sanan, Raghuraman Venkatapathy, Heath Mash, Dan Tettenhorst, Lesley DAnglada, Sharon Frey, Avery O. Tatters, and James Lazorchak. "Determination of Cyanotoxins and Prymnesins in Water, Fish Tissue, and Other Matrices: A Review." Toxins 14, no. 3 (March 16, 2022): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030213.

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Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and their toxins are a significant and continuing threat to aquatic life in freshwater, estuarine, and coastal water ecosystems. Scientific understanding of the impacts of HABs on aquatic ecosystems has been hampered, in part, by limitations in the methodologies to measure cyanotoxins in complex matrices. This literature review discusses the methodologies currently used to measure the most commonly found freshwater cyanotoxins and prymnesins in various matrices and to assess their advantages and limitations. Identifying and quantifying cyanotoxins in surface waters, fish tissue, organs, and other matrices are crucial for risk assessment and for ensuring quality of food and water for consumption and recreational uses. This paper also summarizes currently available tissue extraction, preparation, and detection methods mentioned in previous studies that have quantified toxins in complex matrices. The structural diversity and complexity of many cyanobacterial and algal metabolites further impede accurate quantitation and structural confirmation for various cyanotoxins. Liquid chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (LC–MS/MS) to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of toxin analysis has become an essential tool for cyanotoxin detection and can potentially be used for the concurrent analysis of multiple toxins.

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Benamara, Majdi, Elvira Gómez, Ramzi Dhahri, and Albert Serrà. "Enhanced Photocatalytic Removal of Cyanotoxins by Al-Doped ZnO Nanoparticles with Visible-LED Irradiation." Toxins 13, no. 1 (January 17, 2021): 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13010066.

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The ZnO-based visible-LED photocatalytic degradation and mineralization of two typical cyanotoxins, microcystin-LR (MC-LR), and anatoxin-A were examined. Al-doped ZnO nanoparticle photocatalysts, in Al:Zn ratios between 0 and 5 at.%, were prepared via sol-gel method and exhaustively characterized by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms. With both cyanotoxins, increasing the Al content enhances the degradation kinetics, hence the use of nanoparticles with 5 at.% Al content (A5ZO). The dosage affected both cyanotoxins similarly, and the photocatalytic degradation kinetics improved with photocatalyst concentrations between 0.5 and 1.0 g L−1. Nevertheless, the pH study revealed that the chemical state of a species decisively facilitates the mutual interaction of cyanotoxin and photocatalysts. A5ZO nanoparticles achieved better outcomes than other photocatalysts to date, and after 180 min, the mineralization of anatoxin-A was virtually complete in weak alkaline medium, whereas only 45% of MC-LR was in neutral conditions. Moreover, photocatalyst reusability is clear for anatoxin-A, but it is adversely affected for MC-LR.

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Al-Tebrineh, Jamal, Chester Merrick, David Ryan, Andrew Humpage, Lee Bowling, and Brett A. Neilan. "Community Composition, Toxigenicity, and Environmental Conditions during a Cyanobacterial Bloom Occurring along 1,100 Kilometers of the Murray River." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 78, no. 1 (November 11, 2011): 263–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.05587-11.

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ABSTRACTA cyanobacterial bloom impacted over 1,100 km of the Murray River, Australia, and its tributaries in 2009. Physicochemical conditions in the river were optimal to support a bloom at the time. The data suggest that at least three blooms occurred concurrently in different sections of the river, with each having a different community composition and associated cyanotoxin profile. Microscopic and genetic analyses suggested the presence of potentially toxicAnabaena circinalis,Microcystis flos-aquae, andCylindrospermopsis raciborskiiat many locations. Low concentrations of saxitoxins and cylindrospermopsin were detected inAnabaenaandCylindrospermopsispopulations. A multiplex quantitative PCR was used, employing novel oligonucleotide primers and fluorescent TaqMan probes, to examine bloom toxigenicity. This single reaction method identified the presence of the major cyanotoxin-producing species present in these environmental samples and also quantified the various toxin biosynthesis genes. A large number of cells present throughout the bloom were not potential toxin producers or were present in numbers below the limit of detection of the assay and therefore not an immediate health risk. Potential toxin-producing cells, possessing the cylindrospermopsin biosynthesis gene (cyrA), predominated early in the bloom, while those possessing the saxitoxin biosynthesis gene (sxtA) were more common toward its decline. In this study, the concentrations of cyanotoxins measured via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) correlated positively with the respective toxin gene copy numbers, indicating that the molecular method may be used as a proxy for bloom risk assessment.

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Maria Teresa A.P. Menescal, Edna dos Santos Almeida, and Emerson Andrade Sales. "Identification and Study of a Promising Cyanobacteria Species for Biotechnological Applications." JOURNAL OF BIOENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY APPLIED TO HEALTH 3, no. 4 (December 21, 2020): 328–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.34178/jbth.v3i4.138.

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The present work aims to evaluate cyanobacteria isolated from a lagoon located in Salvador. The species have a potential for toxin production and growth in a controlled environment suggesting the potential of its biomass for biotechnological application. The species were identified and analyzed for the presence of cyanotoxin-producing genes using molecular methods. The growth kinetics of the microorganism was carried out in the laboratory and the results (productivity of 0.5 g/L) showed that this species can be cultivated under controlled conditions. The sequencing indicated similarity with a Brasilonema sp and the PCR products for the detection of cyanotoxins were negative, which makes it possible to use as food or bioactive compound sources.

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Hinojosa, María G., Ana I. Prieto, Clara Muñoz-Castro, María V. Sánchez-Mico, Javier Vitorica, Ana M. Cameán, and Ángeles Jos. "Cytotoxicity and Effects on the Synapsis Induced by Pure Cylindrospermopsin in an E17 Embryonic Murine Primary Neuronal Culture in a Concentration- and Time-Dependent Manner." Toxins 14, no. 3 (February 26, 2022): 175. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030175.

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Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a cyanotoxin whose incidence has been increasing in the last decades. Due to its capacity to exert damage at different levels of the organism, it is considered a cytotoxin. Although the main target organ is the liver, recent studies indicate that CYN has potential toxic effects on the nervous system, both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, the aim of the present work was to study the effects of this cyanotoxin on neuronal viability and synaptic integrity in murine primary cultures of neurons exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (0–1 µg/mL CYN) for 12, 24, and 48 h. The results demonstrate a concentration- and time-dependent decrease in cell viability; no cytotoxicity was detected after exposure to the cyanotoxin for 12 h, while all of the concentrations assayed decreased this parameter after 48 h. Furthermore, CYN was also demonstrated to exert damage at the synaptic level in a murine primary neuronal culture in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. These data highlight the importance of studying the neurotoxic properties of this cyanotoxin in different experimental models.

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Codd, Geoffrey A., and Peter B. Nunn. "Cyanotoxin production beyond the cyanobacteria." Toxicon 168 (October 2019): 93–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.06.226.

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Rastogi, Rajesh P., Rajeshwar P. Sinha, and Aran Incharoensakdi. "The cyanotoxin-microcystins: current overview." Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology 13, no. 2 (February 21, 2014): 215–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11157-014-9334-6.

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Cirés, Samuel, Lars Wörmer, Andreas Ballot, Ramsy Agha, Claudia Wiedner, David Velázquez, María Cristina Casero, and Antonio Quesada. "Phylogeography of Cylindrospermopsin and Paralytic Shellfish Toxin-Producing Nostocales Cyanobacteria from Mediterranean Europe (Spain)." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80, no. 4 (December 13, 2013): 1359–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.03002-13.

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ABSTRACTPlanktonicNostocalescyanobacteria represent a challenge for microbiological research because of the wide range of cyanotoxins that they synthesize and their invasive behavior, which is presumably enhanced by global warming. To gain insight into the phylogeography of potentially toxicNostocalesfrom Mediterranean Europe, 31 strains ofAnabaena(Anabaena crassa,A. lemmermannii,A. mendotae, andA. planctonica),Aphanizomenon(Aphanizomenon gracile,A. ovalisporum), andCylindrospermopsis raciborskiiwere isolated from 14 freshwater bodies in Spain and polyphasically analyzed for their phylogeography, cyanotoxin production, and the presence of cyanotoxin biosynthesis genes. The potent cytotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) was produced by all 6Aphanizomenon ovalisporumstrains at high levels (5.7 to 9.1 μg CYN mg−1[dry weight]) with low variation between strains (1.5 to 3.9-fold) and a marked extracellular release (19 to 41% dissolved CYN) during exponential growth. Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) neurotoxins (saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and decarbamoylsaxitoxin) were detected in 2Aphanizomenon gracilestrains, both containing thesxtAgene. This gene was also amplified in non-PSP toxin-producingAphanizomenon gracileandAphanizomenon ovalisporum. Phylogenetic analyses supported the species identification and confirmed the high similarity of SpanishAnabaenaandAphanizomenonstrains with other European strains. In contrast,Cylindrospermopsis raciborskiifrom Spain grouped together with American strains and was clearly separate from the rest of the European strains, raising questions about the current assumptions of the phylogeography and spreading routes ofC. raciborskii. The present study confirms that the nostocalean genusAphanizomenonis a major source of CYN and PSP toxins in Europe and demonstrates the presence of thesxtAgene in CYN-producingAphanizomenon ovalisporum.

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Wunsche, L., T. Vicari, S. L. M. Calado, J. Wojciechowski, V. F. Magalhães, H. C. S. Assis, D. M. Leme, and M. M. Cestari. "Genotoxicity detected during cyanobacteria bloom in a water supply reservoir." ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION 15 (November 10, 2020): 51–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5132/eec.2020.01.07.

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The aquatic ecosystems are susceptible to cyanobacterial blooms due to the eutrophication of water bodies caused by human activities. In this study, phytoplankton and cyanotoxins analysis, as well as cellular and genetic biomarkers of toxicity (Allium cepa test - higher plant test system), were evaluated in water samples of Alagados Reservoir during a cyanobacterial bloom in South Brazil. The water samples were collected during the wet season at two sites in the Reservoir. Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) were detected in both samples (sites 1 and 2); however, the levels of PSTs were higher in site 1. Gonyautoxin 2 was the major cyanotoxin found in the Reservoir. Both samples were able to induce cytotoxic effects (reduced Mitotic Index) and damage the genetic material (i.e., increased frequencies of chromosome aberration and micronuclei) of meristematic cells of A. cepa. The cellular and genetic damages were higher in the sample site 1, wherein high levels of PSTs were verified. Thus, our findings suggested that cyanotoxins-contaminated waters may damage the genetic material of living organisms, and therefore this group of contaminants should be assessed for their potential genotoxicity.

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Aparicio-Muriana, María del Mar, Francisco J. Lara, Monsalud Del Olmo-Iruela, and Ana M. García-Campaña. "Determination of Multiclass Cyanotoxins in Blue-Green Algae (BGA) Dietary Supplements Using Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry." Toxins 15, no. 2 (February 4, 2023): 127. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020127.

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In recent years, the consumption of blue-green algae (BGA) dietary supplements is increasing because of their health benefits. However, cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins, which present serious health risks. In this work we propose hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) to determine cyanotoxins in BGA dietary supplements. Target toxins, including microcystin-leucine-arginine (MC-LR) and microcystin-arginine-arginine (MC-RR), nodularin, anatoxin-a and three non-protein amino acids, β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA), 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG), were separated using a SeQuant ZIC-HILIC column. Cyanotoxin extraction was based on solid–liquid extraction (SLE) followed by a tandem-solid phase extraction (SPE) procedure using Strata-X and mixed-mode cation-exchange (MCX) cartridges. The method was validated for BGA dietary supplements obtaining quantification limits from 60 to 300 µg·kg−1. Nine different commercial supplements were analyzed, and DAB, AEG, and MCs were found in some samples, highlighting the relevance of monitoring these substances as precaution measures for the safe consumption of these products.

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Omara, Timothy, Christine Betty Nagawa, Christine Kyarimpa, Stefan Böhmdorfer, Thomas Rosenau, Solomon Omwoma Lugasi, Henry Matovu, Silver Odongo, and Patrick Ssebugere. "Lacustrine Cyanobacteria, Algal Blooms and Cyanotoxins in East Africa: Implications for Human and Ecological Health Protection." Phycology 3, no. 1 (February 15, 2023): 147–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/phycology3010010.

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Advected cyanobacteria, algal blooms and cyanotoxins have been increasingly detected in freshwater ecosystems. This review gives an insight into the present state of knowledge on the taxonomy, dynamics, toxic effects, human and ecological health implications of cyanobacteria, algal blooms and cyanotoxins in the East African Community lakes. The major toxigenic microalgae in East African lakes include Microcystis, Arthrospira, Dolichospermum, Planktolyngbya and Anabaenopsis species. Anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a, microcystins (MCs), cylindrospermopsin and nodularin have been quantified in water from below method detection limits to 81 µg L−1, with peak concentrations characteristically reported for the wet season. In whole fish, gut, liver and muscles, MCs have been found at concentrations of 2.4 to 1479.24 μg kg−1, which can pose human health risks to a daily consumer. While there have been no reported cases of cyanotoxin-related poisoning in humans, MCs and anatoxin-a (up to 0.0514 μg kg−1) have been identified as the proximal cause of indiscriminate fish kills and epornitic mortality of algivorous Phoeniconaias minor (lesser flamingos). With the unequivocal increase in climate change and variability, algal blooms and cyanotoxins will increase in frequency and severity, and this will necessitate swift action towards the mitigation of nutrient-rich pollutants loading into lakes in the region.

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Cordeiro, Rita, Rúben Luz, Joana Vilaverde, Vitor Vasconcelos, Amélia Fonseca, and Vítor Gonçalves. "Distribution of Toxic Cyanobacteria in Volcanic Lakes of the Azores Islands." Water 12, no. 12 (December 2, 2020): 3385. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12123385.

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Eutrophication and global climate change gather advantageous conditions for cyanobacteria proliferation leading to bloom formation and cyanotoxin production. In the Azores, eutrophication is a major concern, mainly in lakes where fertilizers and organic matter discharges have increased nutrient concentration. In this study, we focused on understanding the influence of environmental factors and lake characteristics on (i) cyanobacteria diversity and biomass and (ii) the presence of toxic strains and microcystin, saxitoxin, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin cyanotoxin-producing genes. Fifteen lakes from the Azores Archipelago were sampled seasonally, environmental variables were recorded in situ, cyanobacteria were analyzed with microscopic techniques, and cyanotoxin-producing genes were targeted through conventional PCR. Statistical analysis (DistLM) showed that lake typology-associated variables (lake’s depth, area, and altitude) were the most explanatory variables of cyanobacteria biomass and cyanotoxin-producing genes presence, although trophic variables (chlorophyll a and total phosphorus) influence species distribution in each lake type. Our main results revealed higher cyanobacteria biomass/diversity, and higher toxicity risk in lakes located at lower altitudes, associated with deep anthropogenic pressures and eutrophication scenarios. These results emphasize the need for cyanobacteria blooms control measures, mainly by decreasing anthropogenic pressures surrounding these lakes, thus decreasing eutrophication. We also highlight the potential for microcystin, saxitoxin, and anatoxin-a production in these lakes, hence the necessity to implement continuous mitigation protocols to avoid environmental and public health toxicity events.

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Ferreira, Matheus Almeida, Cristina Celia Silveira Brandão, and Yovanka Pérez Ginoris. "Oxidation of Cylindrospermopsin by Fenton Process: A Bench-Scale Study of the Effects of Dose and Ratio of H2O2 and Fe(II) and Kinetics." Toxins 13, no. 9 (August 29, 2021): 604. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090604.

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The cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) has become a significant environmental and human health concern due to its high toxicological potential and widespread distribution. High concentrations of cyanotoxins may be produced during cyanobacterial blooms. Special attention is required when these blooms occur in sources of water intended for human consumption since extracellular cyanotoxins are not effectively removed by conventional water treatments, leading to the need for advanced water treatment technologies such as the Fenton process to produce safe water. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the application of the Fenton process for the degradation of CYN at bench-scale. The oxidation of CYN was evaluated by Fenton reaction at H2O2/Fe(II) molar ratio in a range of 0.4 to 4.0, with the highest degradation of about 81% at molar ratio of 0.4. Doubling the concentrations of reactants for the optimized H2O2/Fe(II) molar ratio, the CYN degradation efficiency reached 91%. Under the conditions studied, CYN degradation by the Fenton process followed a pseudo-first-order kinetic model with an apparent constant rate ranging from 0.813 × 10−3 to 1.879 × 10−3 s−1.

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Vlad, Silvia, William B. Anderson, Sigrid Peldszus, and Peter M. Huck. "Removal of the cyanotoxin anatoxin-a by drinking water treatment processes: a review." Journal of Water and Health 12, no. 4 (March 31, 2014): 601–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2014.018.

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Anatoxin-a (ANTX-a) is a potent alkaloid neurotoxin, produced by several species of cyanobacteria and detected throughout the world. The presence of cyanotoxins, including ANTX-a, in drinking water sources is a potential risk to public health. This article presents a thorough examination of the cumulative body of research on the use of drinking water treatment technologies for extracellular ANTX-a removal, focusing on providing an analysis of the specific operating parameters required for effective treatment and on compiling a series of best-practice recommendations for owners and operators of systems impacted by this cyanotoxin. Of the oxidants used in drinking water treatment, chlorine-based processes (chlorine, chloramines and chlorine dioxide) have been shown to be ineffective for ANTX-a treatment, while ozone, advanced oxidation processes and permanganate can be successful. High-pressure membrane filtration (nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) is likely effective, while adsorption and biofiltration may be effective but further investigation into the implementation of these processes is necessary. Given the lack of full-scale verification, a multiple-barrier approach is recommended, employing a combination of chemical and non-chemical processes.

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Pinheiro Menescal, Maria Teresa Araujo, Edna dos Santos Almeida, Emerson Andrade Sales, Annick Méjean, and Claude Yéprémian. "Identification of Cyanobacteria and Its Potential Toxins in the Joanes I Reservoir, Bahia, Brazil." Toxins 15, no. 1 (January 6, 2023): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010051.

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The Joanes I Reservoir is responsible for 40% of the drinking water supply of the Metropolitan Region of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. For water sources such as this, there is concern regarding the proliferation of potentially toxin-producing cyanobacteria, which can cause environmental and public health impacts. To evaluate the presence of cyanobacteria and their cyanotoxins in the water of this reservoir, the cyanobacteria were identified by microscopy; the presence of the genes of the cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria was detected by molecular methods (polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/sequencing); and the presence of toxins was determined by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The water samples were collected at four sampling points in the Joanes I Reservoir in a monitoring campaign conducted during the occurrence of phytoplankton blooms, and the water quality parameters were also analysed. Ten cyanobacteria species/genera were identified at the monitoring sites, including five potentially cyanotoxin-producing species, such as Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Cylindrospermopsis cf. acuminato-crispa, Aphanocapsa sp., Phormidium sp., and Pseudanabaena sp. A positive result for the presence of the cylindrospermopsin toxin was confirmed at two sampling points by LC-MS/MS, which indicated that the populations are actively producing toxins. The analysis of the PCR products using the HEPF/HEPR primer pair for the detection of the microcystin biosynthesis gene mcyE was positive for the analysed samples. The results of this study point to the worrisome condition of this reservoir, from which water is collected for public supply, and indicate the importance of the joint use of different methods for the analysis of cyanobacteria and their toxins in reservoir monitoring.

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Cullen, Alescia, Leanne A. Pearson, Rabia Mazmouz, Tianzhe Liu, Angela H. Soeriyadi, Sarah E. Ongley, and Brett A. Neilan. "Heterologous expression and biochemical characterisation of cyanotoxin biosynthesis pathways." Natural Product Reports 36, no. 8 (2019): 1117–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8np00063h.

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Munoz, Macarena, David Ortiz, Julia Nieto-Sandoval, Samuel Cirés, Zahara M. de Pedro, Antonio Quesada, and Jose A. Casas. "Catalytic Wet Peroxide Oxidation of Cylindrospermopsin over Magnetite in a Continuous Fixed-Bed Reactor." Catalysts 10, no. 11 (October 29, 2020): 1250. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/catal10111250.

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The development of cost-efficient and environmentally friendly technologies for the removal of cyanotoxins from water is crucial, given the increasingly frequent appearance of toxic cyanobacterial blooms. In this work, the application of catalytic wet peroxide oxidation (CWPO) promoted by natural magnetite for the removal of the highly toxic cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) has been investigated. A fixed-bed reactor packed with magnetite powder and granules was used to treat a continuous flow of CYN-bearing water. Experiments were carried out under ambient conditions and circumneutral pH (pH0 = 5). The effect of the main variables of the process, viz. magnetite load (8–14 g), feed flow rate (0.1–0.25 mL min−1), H2O2 dose (0.5–8 mg L−1) and initial CYN concentration (25–100 μg L−1), were systematically analyzed. CYN conversion values and kinetic constants were calculated to evaluate the feasibility of the catalytic system. The process was highly effective in the removal of the cyanotoxin, achieving up to 80% CYN conversion under optimized conditions (flow rate = 0.2 mL min−1, [H2O2]0 = 5 mg L−1, WFe3O4 = 14 g, pH0 = 5, T = 25 °C). It also showed reasonable activity (~55% CYN conversion) in two real samples (pond and river water). The decay on CYN conversion in these cases was mainly due to the scavenging of hydroxyl radicals by the co-existing species present in the matrices. Remarkably, the catalytic system showed high stability with limited iron leaching (the iron leached at the end of the experiments represented less than 0.2 wt.% of the catalyst’s initial iron content) in all cases. Its stability was further confirmed in a long-term continuous experiment (60 h time on stream). Furthermore, the magnetite granules at the top layer of the packed bed avoided the loss of magnetite powder from the reactor, confirming the suitability of the system for continuous long-term application.

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Turner, Andrew D., Daniel G. Beach, Amanda Foss, Ingunn A. Samdal, Kjersti L. E. Løvberg, Julia Waack, Christine Edwards, et al. "A Feasibility Study into the Production of a Mussel Matrix Reference Material for the Cyanobacterial Toxins Microcystins and Nodularins." Toxins 15, no. 1 (December 30, 2022): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010027.

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Microcystins and nodularins, produced naturally by certain species of cyanobacteria, have been found to accumulate in aquatic foodstuffs such as fish and shellfish, resulting in a risk to the health of the seafood consumer. Monitoring of toxins in such organisms for risk management purposes requires the availability of certified matrix reference materials to aid method development, validation and routine quality assurance. This study consequently targeted the preparation of a mussel tissue reference material incurred with a range of microcystin analogues and nodularins. Nine targeted analogues were incorporated into the material as confirmed through liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), with an additional 15 analogues detected using LC coupled to non-targeted high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Toxins in the reference material and additional source tissues were quantified using LC-MS/MS, two different enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods and with an oxidative-cleavage method quantifying 3-methoxy-2-methyl-4-phenylbutyric acid (MMPB). Correlations between the concentrations quantified using the different methods were variable, likely relating to differences in assay cross-reactivities and differences in the abilities of each method to detect bound toxins. A consensus concentration of total soluble toxins determined from the four independent test methods was 2425 ± 575 µg/kg wet weight. A mean 43 ± 9% of bound toxins were present in addition to the freely extractable soluble form (57 ± 9%). The reference material produced was homogenous and stable when stored in the freezer for six months without any post-production stabilization applied. Consequently, a cyanotoxin shellfish reference material has been produced which demonstrates the feasibility of developing certified seafood matrix reference materials for a large range of cyanotoxins and could provide a valuable future resource for cyanotoxin risk monitoring, management and mitigation.

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Barrington, D. J., A. Ghadouani, and G. N. Ivey. "Cyanobacterial and microcystins dynamics following the application of hydrogen peroxide to waste stabilisation ponds." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions 10, no. 2 (February 18, 2013): 2067–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hessd-10-2067-2013.

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Abstract. Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins are a risk to human and ecological health, and a hindrance to biological wastewater treatment. This study investigated the use of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for the removal of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins from within waste stabilization ponds (WSPs). The daily dynamics of cyanobacteria and microcystins (a commonly occurring cyanotoxin) were examined following the addition of H2O2 to wastewater within both the laboratory and at the full-scale within a WSP. Hydrogen peroxide treatment at concentrations ≥ 10−4 g H2O2 μg−1 of total phytoplankton chlorophyll a led to the death of cyanobacteria, in turn releasing intracellular microcystins to the dissolved state. In the full-scale trial, dissolved microcystins were then degraded to negligible concentrations by H2O2 and environmental processes within five days. A shift in the phytoplankton assemblage towards beneficial chlorophyta species was also observed within days of H2O2 addition. However, within weeks, the chlorophyta population was significantly reduced by the re-establishment of toxic cyanobacterial species. This re-establishment was likely due to the inflow of cyanobacteria from ponds earlier in the treatment train, suggesting that whilst H2O2 may be a suitable short-term management technique, it must be coupled with control over inflows if it is to improve WSP performance in the longer term.

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Mwaura, Francis, Anderson O. Koyo, and Ben Zech. "Cyanobacterial blooms and the presence of cyanotoxins in small high altitude tropical headwater reservoirs in Kenya." Journal of Water and Health 2, no. 1 (March 1, 2004): 49–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2004.0005.

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The phytoplankton community in three small (0.065–0.249 km2) reservoirs in the stepped plateau landscape in the Kinangop area above the Rift Valley floor in Kenya were studied between 1998 and 2000. Approximately 70 species of phytoplankton were identified. The community was dominated by chlorophytes, cyanobacteria and chrysophytes. Diatoms were rare. The phytoplankton assemblage was frequently dominated by cyanobacteria in the dry season. The phytoplankton assemblage transformed to a mixture of cyanobacteria, chlorophytes and chrysophytes at the onset of the long rains, and mixture of cyanobacteria and chlorophytes after the long rains. Thereafter the phytoplankton assemblage consisted mainly of a mix of cyanobacteria and chrysophytes until the onset of the short rains when cyanobacterial dominance re-emerged. The most common phytoplankton species included Microcystis spp., Botryococcus braunii, Ceratium hirundinella, Anabaena spp. and Euglena viridis. The dry season cyanobacterial blooms produced cyanotoxins that included microcystin and endotoxins. The concentrations were well above the recommended safe limits for drinking water. The patterns of cyanotoxin production showed that the growth of the toxin-producing cyanobacteria was regulated by water temperature, pH and nutrients. The appearance of cyanotoxins in the small reservoirs is a serious public health issue in rural Kenya because such reservoirs are key sources of water for humans, livestock and wildlife.

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Pawlowicz, Marek B., James E. Evans, David R. Johnson, and Robert G. Brooks. "A study of the efficacy of various home filtration substrates in the removal of microcystin-LR from drinking water." Journal of Water and Health 4, no. 1 (March 1, 2006): 99–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.0008.

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This study was conducted to determine whether common water filtration and purification systems bought by consumers and used in the home would remove cyanotoxins from water. Commonly used universal filter housings and filter sizes were utilized to identify filter media that may be effective in the removal of microcystin-LR in deionized water. Results suggest that the efficacy of home filtration devices in removing microcystin-LR varies considerably with the type of device being used. Carbon filters successfully removed microcystin-LR allowing only 0.05–0.3% of the toxin load to pass through the filter. On the other hand, pleated paper and string wound filters allowed >90% of microcystin-LR present in the sample to pass through the filters. Theoretically, the use of carbon home filtration devices tested in this study may provide protection against human exposure to cyanotoxin in addition to protection provided by water treatment methodologies utilized in water treatment facilities. Further studies need to be done to assess the efficacy of home filtration devices for various cyanotoxins and for other filtering conditions such as increased toxin load, the presence of other contaminants in drinking water, and the repetitive use of the same filter over longer time intervals.

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Omidi, Azam, Stephan Pflugmacher, Aaron Kaplan, Young Jun Kim, and Maranda Esterhuizen. "Reviewing Interspecies Interactions as a Driving Force Affecting the Community Structure in Lakes via Cyanotoxins." Microorganisms 9, no. 8 (July 25, 2021): 1583. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9081583.

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The escalating occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms worldwide is a matter of concern. Global warming and eutrophication play a major role in the regularity of cyanobacterial blooms, which has noticeably shifted towards the predomination of toxic populations. Therefore, understanding the effects of cyanobacterial toxins in aquatic ecosystems and their advantages to the producers are of growing interest. In this paper, the current literature is critically reviewed to provide further insights into the ecological contribution of cyanotoxins in the variation of the lake community diversity and structure through interspecies interplay. The most commonly detected and studied cyanobacterial toxins, namely the microcystins, anatoxins, saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsins and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine, and their ecotoxicity on various trophic levels are discussed. This work addresses the environmental characterization of pure toxins, toxin-containing crude extracts and filtrates of single and mixed cultures in interspecies interactions by inducing different physiological and metabolic responses. More data on these interactions under natural conditions and laboratory-based studies using direct co-cultivation approaches will provide more substantial information on the consequences of cyanotoxins in the natural ecosystem. This review is beneficial for understanding cyanotoxin-mediated interspecies interactions, developing bloom mitigation technologies and robustly assessing the hazards posed by toxin-producing cyanobacteria to humans and other organisms.

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Díez-Quijada, Leticia, Remedios Guzmán-Guillén, Ana Prieto Ortega, María Llana-Ruíz-Cabello, Alexandre Campos, Vítor Vasconcelos, Ángeles Jos, and Ana Cameán. "New Method for Simultaneous Determination of Microcystins and Cylindrospermopsin in Vegetable Matrices by SPE-UPLC-MS/MS." Toxins 10, no. 10 (October 8, 2018): 406. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins10100406.

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Cyanotoxins are a large group of noxious metabolites with different chemical structure and mechanisms of action, with a worldwide distribution, producing effects in animals, humans, and crop plants. When cyanotoxin-contaminated waters are used for the irrigation of edible vegetables, humans can be in contact with these toxins through the food chain. In this work, a method for the simultaneous detection of Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), Microcystin-RR (MC-RR), Microcystin-YR (MC-YR), and Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) in lettuce has been optimized and validated, using a dual solid phase extraction (SPE) system for toxin extraction and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for analysis. Results showed linear ranges (5–50 ng g−1 f.w.), low values for limit of detection (LOD) (0.06–0.42 ng g−1 f.w.), and limit of quantification (LOQ) (0.16–0.91 ng g−1 f.w.), acceptable recoveries (41–93%), and %RSDIP values for the four toxins. The method proved to be robust for the three variables tested. Finally, it was successfully applied to detect these cyanotoxins in edible vegetables exposed to cyanobacterial extracts under laboratory conditions, and it could be useful for monitoring these toxins in edible vegetables for better exposure estimation in terms of risk assessment.

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Jalili, Farhad, Hana Trigui, Juan Francisco Guerra Maldonado, Sarah Dorner, Arash Zamyadi, B. Jesse Shapiro, Yves Terrat, Nathalie Fortin, Sébastien Sauvé, and Michèle Prévost. "Impact of Stagnation on the Diversity of Cyanobacteria in Drinking Water Treatment Plant Sludge." Toxins 14, no. 11 (October 31, 2022): 749. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110749.

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Health-related concerns about cyanobacteria-laden sludge of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) have been raised in the past few years. Microscopic taxonomy, shotgun metagenomic sequencing, and microcystin (MC) measurement were applied to study the fate of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins after controlled sludge storage (stagnation) in the dark in a full-scale drinking water treatment plant within 7 to 38 days. For four out of eight dates, cyanobacterial cell growth was observed by total taxonomic cell counts during sludge stagnation. The highest observed cell growth was 96% after 16 days of stagnation. Cell growth was dominated by potential MC producers such as Microcystis, Aphanocapsa, Chroococcus, and Dolichospermum. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing unveiled that stagnation stress shifts the cyanobacterial communities from the stress-sensitive Nostocales (e.g., Dolichospermum) order towards less compromised orders and potential MC producers such as Chroococcales (e.g., Microcystis) and Synechococcales (e.g., Synechococcus). The relative increase of cyanotoxin producers presents a health challenge when the supernatant of the stored sludge is recycled to the head of the DWTP or discharged into the source. These findings emphasize the importance of a strategy to manage cyanobacteria-laden sludge and suggest practical approaches should be adopted to control health/environmental impacts of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in sludge.

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Papadimitriou, Theodoti, Konstantinos Kormas, and Elisabeth Vardaka. "Cyanotoxin contamination in commercial Spirulina food supplements." Journal of Consumer Protection and Food Safety 16, no. 3 (May 9, 2021): 227–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00003-021-01324-2.

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Gin, Karina Yew-Hoong, Zhi Yang Sim, Kwan Chien Goh, Jerome Wai Kit Kok, Shu Harn Te, Ngoc Han Tran, Wenxuan Li, and Yiliang He. "Novel cyanotoxin-producing Synechococcus in tropical lakes." Water Research 192 (March 2021): 116828. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.116828.

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Johnson, Christopher, Jason Davis, and Timothy Sherman. "Cyanotoxin Response Leads to Successful Resilience Planning." Opflow 47, no. 3 (April 2021): 16–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/opfl.1515.

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Kaebernick, Melanie, and Brett A. Neilan. "Ecological and molecular investigations of cyanotoxin production." FEMS Microbiology Ecology 35, no. 1 (March 2001): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2001.tb00782.x.

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Westrick, Judy A., and David Szlag. "A Cyanotoxin Primer for Drinking Water Professionals." Journal - American Water Works Association 110, no. 8 (July 10, 2018): E1—E16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/awwa.1088.

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Karthikeyan, S., Dionysios D. Dionysiou, Adam F. Lee, S. Suvitha, P. Maharaja, Karen Wilson, and G. Sekaran. "Hydroxyl radical generation by cactus-like copper oxide nanoporous carbon catalysts for microcystin-LR environmental remediation." Catalysis Science & Technology 6, no. 2 (2016): 530–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5cy00888c.

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Farrer, David, Marina Counter, Rebecca Hillwig, and Curtis Cude. "Health-Based Cyanotoxin Guideline Values Allow for Cyanotoxin-Based Monitoring and Efficient Public Health Response to Cyanobacterial Blooms." Toxins 7, no. 2 (February 5, 2015): 457–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins7020457.

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Zupančič, Maša, Polona Kogovšek, Tadeja Šter, Špela Remec Rekar, Leonardo Cerasino, Špela Baebler, Aleksandra Krivograd Klemenčič, and Tina Eleršek. "Potentially Toxic Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria in Slovenian Freshwater Bodies: Detection by Quantitative PCR." Toxins 13, no. 2 (February 11, 2021): 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins13020133.

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Due to increased frequency of cyanobacterial blooms and emerging evidence of cyanotoxicity in biofilm, reliable methods for early cyanotoxin threat detection are of major importance for protection of human, animal and environmental health. To complement the current methods of risk assessment, this study aimed to evaluate selected qPCR assays for detection of potentially toxic cyanobacteria in environmental samples. In the course of one year, 25 plankton and 23 biofilm samples were collected from 15 water bodies in Slovenia. Three different analyses were performed and compared to each other; qPCR targeting mcyE, cyrJ and sxtA genes involved in cyanotoxin production, LC-MS/MS quantifying microcystin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin concentration, and microscopic analyses identifying potentially toxic cyanobacterial taxa. qPCR analyses detected potentially toxic Microcystis in 10 lake plankton samples, and potentially toxic Planktothrix cells in 12 lake plankton and one lake biofilm sample. A positive correlation was observed between numbers of mcyE gene copies and microcystin concentrations. Potential cylindrospermopsin- and saxitoxin-producers were detected in three and seven lake biofilm samples, respectively. The study demonstrated a potential for cyanotoxin production that was left undetected by traditional methods in both plankton and biofilm samples. Thus, the qPCR method could be useful in regular monitoring of water bodies to improve risk assessment and enable timely measures.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Cyanotoxin'

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