Relevant bibliographies by topics / Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)

Academic literature on the topic 'Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)'

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Published: 7 September 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)"

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Hafdi, Zoubeida. "Electrical and Optical Characterization of Non-Hydrogenated a-Si/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells." Journal of Renewable Energies 24, no. 2 (December 31, 2021): 202–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.54966/jreen.v24i2.981.

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This work deals with the performance of a heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer solar cell by sputtering silicon on p-type crystalline silicon substrate in argon ambient without hydrogen addition. This first effort was an attempt to use cost-effective means to convert light into electricity and to find fabrication processes which use fewer and cheaper materials for the fabrication of solar cells. Since transport mechanisms of amorphous silicon/crystalline silicon heterojunctions are still under investigation, the aim is to examine the behavior of the fabricated samples under electrical and optical constraints. Initial cell characterization includes electrical behavior via current-voltage characteristics and optical investigation via reflectance and absorptance measurements. Results are analyzed in a tentative to follow the absorption, generation and collection processes in the fabricated cell. The heterojunction interface is found to be a limiting factor in the cell performance. Under sun illumination, the open circuit voltage was 140 mV, the short circuit current was of 6 µA and the fill factor was of 42.56 %. Dark current-voltage characteristics indicated a tunneling and/or recombination carrier transport mechanism, while aborptance/reflectance measurements showed a generation process occurring in most in the crystalline silicon-side of the amorphous/crystalline silicon heterojunction. A carrier collection limitation is a very probable origin of the decreased cell generated current.
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Agbo, Solomon, Pavol Sutta, Pavel Calta, Rana Biswas, and Bicai Pan. "Crystallized silicon nanostructures — experimental characterization and atomistic simulations." Canadian Journal of Physics 92, no. 7/8 (July 2014): 783–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2013-0442.

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We have synthesized silicon nanocrystalline structures from thermal annealing of thin film amorphous silicon-based multilayers. The annealing procedure that was carried out in vacuum at temperatures up to 1100 °C is integrated in a X-ray diffraction (XRD) setup for real-time monitoring of the formation phases of the nanostructures. The microstructure of the crystallized films is investigated through experimental measurements combined with atomistic simulations of realistic nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) models. The multilayers consisting of uniformly alternating thicknesses of hydrogenated amorphous silicon and silicon oxide (SiO2) were deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition on crystalline silicon and Corning glass substrates. The crystallized structure consisting of nc-Si structures embedded in an amorphous matrix were further characterized through XRD, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared measurements. We are able to show the different stages of nanostructure formation and how the sizes and the crystallized mass fraction can be controlled in our experimental synthesis. The crystallized silicon structures with large crystalline filling fractions exceeding 50% have been simulated with a robust classical molecular dynamics technique. The crystalline filling fractions and structural order of nc-Si obtained from this simulation are compared with our Raman and XRD measurements.
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Batstone, J. L. "In situ crystallization of amorphous silicon." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 50, no. 2 (August 1992): 1346–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s042482010013136x.

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The solid state transformation of amorphous silicon (a-Si) to crystalline silicon (c-Si) is a first order phase transformation which is driven by the difference in free energy between the amorphous and crystalline phases. The crystallization occurs at temperatures of 500-700°C which are readily accessible with commercial specimen heating stages for the transmission electron microscope (TEM). In this paper we study the a-c phase transformation dynamically by utilizing the powerful technique of in-situ TEM to monitor the nucleation and growth kinetics of thin films of Si. The propagation of a moving a-c interface is presented and an activation energy for crystal growth is obtained.400Å of a-Si was prepared by electron beam deposition of Si at room temperature on amorphous Si3,N4 “window” substrates which required no additional sample preparation for TEM. The samples were examined in a plan view orientation to minimize surface effects on the crystallization process. The a-Si films were annealed by in-situ heating in a Gatan single-tilt hot stage which has a temperature accuracy of ±25°C. Crystallization occurred at ∼700°C with the formation of small crystallites which grew to consume the entire amorphous film. Fig. 1 shows a partially transformed region of a-Si after annealing at 710°C for 6 mins.
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Pamungkas, Mauludi Ariesto, and Rendra Widiyatmoko. "Effect of Hydrogenation Temperature on Distribution of Hydrogen Atoms in c-Si and a-Si: Molecular Dynamic Simulations." Key Engineering Materials 706 (August 2016): 55–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.706.55.

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Crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon are main materials of solar cell. Under prolonged exposure to light, silicon will degrade in quality. Hydrogenation is believed can minimize this degradation by reduce the number of dangling bond. These Molecular dynamics simulations are aimed to elaborate the hydrogenation process of crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon and to elucidate effect of temperature on distribution of hydrogen atoms. Reactive Force Field is selected owing to its capability to describe forming and breaking of atomic bonds as well as charge transfer. Hydrogenation is performed at 300 K, 600 K, 900 K, and 1200 K. Hydrogenated silicon surface hinders further hydrogen atoms to be absorbed such that not all deposited Hydrogen atoms are absorbed by silicon surface. Generally, the higher hydrogenation temperature the more hydrogen atoms are absorbed. Increment of temperature from 900 K to 1200 K only enhances a few numbers of absorbed hydrogen atoms. However, it can enable hydrogen atoms to penetrate into deeper silicon substrate. It is also observed that hydrogen atoms can penetrate into amorphous silicon deeper than into crystalline silicon.
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Wang, Ying Lian, and Jun Yao Ye. "Review and Development of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell with Intelligent Materials." Advanced Materials Research 321 (August 2011): 196–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.321.196.

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The application of solar cell has offered human society renewable clean energy. As intelligent materials, crystalline silicon solar cells occupy absolutely dominant position in photovoltaic market, and this position will not change for a long time in the future. Thereby increasing the efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cells, reducing production costs and making crystalline silicon solar cells competitive with conventional energy sources become the subject of today's PV market. The working theory of solar cell was introduced. The developing progress and the future development of mono-crystalline silicon (c-Si), poly-crystalline silicon (p-Si) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell have also been introduced.
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Holla, M., Tzanimir Arguirov, Winfried Seifert, and Martin Kittler. "Analysis of Silicon Carbide and Silicon Nitride Precipitates in Block Cast Multicrystalline Silicon." Solid State Phenomena 156-158 (October 2009): 41–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.156-158.41.

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We report on the optical and mechanical properties of Si3N4 inclusions, formed in the upper part of mc-Si blocks during the crystallization process. Those inclusions usually appear as crystalline hexagonal tubes or rods. Here we show that in many cases the Si3N4 inclusions contain crystalline Si in their core. The presence of the Si phase in the centre was proven by means of cathodoluminescence spectroscopy and imaging, electron beam induced current measurements and Raman spectroscopy. The crystalline Si3N4 phase was identified as β-Si3N4. Residual stress was revealed at the particles. While the stress is compressive in the Si material surrounding the Si3N4 particles tensile stress is found in the Si core. We assume that the stress is formed during cool down of the Si block and is a consequence of the larger thermal expansion coefficient of Si in comparison to that of β-Si3N4. Iron assisted nitridation of Si at temperatures below 1400 °C is considered a possible mechanism of Si3N4 formation.
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Middya, A. R., and Kartik Ghosh. "Quasicrystalline Phase of Silicon on Glass." MRS Proceedings 1493 (2013): 169–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/opl.2013.225.

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ABSTRACTIn this paper, we report new phase of crystalline silicon, quasicrystalline silicon thin-film on glass substrate. The surface topography of these films reveal simultaneous existence of sixfold and fivefold symmetry. We found an array of quasi-unit cell in 2-D that formed quasicrystalline solid. This is first time demonstration of quasicrystalline for single element, silicon (Si). Raman spectra suggests that we found crystalline silicon structure on glass substrate that is not single-crystal silicon (c-Si) but very close to c-Si.
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Ech-chamikh, E., A. Essafti, M. Azizan, F. Debbagh, and Y. Ijdiyaou. "Annealing Effects on RF Sputter Deposited a-Si/a-C Multilayers." Journal of Nano Research 4 (January 2009): 103–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/jnanor.4.103.

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Amorphous silicon on amorphous carbon (a-Si/a-C) multilayers was deposited by RadioFrequency (RF) sputtering. These multilayers were obtained by alternate deposition of a-C and a-Si layers, respectively from graphite and silicon targets of high purity, on crystalline silicon substrates. The RF power and the argon pressure, during the pulverization, were maintained respectively at 250W and 10-2 mbar. The annealing effects, at temperatures of 450°C and 750°C, on the deposited structures were investigated by X-ray reflectometry. The a-Si/a-C interfaces are abrupt before and after annealing at 450°C. The annealing at 750°C leads to a net decrease of both the upper a-Si layer thickness and the total multilayer thickness with a net enhancement of the interfaces reactivity. The upper silicon layer is crystallized after annealing at 750°C.
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Zhang, Junling, Shimou Chen, Haitao Zhang, Suojiang Zhang, Xue Yao, and Zhaohui Shi. "Electrodeposition of crystalline silicon directly from silicon tetrachloride in ionic liquid at low temperature." RSC Advances 6, no. 15 (2016): 12061–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ra23085c.

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Crystalline silicon was fabricated directly from silicon tetrachloride in ionic liquid at low temperature of 100 °C. SEM, TEM and SEAD revealed that as-deposited crystalline Si with diamond cubic crystal structure.
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Moreno, Mario, Arturo Ponce, Arturo Galindo, Eduardo Ortega, Alfredo Morales, Javier Flores, Roberto Ambrosio, et al. "Comparative Study on the Quality of Microcrystalline and Epitaxial Silicon Films Produced by PECVD Using Identical SiF4 Based Process Conditions." Materials 14, no. 22 (November 17, 2021): 6947. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14226947.

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Hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon (µc-Si:H) and epitaxial silicon (epi-Si) films have been produced from SiF4, H2 and Ar mixtures by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) at 200 °C. Here, both films were produced using identical deposition conditions, to determine if the conditions for producing µc-Si with the largest crystalline fraction (XC), will also result in epi-Si films that encompass the best quality and largest crystalline silicon (c-Si) fraction. Both characteristics are of importance for the development of thin film transistors (TFTs), thin film solar cells and novel 3D devices since epi-Si films can be grown or etched in a selective manner. Therefore, we have distinguished that the H2/SiF4 ratio affects the XC of µc-Si, the c-Si fraction in epi-Si films, and the structure of the epi-Si/c-Si interface. Raman and UV-Vis ellipsometry were used to evaluate the crystalline volume fraction (Xc) and composition of the deposited layers, while the structure of the films were inspected by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Notably, the conditions for producing µc-Si with the largest XC are different in comparison to the fabrication conditions of epi-Si films with the best quality and largest c-Si fraction.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)"

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Labrune, Martin. "Silicon surface passivation and epitaxial growth on c-Si by low temperature plasma processes for high efficiency solar cells." Phd thesis, Ecole Polytechnique X, 2011. http://pastel.archives-ouvertes.fr/pastel-00611652.

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This thesis presents a work which has been devoted to the growth of silicon thin films on crystalline silicon for photovoltaic applications by means of RF PECVD. The primary goal of this work was to obtain an amorphous growth on any c-Si surface in order to provide an efficient passivation, as required in heterojunction solar cells. Indeed, we demonstrated that epitaxial or mixed phase growths, easy to obtain on (100) Si, would lead to poor surface passivation. We proved that growing a few nm thin a-Si1-xCx:H alloy film was an efficient, stable and reproducible way to hinder epitaxy while keeping an excellent surface passivation by the subsequent deposition of a-Si:H films. Process optimization mainly based on Spectroscopic Ellipsometry, Effective lifetime measurements (Sinton lifetime tester) and current-voltage characterization led us to demonstrate that it was possible to obtain a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells with stable VOC of 710 mV and FF of 76 % on flat (n) c-Si wafers, with solar cells of 25 cm2 whose metallization was realized by screen-printing technology. This work has also demonstrated the viability of a completely dry process where the native oxide is removed by SiF4 plasma etching instead of the wet HF removal. Last but not least, the epitaxial growth of silicon thin films, undoped and n or p-type doped, on (100)-oriented surfaces has been studied by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry and Hall effect measurements. We have been able to fabricate homojunction solar cells with a p-type emitter as well as p-i-n structures with an undoped epitaxial absorber on a heavily-doped (p) c-Si wafers.
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Bahabry, Rabab R. "Towards Cost-Effective Crystalline Silicon Based Flexible Solar Cells: Integration Strategy by Rational Design of Materials, Process, and Devices." Diss., 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10754/626350.

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The solar cells market has an annual growth of more than 30 percent over the past 15 years. At the same time, the cost of the solar modules diminished to meet both of the rapid global demand and the technological improvements. In particular for the crystalline silicon solar cells, the workhorse of this technology. The objective of this doctoral thesis is enhancing the efficiency of c-Si solar cells while exploring the cost reduction via innovative techniques. Contact metallization and ultra-flexible wafer based c-Si solar cells are the main areas under investigation. First, Silicon-based solar cells typically utilize screen printed Silver (Ag) metal contacts which affect the optimal electrical performance. To date, metal silicide-based ohmic contacts are occasionally used for the front contact grid lines. In this work, investigation of the microstructure and the electrical characteristics of nickel monosilicide (NiSi) ohmic contacts on the rear side of c-Si solar cells has been carried out. Significant enhancement in the fill factor leading to increasing the total power conversion efficiency is observed. Second, advanced classes of modern application require a new generation of versatile solar cells showcasing extreme mechanical resilience. However, silicon is a brittle material with a fracture strains <1%. Highly flexible Si-based solar cells are available in the form thin films which seem to be disadvantageous over thick Si solar cells due to the reduction of the optical absorption with less active Si material. Here, a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology based integration strategy is designed where corrugation architecture to enable an ultra-flexible solar cell module from bulk mono-crystalline silicon solar wafer with 17% efficiency. This periodic corrugated array benefits from an interchangeable solar cell segmentation scheme which preserves the active silicon thickness and achieves flexibility via interdigitated back contacts. These cells can reversibly withstand high mechanical stress as the screen-printed metals have fracture strain >15%. Furthermore, the integration of the cells is demonstrated on curved surfaces for a fully functional system. Finally, the developed flexing approach is used to fabricate three-dimensional dome-shaped cells to reduce the optical coupling losses without the use of the expensive solar tracking/tilting systems.
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Book chapters on the topic "Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)"

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Rappich, Jörg. "Electrochemical Passivation and Modification of c-Si surfaces." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 95–130. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_4.

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De Wolf, Stefaan. "Intrinsic and Doped a-Si:H/c-Si Interface Passivation." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 223–59. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_7.

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Tucci, Mario, Luca Serenelli, Simona De Iuliis, Massimo Izzi, Giampiero de Cesare, and Domenico Caputo. "Contact Formation on a-Si:H/c-Si Heterostructure Solar Cells." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 331–75. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_10.

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Leendertz, Caspar, and Rolf Stangl. "Modeling an a-Si:H/c-Si Solar Cell with AFORS-HET." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 459–82. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_14.

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Angermann, Heike, and Jörg Rappich. "Wet-Chemical Conditioning of Silicon Substrates for a-Si:H/c-Si Heterojunctions." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 45–94. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_3.

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Korte, Lars. "Electronic Properties of Ultrathin a-Si:H Layers and the a-Si:H/c-Si Interface." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 161–221. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_6.

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Muñoz, Delfina, Thibaut Desrues, and Pierre-Jean Ribeyron. "a-Si:H/c-Si Heterojunction Solar Cells: A Smart Choice for High Efficiency Solar Cells." In Physics and Technology of Amorphous-Crystalline Heterostructure Silicon Solar Cells, 539–72. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22275-7_17.

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Guechi, Abla, and Mohamed Chegaar. "Seasonal Variations of Solar Radiation on the Performance of Crystalline Silicon Heterojunction (c-Si-HJ) Solar Cells." In Advanced Control Engineering Methods in Electrical Engineering Systems, 267–76. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97816-1_20.

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Li, Bing-Nan, Chuan-Rui Yu, Qian-Cheng Wang, and Hui-Yuan Chi. "Comparison of Solar Glazing Performance of Semi-transparent Amorphous-Silicon (a-Si) and Crystalline-Silicon (c-Si) Photovoltaic Panels: A Case Study for Typical Office Building in Hong Kong." In Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Resource Sustainability: Sustainable Urbanisation in the BRI Era (icRS Urbanisation 2020), 45–58. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9605-6_4.

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Csaszar, W., and A. L. Endrös. "Fermi level dependent properties of hydrogen in crystalline silicon." In C,H,N and O in Si and Characterization and Simulation of Materials and Processes, 112–15. Elsevier, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-82413-4.50030-5.

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Conference papers on the topic "Crystalline Silicon (C-Si)"

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Folchert, Nils, Stefan Bordihn, Robby Peibst, and Rolf Brendel. "Modelling the annealing of poly-Si/SiOx/c-Si junctions." In SiliconPV 2021, The 11th International Conference on Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics. AIP Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0089597.

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Yang, Yang, Pietro P. Altermatt, Yanfeng Cui, Yunyun Hu, Daming Chen, Lijuan Chen, Guanchao Xu, et al. "Effect of carrier-induced hydrogenation on the passivation of the poly-Si/SiOx/c-Si interface." In SILICONPV 2018, THE 8TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. Author(s), 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5049289.

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Peng, Zih-Wei, Ke Xu, Alexandros Cruz Bournazou, Eva Unger, Steve Albrecht, and Bernd Stannowski. "Upscaling of Perovskite/c-Si tandem solar cells by using industrial adaptable processes." In SILICONPV 2022, THE 12TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. AIP Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0141139.

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Halbich, Marc-Uwe, Dimitri Zielke, Ralf Gogolin, Rüdiger Sauer, Wilfried Lövenich, and Jan Schmidt. "Reduction of parasitic absorption in PEDOT:PSS at the rear of c-Si solar cells." In SILICONPV 2018, THE 8TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. Author(s), 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5049271.

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Sen, Mike Ah, Pierpaolo Spinelli, Benjamin Kikkert, Eelko Hoek, Bart Macco, Arthur Weeber, and Paula Bronsveld. "Electron beam evaporated molybdenum oxide as hole-selective contact in 6-inch c-Si heterojunction solar cells." In SILICONPV 2018, THE 8TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. Author(s), 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5049264.

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Martins, Augusto, Juntao Li, Achiles F. da Mota, Yin Wang, Luiz G. Neto, João P. do Carmo, Fernando L. Teixeira, Emiliano R. Martins, and Ben-Hur V. Borges. "Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Metasurface Holograms in the Visible Range." In Digital Holography and Three-Dimensional Imaging. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/dh.2018.dth2e.5.

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Ghannam, Moustafa Y. "Temperature dependence of light-enhanced series resistance, fill factor and efficiency of a-Si:H/c-Si heterojunction solar cells." In SILICONPV 2022, THE 12TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. AIP Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0140664.

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Radfar, Behrad, Firat Es, Hisham Nasser, Ozan Akdemir, Alpan Bek, and Rasit Turan. "Effect of laser parameters and post-texturing treatments on the optical and electrical properties of laser textured c-Si wafers." In SILICONPV 2018, THE 8TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAICS. Author(s), 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5049298.

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Tsybeskov, L., K. L. Moore, S. P. Duttagupta, K. D. Hirschman, D. G. Hall, and P. M. Fauchet. "Fabrication and Luminescence of Large Si Nanocrystals." In Chemistry and Physics of Small-Scale Structures. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/cps.1997.ctub.6.

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The photoluminescence (PL) in crystalline silicon (c-Si) has been investigated during the last decades. Recent interest has focused on the visible PL that is observed in Si nanoclusters and in porous Si (PSi), the infrared PL in silicon-germanium superlattices, and the subgap PL due to impurities in c-Si [1]. Band edge PL in bulk Si is inefficient and usually observed only at low temperatures because c-Si has an indirect bandgap. The electroluminescence (EL) is as inefficient as the photoluminescence (PL) and, in addition, the EL is quenched by an electric field E ≥ 104 V/cm due to field-induced dissociation of the exciton. In this work we report a significant increase of the Si band edge photoluminescence and electroluminescence and its unexpectedly weak temperature dependence in large Si nanocrystals produced by the recrystallization of oxidized porous Si.
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Takahara, Junichi, and Rongyang Xu. "Mutual Control of Heat-Light by Si Metasurface." In Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics/Pacific Rim. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/cleopr.2022.ctup16e_01.

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We describe single crystalline silicon (c-Si) perfect absorbers (PAs) in visible and near-infrared region based on degenerate critical coupling. We show that not only dipoles, but also quadrupoles play an important role to realize PAs with higher Q-factor. In addition, we demonstrate switchable PAs by hybrid Si meta-atoms with metal-insulator transition materials of VO2.
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