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Journal articles on the topic 'Crustal fluids'

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Published: 18 May 2024

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1

Li, Jiahao, Xing Ding, and Junfeng Liu. "The Role of Fluids in Melting the Continental Crust and Generating Granitoids: An Overview." Geosciences 12, no. 8 (July 22, 2022): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12080285.

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Granite is a distinctive constituent part of the continental crust on Earth, the formation and evolution of which have long been hot research topics. In this paper, we reviewed the partial melting processes of crustal rocks without or with fluid assistance and summarized the role of fluids and volatiles involved in the formation of granitic melts. As a conventional model, granitoids were thought to be derived from the dehydration melting of hydrous minerals in crustal basement metamorphic rocks in the absence of external fluids. However, the external-fluid-assisted melting of crustal metamorphic rocks has recently been proposed to produce granitoids as extensive fluids could be active in the deep continental crust, especially in the subduction zones. It has been demonstrated experimentally that H2O plays a crucial role in the partial melting of crustal rocks, in which H2O can (1) significantly lower the solidus temperature of the melted rocks to facilitate partial melting; (2) affect the melting reaction process, mineral stability, and the composition of melt; and (3) help the melt to separate more easily from the source area and aggregate to form a large-scale magma chamber. More importantly, dissolved volatiles and salts in the crustal fluids could also lower the solidus temperature of rocks, affect the partitioning behaviors of trace elements between minerals and melts, and facilitate the formation of some distinctive granitoids (e.g., B-rich, F-rich, and high-K granitoids). Furthermore, various volatiles dissolved in fluids could result in elemental or isotopic fractionation as well as the diversity of mineralization during fluid-assisted melting. In-depth studies regarding the fluid-assisted partial melting of crustal rocks will facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of melting of the Earth’s crust, thus providing strong theoretical constraints on the genesis and mineralization of granitoids as well as the formation and evolution of the continental crust.

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2

Nesbitt, Bruce E. "Electrical resistivities of crustal fluids." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 98, B3 (March 10, 1993): 4301–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92jb02576.

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3

Fyfe, W. S. "Fluids, tectonics and crustal deformation." Tectonophysics 119, no. 1-4 (October 1985): 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(85)90031-9.

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4

Beaudoin, Georges, D. F. Sangster, and C. I. Godwin. "Isotopic evidence for complex Pb sources in the Ag–Pb–Zn–Au veins of the Kokanee Range, southeastern British Columbia." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 29, no. 3 (March 1, 1992): 418–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e92-037.

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In the Kokanee Range, more than 370 Ag–Pb–Zn–Au vein and replacement deposits are hosted by the Middle Jurassic Nelson batholith and surrounding Cambrian to Triassic metasedimentary rocks. The Kokanee Range forms the hanging wall of the Slocan Lake Fault, an Eocene, east-dipping, low-angle normal fault. The Pb isotopic compositions of galenas permit the deposits to be divided into four groups that form linear arrays in tridimensional Pb isotopic space, each group having a distinct geographic distribution that crosses geological boundaries. The Kokanee group Pb is derived from a mixture of local upper crustal country rocks. Ainsworth group Pb and Sandon group Pb plot along a mixing line between a lower crustal Pb reservoir and the upper crustal Pb reservoir. The Ainsworth group Pb isotopic signature is markedly lower crustal, whereas the Sandon group Pb is slightly lower crustal. The Bluebell group Pb plots along a mixing line between a depleted upper mantle Pb reservoir and the lower crustal Pb reservoir.The geographic distribution and the Pb isotopic composition of each group probably reflect deep structures that permitted mixing of lower crustal, upper crustal, and mantle Pb by hydrothermal fluids. Segments of, or fluids derived from, the lower crust and the upper mantle were leached by, or mixed with, evolved meteoric water convecting in the upper crust. Fracture permeability, hydrothermal fluid flow, and mineralization resulted from Eocene crustal extension in southeastern British Columbia.

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5

Cheng, Yuanzhi, Yanlong Kong, Zhongxing Wang, Yonghui Huang, and Xiangyun Hu. "Crustal Electrical Structure of the Ganzi Fault on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau: Implications for the Role of Fluids in Earthquakes." Remote Sensing 14, no. 13 (June 22, 2022): 2990. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs14132990.

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The initiation and evolution of seismic activity in intraplate regions are controlled by heterogeneous stress and highly fractured rocks within the rock mass triggered by fluid migration. In this study, we imaged the electrical structure of the crust beneath the Ganzi fault using a three-dimensional magnetotelluric inversion technique, which is host to an assemblage of resistive and conductive features extending into the lower crust. It presents a near-vertical low-resistance zone that cuts through the brittle ductile transition zone, extends to the lower crust, and acts as a pathway for fluid migration from the crustal flow to the upper crustal depths. Conductors in the upper and lower crust are associated with saline fluids and 7% to 16% partial melting, respectively. The relationship between the earthquake epicenter and the surrounding electrical structure suggests that the intraplate seismicity is triggered by overpressure fluids, which are dependent on fluid volume changes generated by the decompression dehydration of partially molten material during upwelling and native fluid within the crustal flow.

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6

Yardley, B. W. D. "The Ligand Chemistry of Crustal Fluids." Mineralogical Magazine 58A, no. 2 (1994): 994–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1994.58a.2.252.

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7

Tagirov, Boris, and Jacques Schott. "Aluminum speciation in crustal fluids revisited." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65, no. 21 (November 2001): 3965–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7037(01)00705-0.

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8

Saxena, S. K., and Y. Fei. "Fluids at crustal pressures and temperatures." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 95, no. 3 (March 1987): 370–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00371850.

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9

Gudelius, Dominik, Sonja Aulbach, Hans-Michael Seitz, and Roberto Braga. "Crustal fluids cause strong Lu-Hf fractionation and Hf-Nd-Li isotopic provinciality in the mantle of continental subduction zones." Geology 50, no. 2 (November 2, 2021): 163–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g49317.1.

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Abstract Metasomatized mantle wedge peridotites exhumed within high-pressure terranes of continental collision zones provide unique insights into crust-mantle interaction and attendant mass transfer, which are critical to our understanding of terrestrial element cycles. Such peridotites occur in high-grade gneisses of the Ulten Zone in the European Alps and record metasomatism by crustal fluids at 330 Ma and high-pressure conditions (2.0 GPa, 850 °C) that caused a transition from coarse-grained, garnet-bearing to fine-grained, amphibole-rich rocks. We explored the effects of crustal fluids on canonically robust Lu-Hf peridotite isotope signatures in comparison with fluid-sensitive trace elements and Nd-Li isotopes. Notably, we found that a Lu-Hf pseudo-isochron is created by a decrease in bulk-rock 176Lu/177Hf from coarse- to fine-grained peridotite that is demonstrably caused by heavy rare earth element (HREE) loss during fluid-assisted, garnet-consuming, amphibole-forming reactions accompanied by enrichment in fluid-mobile elements and the addition of unradiogenic Nd. Despite close spatial relationships, some peridotite lenses record more intense fluid activity that causes complete garnet breakdown and high field strength element (HFSE) addition along with the addition of crust-derived unradiogenic Hf, as well as distinct chromatographic light REE (LREE) fractionation. We suggest that the observed geochemical and isotopic provinciality between peridotite lenses reflects different positions relative to the crustal fluid source at depth. This interpretation is supported by Li isotopes: inferred proximal peridotites show light δ7Li due to strong kinetic Li isotope fractionation (−4.7–2.0‰) that accompanies Li enrichment, whereas distal peridotites show Li contents and δ7Li similar to those of the depleted mantle (1.0–7.2‰). Thus, Earth's mantle can acquire significant Hf-Nd-Li-isotopic heterogeneity during locally variable ingress of crustal fluids in continental subduction zones.

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10

Chen, Chien-Chih, Chow-Son Chen, and Chiou-Fen Shieh. "Crustal Electrical Conductors, Crustal Fluids and 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, Earthquake." Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences 13, no. 3 (2002): 367. http://dx.doi.org/10.3319/tao.2002.13.3.367(cce).

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11

Jin, Xiao-Ye, Albert H. Hofstra, Andrew G. Hunt, Jian-Zhong Liu, Wu Yang, and Jian-Wei Li. "NOBLE GASES FINGERPRINT THE SOURCE AND EVOLUTION OF ORE-FORMING FLUIDS OF CARLIN-TYPE GOLD DEPOSITS IN THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE, SOUTH CHINA." Economic Geology 115, no. 2 (March 1, 2020): 455–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4703.

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Abstract Precise constraints on the source and evolution of ore-forming fluids of Carlin-type gold deposits in the Golden Triangle (south China) are of critical importance for a better understanding of the ore genesis and a refined genetic model for gold mineralization. However, constraints on the source of ore fluid components have long been a challenge due to the very fine grained nature of the ore and gangue minerals in the deposits. Here we present He, Ne, and Ar isotope data of fluid inclusion extracts from a variety of ore and gangue minerals (arsenian pyrite, realgar, quartz, calcite, and fluorite) representing the main and late ore stages of three well-characterized major gold deposits (Shuiyindong, Nibao, and Yata) to provide significant new insights into the source and evolution of ore-forming fluids of this important gold province. Measured He isotopes have R/RA ratios ranging from 0.01 to 0.4 that suggest a maximum of 5% mantle helium with an R/RA of 8. The Ne and Ar isotope compositions are broadly comparable to air-saturated water, with a few analyses indicating the presence of an external fluid containing nucleogenic 38Ar and radiogenic 40Ar. Plotted on the 20Ne/4He vs. helium R/RA and 3He/20Ne vs. 4He/20Ne diagrams, the results define two distinct arrays that emanate from a common sedimentary pore fluid or deeply sourced metamorphic fluid end-member containing crustal He. The main ore-stage fluids are interpreted as a mixture of magmatic fluid containing mantle He and sedimentary pore fluid or deeply sourced metamorphic fluid with predominantly crustal He, whereas the late ore-stage fluids are a mixture of sedimentary pore fluid or deeply sourced metamorphic fluid bearing crustal He and shallow meteoric groundwater containing atmospheric He. Results presented here, when combined with independent evidence, support a magmatic origin for the ore-forming fluids. The ascending magmatic fluid mixed with sedimentary pore fluid or deeply sourced metamorphic fluid in the ore stage and subsequently mixed with the meteoric groundwater in the late ore stage, eventually producing the Carlin-type gold deposits in the Golden Triangle.

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12

Manning, Craig E. "Fluids of the Lower Crust: Deep Is Different." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 46, no. 1 (May 30, 2018): 67–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105224.

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Deep fluids are important for the evolution and properties of the lower continental and arc crust in tectonically active settings. They comprise four components: H2O, nonpolar gases, salts, and rock-derived solutes. Contrasting behavior of H2O-gas and H2O-salt mixtures yields immiscibility and potential separation of phases with different chemical properties. Equilibrium thermodynamic modeling of fluid-rock interaction using simple ionic species known from shallow-crustal systems yields solutions too dilute to be consistent with experiments and resistivity surveys, especially if CO2 is added. Therefore, additional species must be present, and H2O-salt solutions likely explain much of the evidence for fluid action in high-pressure settings. At low salinity, H2O-rich fluids are powerful solvents for aluminosilicate rock components that are dissolved as polymerized clusters. Addition of salts changes solubility patterns, but aluminosilicate contents may remain high. Fluids with Xsalt = 0.05 to 0.4 in equilibrium with model crustal rocks have bulk conductivities of 10−1.5 to 100 S/m at porosity of 0.001. Such fluids are consistent with observed conductivity anomalies and are capable of the mass transfer seen in metamorphic rocks exhumed from the lower crust.

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13

Gao, Yun, Bailin Chen, Liyan Wu, Jianfeng Gao, Guangqian Zeng, and Jinghui Shen. "Mantle-Derived Noble Gas Isotopes in the Ore-Forming Fluid of Xingluokeng W-Mo Deposit, Fujian Province." Minerals 12, no. 5 (May 7, 2022): 595. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min12050595.

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China has the largest W reserves in the world, which are mainly concentrated in south China. Although previous studies have been carried out on whether mantle material is incorporated in granites associated with W deposits, the conclusions have been inconsistent. However, rare gas isotopes can be used to study the contribution of mantle-to-W mineralization. In this paper, we investigated the He and Ar isotope compositions of fluid inclusions in pyrite and wolframite from the Xingluokeng ultra-large W-Mo deposit to evaluate the origin of ore-forming fluids and discuss the contribution of the mantle-to-tungsten mineralization. The He-Ar isotopic compositions showed that the 3He/4He ratios of the ore-forming fluid of the Xingluokeng deposit ranged from 0.14 to 1.01 Ra (Ra is the 3He/4He ratio of air, 1 Ra = 1.39 × 10−6), with an average of 0.58 Ra, which is between the 3He/4He ratios of mantle fluids and crustal fluids, suggesting that the mantle-derived He was added to the mineralizing fluid, with a mean of 8.7%. The 40Ar/36Ar ratios of these samples ranged from 361 to 817, with an average of 578, between the atmospheric 40Ar/36Ar and the crustal and/or mantle 40Ar/36Ar. The results of the He-Ar isotopes from Xingluokeng W-Mo deposit showed that the ore-forming fluid of the deposit was not the product of the evolution of pure crustal melt. The upwelling mantle plays an important role in the formation of tungsten deposits.

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14

Neil Phillips, G. "Metamorphic fluids and gold." Mineralogical Magazine 57, no. 388 (September 1993): 365–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1993.057.388.02.

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AbstractLow-salinity fluids (T > 200°C reduced S, modest CO2) and high geothermal gradients are common to many gold deposits and provinces. In contrast, host rocks, hosting structures, depth of formation (in the crust during deposition), subsequent metamorphic overprint, alteration mineralogy and isotopic signatures can vary dramatically within single deposits or provinces. Gold deposits with co-product base metals are an exception to the above comments, and probably relate to saline fluids.The low salinity fluids inferred for major gold-only deposits are not easily explained by seawater, basinal brines, meteoric fluid or common magmatic processes. In contrast, metamorphic devolatilisation of mafic/greywacke rocks is one effective way to produce low-salinity metamorphic fluids with characteristics matching the gold fluids. Such an origin also explains the link to geothermal gradients.The transition from chlorite—albite—carbonate assemblages to amphibole-plagioclase assemblages (commonly greenschist—amphibolite facies boundary) involves considerable loss of metamorphic fluid whose composition is buffered by the mineral assemblage, and is a function of P and T. This low salinity, H2O-CO2 fluid is evolved at T > 400°C commonly carries reduced sulphur, and may contain Au complexed with this sulphur. This auriferous fluid is likely to mix with other fluid types during times of elevated temperature, especially magmatic fluids at depth, and upper crustal fluids at higher levels.Gold deposits in Archaean greenstone belts exhibit good evidence of low salinity, H2O-CO2 fluids of T > 300°C these include examples from Canada, Australia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, India, and South Africa. Turbidite-hosted (slate-belt) deposits exhibit similar evidence for such fluids but commonly with appreciable CH4; the Victoria and Juneau (Alaska) goldfields are examples. The Witwatersrand goldfields also show evidence of low salinity, H2O-CO2 fluids carrying reduced sulphur and gold, but their distribution and timing are not well established. Epithermal (sensu lato) gold deposits have evidence for low salinity fluids carrying Au and S, but are much more diverse in character than those from the previously mentioned gold provinces: this probably arises from mixing of several fluid types at high crustal levels. Together these four types of gold provinces account for over 80% of the primary gold mined to date.

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15

Evans, Katy A., and Andrew G. Tomkins. "Metamorphic Fluids in Orogenic Settings." Elements 16, no. 6 (December 1, 2020): 381–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.16.6.381.

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Metamorphic reactions within the Earth’s crust produce fluids of variable composition that play a major role in the evolution of continents. Metamorphic fluids facilitate reactions that alter crustal rheology, reduce melting temperature, cycle elements between geological reservoirs and form ore deposits. These fluids are relatively inaccessible, other than by study of fluid inclusions, so most studies rely on a combination of indirect evidence and predictive thermodynamic models to determine the characteristics and roles of the fluids. In this article, the origins, compositions, controlling phase equilibria, and roles of metamorphic fluids are reviewed, followed by a discussion of selected areas of current and future research.

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16

Newton, R. C., L. Ya Aranovich, E. C. Hansen, and B. A. Vandenheuvel. "Hypersaline fluids in Precambrian deep-crustal metamorphism." Precambrian Research 91, no. 1-2 (August 1998): 41–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0301-9268(98)00038-2.

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17

Gı́slason, Sigurdur R., Eric H. Oelkers, and Jordi Bruno. "Geochemistry of crustal fluids: an Andalusian perspective." Chemical Geology 190, no. 1-4 (October 2002): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(02)00242-5.

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18

Manning, Craig E. "Mobilizing aluminum in crustal and mantle fluids." Journal of Geochemical Exploration 89, no. 1-3 (April 2006): 251–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.12.019.

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19

Fehn, Udo. "Tracing Crustal Fluids: Applications of Natural129I and36Cl." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 40, no. 1 (May 30, 2012): 45–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-042711-105528.

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20

Ragnarsdottir, K. Vala, and Eric H. Oelkers. "Geochemistry of crustal fluids: a Tyrolean perspective." Chemical Geology 151, no. 1-4 (October 1998): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(98)00108-9.

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21

Huber, Julie A., H. Paul Johnson, David A. Butterfield, and John A. Baross. "Microbial life in ridge flank crustal fluids." Environmental Microbiology 8, no. 1 (January 2006): 88–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00872.x.

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22

Knapp, R. B. "The role of fluids in crustal processes." Tectonophysics 202, no. 1 (February 1992): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0040-1951(92)90457-h.

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23

Martin, R. J., and E. G. Bombolakis. "The role of fluids in crustal processes." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 56, no. 9 (September 1992): 3607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(92)90407-a.

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24

Stel, H. "The role of fluids in crustal processes." Journal of Structural Geology 15, no. 6 (June 1993): 812. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8141(93)90069-m.

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25

Li, Yuan, and Hans Keppler. "Nitrogen speciation in mantle and crustal fluids." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 129 (March 2014): 13–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2013.12.031.

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26

Nesbitt, Bruce E., and Karlis Muehlenbachs. "Geochemistry of syntectonic, crustal fluid regimes along the Lithoprobe Southern Canadian Cordillera Transect." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 32, no. 10 (October 1, 1995): 1699–719. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e95-134.

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In conjunction with the Lithoprobe southern Canadian Cordillera program, an extensive examination of geochemical indicators of origins, movement, chemical evolution, and economic significance of paleocrustal fluids was conducted. The study area covers approximately 360 000 km2from the Canadian Rockies to Vancouver Island. Research incorporated petrological, mineralogical, fluid-inclusion, δ18O, δD, δ13C, and Rb/Sr studies of samples of quartz ± carbonate veins and other rock types. The results of the study document a variety of pre-, syn-, and postorogenic, crustal fluid events. In the Rockies, a major pre-Laramide hydrothermal event was identified, which was comprised of a west to east migration of warm, saline brines. This was followed by a major circulation of meteoric water in the Rockies during Laramide uplift. In the southern Omineca extensional zone, convecting surface fluids penetrated to the brittle–ductile transition at 350–450 °C and locally into the underlying more ductile rocks. A principal conclusion of the study is that most quartz ± carbonate veins in metamorphic rocks in the southern Canadian Cordillera precipitated from deeply converted surface fluids. This conclusion supports a surface fluid convection model for the genesis of mesothermal Au–quartz veins, common in greenschist-facies rocks worldwide. The combination of our geochemical results with the results of other Lithoprobe studies indicates that widespread and deep convection of surface fluids in rocks undergoing active metamorphism is a commonplace phenomena in extensional settings, while in compressional-thrust settings the depth of penetration of surface fluids is more limited.

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27

Channer, D. M. DeR, and E. T. C. Spooner. "Geochemistry of late (~ 1.1 Ga) fluid inclusions in rocks of the Kapuskasing Archean crustal section." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 31, no. 7 (July 1, 1994): 1235–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e94-109.

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Three outcrops, well constrained by geochronological and structural studies, and representing a traverse running from tonalite-dominated outcrops in the eastern Wawa gneiss terrane to high-grade granulites of the Kapuskasing structural zone, were mapped and sampled in detail in order to study the trapped fluids. All fluid inclusions in quartz are secondary and consist mostly of CO2-dominated (type II) and saline aqueous (type IIIa) fluids usually occurring on separate healed fractures but also coexisting on some fractures. Healed fractures in quartz contain fluid inclusions but are associated with carbonate–sericite alteration where they pass into adjacent mineral grains. Homogeneous H2O–CO2–salt fluid inclusions (type Ia) in carbonate-rich veins of probable Keweenawan (~ 1.1 Ga) age were trapped at 400–550 °C and ambient pressures of 1.5–2 kbar (1 kbar = 100 MPa). As these fluids cooled on penetration into cool (~ 200 °C) country rocks along fractures they underwent open-system H2O-CO2 phase separation from ~ 350 °C down to ~ 190 °C, producing a range of fluid compositions, including physically segregated CO2-rich (type II) and H2O–salt–rich (type IIIa). Combined gas and ion chromatographic bulk fluid inclusion analyses show that fluid types II and IIIa are not related to shield brines. Br−/Cl− ratios of samples containing phase-separated fluids are similar to the Br−/Cl− ratio of fluids in the carbonate-rich vein. The results of this study show that Keweenawan alkalic magmatism caused widespread carbonate alteration throughout the Kapuskasing structural zone and Wawa gneiss domain. The CO2 component of the fluids is probably magmatic in origin, whereas the aqueous part could also be magmatic or, alternatively, formation waters activated by Keweenawan magmatism.

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28

Meyer, Franz Michael. "Case Histories of Orogenic Gold Deposits." Minerals 13, no. 3 (March 6, 2023): 369. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min13030369.

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This review compares genetic parameters of 12 orogenic gold deposits. The set of examples is considered to represent largely the variability of orogenic gold deposit (OGD) characteristics. The data are presented in tables and include following definitive parameters: regional geologic settings, nature of hosts rocks and mineralization, ore controlling structures, ages of host rocks and mineralization and timing of mineralization relative to metamorphism, hydrothermal alteration mineralogy and ore mineral assemblages, isotopic signatures, physical conditions of ore formation and proposed origin of ore fluids aa well as gold reserves, production, and grades. This allows comparison of deposits from different geologic terrains having different ages and formed under different P-T conditions. The data are further discussed before the background of the orogenic gold system and the crustal metamorphic models that provide different scenarios to explain the source of ore fluids. The orogenic gold system model advocates a metal and fluid source external to the terrain in which mineralization occurred, but the model applies only for 3 of the 12 deposits studied. All other deposits formed most likely from a crustal source, which would favor the crustal metamorphic model. However, the formation of hypozonal OGDs cannot be accounted for by the crustal metamorphic model or by the metamorphic devolatilization model. The data identify a set of coherent signatures in OGDs, but there seem to be no unified model for all possible environmental conditions and facets of ore formation and fluid sources, tectonic and lithologic setting, and scale of gold endowment.

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29

Lacombe, Olivier, and Yann Rolland. "Fluids in crustal deformation: Fluid flow, fluid-rock interactions, rheology, melting and resources." Journal of Geodynamics 101 (November 2016): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2016.08.004.

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30

Erslev, Eric A., Lindsay L. Worthington, Megan L. Anderson, and Kate C. Miller. "Laramide crustal detachment in the Rockies: Cordilleran shortening of fluid-weakened foreland crust." Rocky Mountain Geology 57, no. 2 (December 1, 2022): 65–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.24872/rmgjournal.57.2.65.

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ABSTRACT What causes previously stable continental crust in the forelands of Cordilleran orogenic systems to shorten during low-angle subduction? The National Science Foundation/EarthScope Bighorn Project combined seismic imaging of the crust and Moho with kinematic modeling of Laramide (Late Cretaceous–Paleogene) basement-involved deformation to address this question. In north-central Wyoming, asymmetrical ENE-verging upper-crustal folds are highly discordant with broader, N-trending warps in the Moho, indicating crustal detachment. Restorable cross sections of ENE-directed detachment at a depth of ~30 km, combined a smaller component of NNW–SSE shortening due to the east-narrowing shape of the crustal allochthon, can explain the anastomosing network of Laramide basement-cored arches without major deformation of the underlying mantle lithosphere. Thrust-related fold geometries and west-to-east initiation of deformation in the Laramide and Sevier thrust belts point to Cordilleran end-loading from the west. Differences between Laramide (~N65E) and plate (~N25E) convergence directions, along with the fanning of Laramide shortening directions from nearly E–W to the south to NE–SW to the north, indicate slip partitioning during end-loading west of the Rockies. Sub-horizontal detachment with a near-zero critical taper within cratonic crust suggests an extremely weak Laramide detachment zone during deformation. Analogous lower-crustal deformation in subduction forearcs is associated with slow earthquakes and slab dehydration. We hypothesize that low-angle subduction of the Farallon Plate suppressed fluid-consuming melting and corner-flow processes that characterize higher-angle subduction. This allowed subduction-generated fluids to escape upward into the overlying continental lithosphere, causing retrograde metamorphism and increased fluid pressure that facilitated crustal detachment. This hydration-based hypothesis predicts that crustal detachment will accompany major earthquakes in active analog orogens.

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31

Anonymous. "New center for study of crustal fluids opens." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 75, no. 20 (1994): 228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/94eo00907.

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32

Dandurand, Jean Louis, and Jacques Schott. "Prediction of ion association in mixed-crustal fluids." Journal of Physical Chemistry 96, no. 19 (September 1992): 7770–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/j100198a050.

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33

Kim, Heejung. "Need for Seismic Hydrology Research with a Geomicrobiological Focus." Sustainability 13, no. 16 (August 4, 2021): 8704. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13168704.

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Earthquakes cause deformation in previously stable groundwater environments, resulting in changes to the hydrogeological characteristics. The changes to hydrological processes following large-scale earthquakes have been investigated through many physicochemical studies, but understanding of the associated geomicrobiological responses remains limited. To complement the understanding of earthquakes gathered using hydrogeochemical approaches, studies on the effects of the Earth’s deep crustal fluids on microbial community structures can be applied. These studies could help establish the degree of resilience and sustainability of the underground ecosystem following an earthquake. Furthermore, investigations on changes in the microbial community structure of the Earth’s deep crustal fluids before and after an earthquake can be used to predict an earthquake. The results derived from studies that merge hydrogeochemical and geomicrobiological changes in the deep crustal fluids due to the effect of stress on rock characteristics within a fault zone can be used to correlate these factors with earthquake occurrences. In addition, an earthquake risk evaluation method may be developed based on the observable characteristics of fault-zone aquifers.

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Shaparenko, Elena, Nadezhda Gibsher, Margarita Khomenko, Anatoly Tomilenko, Anatoly Sazonov, Taras Bul’bak, Sergey Silyanov, Marina Petrova, and Maria Ryabukha. "Parameters for the Formation of the Dobroe Gold Deposit (Yenisei Ridge, Russia): Evidence from Fluid Inclusions and S–C Isotopes." Minerals 13, no. 1 (December 22, 2022): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min13010011.

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The Dobroe deposit with 10 t gold reserves is one of the gold mines located within the Yenisei Ridge Orogenic Belt. The ore-forming conditions of orogenic gold deposits are have recently been widely discussed. A comprehensive study of fluid inclusions revealed that the Dobroe gold deposit was formed by water–carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide–hydrocarbon fluids within a temperature range of 180 to 360 °C, a pressure range of 0.8 to 1.3 kbar, and a salinity range of 1.5 to 15.0 wt.% (NaCl-equiv.). Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry showed that ore-forming fluids consisted of H2O, CO2, hydrocarbons, nitrogenated, sulfonated, and chlorinated compounds. The distribution patterns of δ13C in fluid inclusions (−11.3‰–−3.6‰) and δ34S in sulfides (1.9‰–17‰) of the Dobroe deposit indicate a crustal source for ore-bearing fluids.

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Shaparenko, Elena, Nadezhda Gibsher, Anatoly Tomilenko, Anatoly Sazonov, Taras Bul’bak, Maria Ryabukha, Margarita Khomenko, Sergey Silyanov, Natalya Nekrasova, and Marina Petrova. "Ore–Bearing Fluids of the Blagodatnoye Gold Deposit (Yenisei Ridge, Russia): Results of Fluid Inclusion and Isotopic Analyses." Minerals 11, no. 10 (October 3, 2021): 1090. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11101090.

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The Blagodatnoye deposit with 340 t gold reserves is one of the most productive mines in Russia. Modern methods of studying fluid inclusions were used to determine the properties of fluids that formed this deposit. A comprehensive study revealed that the Blagodatnoye gold deposit was formed between 120 and 350 °C and at 0.2–2.6 kbar, and from fluids with salinities ranging from 0.5 to 30 wt.% (NaCl–eq.). These fluids are: 1—water–carbon dioxide; 2—carbon dioxide–hydrocarbon; 3—highly saline aqueous. According to Raman spectroscopy and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, ore–forming fluids contained H2O, CO2, hydrocarbons and oxygenated organic compounds, sulfonated, nitrogenated and halogenated compounds. Early oxidized water–carbon dioxide fluids formed barren associations of the deposit. Later reduced carbon dioxide–hydrocarbon fluids had a key role in the formation of gold-bearing quartz veins. The stable isotope data (δ34S = 0.8 to 21.3‰, δ13C = −2.8 to −20.9‰, 3He/4He = 0.14 ± 0.3 × 10–6) suggest the ore-forming fluids have a crustal source.

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Barberio, Marino Domenico, Francesca Gori, Maurizio Barbieri, Tiziano Boschetti, Antonio Caracausi, Giovanni Luca Cardello, and Marco Petitta. "Understanding the Origin and Mixing of Deep Fluids in Shallow Aquifers and Possible Implications for Crustal Deformation Studies: San Vittorino Plain, Central Apennines." Applied Sciences 11, no. 4 (February 3, 2021): 1353. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11041353.

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Expanding knowledge about the origin and mixing of deep fluids and the water–rock–gas interactions in aquifer systems can represent an improvement in the comprehension of crustal deformation processes. An analysis of the deep and meteoric fluid contributions to a regional groundwater circulation model in an active seismic area has been carried out. We performed two hydrogeochemical screenings of 15 springs in the San Vittorino Plain (central Italy). Furthermore, we updated the San Vittorino Plain structural setting with a new geological map and cross-sections, highlighting how and where the aquifers are intersected by faults. The application of Na-Li geothermometers, coupled with trace element and gas analyses, agrees in attributing the highest temperatures (>150 °C), the greatest enrichments in Li (124.3 ppb) and Cs (>5 ppb), and traces of mantle-derived He (1–2%) to springs located in correspondence with high-angle faults (i.e., S5, S11, S13, and S15). This evidence points out the role of faults acting as vehicles for deep fluids into regional carbonate aquifers. These results highlight the criteria for identifying the most suitable sites for monitoring variations in groundwater geochemistry due to the uprising of deep fluids modulated by fault activity to be further correlated with crustal deformation and possibly with seismicity.

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Mitchell, A. H. G., and J. C. Carlile. "Mineralization, antiforms and crustal extension in andesitic arcs." Geological Magazine 131, no. 2 (March 1994): 231–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s001675680001075x.

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AbstractThe distribution and stratigraphic position of porphyry copper and epithermal gold deposits in andesitic arcs of the western Pacific and eastern Europe suggest that porphyry copper and epithermal vein deposits of adularia–sericite type develop successively under different stress regimes in an evolving arc, rather than being genetically related as commonly supposed. Absence of coeval high-level stocks in the root zones of many adularia-sericite deposits suggests that circulation of the dominantly meteoric hydrothermal fluids is not driven by shallow intrusions. The location of several world-class deposits on basement geanticlines, and on more localized antiforms of which at least one has been interpreted as a metamorphic core complex, implies that elevation of the arc, emplacement of magmatic sills at depth and adularia–sericite type gold mineralization are genetically related to subduction-induced crustal extension. Ascent of deep hydrothermal fluids, predominantly meteoric but with a metamorphic or magmatic component, may be controlled by regional low-angle structures at depth, analogous to those inferred for some mesothermal gold deposits. Mineralization at shallow (epithermal) depths in high-angle structures largely reflects the high geothermal gradient and mixing of deep fluid with cool meteoric water in or at the base of the permeable volcanic cover. Andesitic magmatism may resume following porphyry copper mineralization, adularia–sericite epithermal gold mineralization, or continued extension to form a ‘back arc’ spreading system, depending on the relative plate motion.

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38

Conliffe, J., and M. Feely. "Fluid inclusions in Irish granite quartz: monitors of fluids trapped in the onshore Irish Massif." Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 101, no. 1 (December 20, 2010): 53–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755691010009047.

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ABSTRACTFluid inclusion studies of granite quartz provide an opportunity to study fluid flow associated with igneous activity and post-emplacement fluid processes. This study presents new fluid inclusion data from the late Caledonian Donegal granites and Newry granodiorite, and the Tertiary Mourne Mountains granite in Ireland, which identify three distinct fluids. Aqueous-carbonic fluids (Type 1) have been recorded in late Caledonian granites with a significant mantle component (Newry granodiorite and the Ardara and Thorr granites in Donegal). These fluids represent late-magmatic fluids trapped at high temperatures (up to 575°C), and the ultimate source of these carbonic fluids is linked to sub-lithospheric processes during the Caledonian orogeny. The dominant fluid type (Type 2) in late Caledonian granites is a H2O+NaCl±KCl fluid which may be related to thermal convection cells around granite bodies and/or to regional scale influx of surface derived fluids at the end of the Caledonian orogeny. High salinity NaCl–CaCl2 fluids (Type 3) overprint quartz in the Ardara granite in Donegal, and in the Newry granodiorite, and are interpreted to represent basinal brines, sourced in overlying sedimentary basins, which circulated through the crystalline basement during a period of crustal extension (possibly during the Carboniferous or the Triassic). Fluid inclusion studies of the Tertiary Mourne Mountains granites have identified only Type 2 fluids related to thermal convection cells, consistent with stable isotope evidence, which indicates that this younger granite is unaffected by regional-scale fluid influxes.

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Kanna, Nagaraju, and Sandeep Gupta. "Crustal seismic structure beneath the Garhwal Himalaya using regional and teleseismic waveform modelling." Geophysical Journal International 222, no. 3 (June 22, 2020): 2040–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa282.

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SUMMARY We investigate the crustal seismic structure of the Garhwal Himalayan region using regional and teleseismic earthquake waveforms, recorded over 19 closely spaced broad-band seismic stations along a linear profile that traverses from the Sub Himalayas to Higher Himalayas. The regional earthquake traveltime analysis provides uppermost mantle P- and S-wave velocities as 8.2 and 4.5 km s−1, respectively. The calculated receiver functions from the teleseismic P waveforms show apparent P-to-S conversions from the Moho as well as from intracrustal depths, at most of the seismic stations. These conversions also show significant azimuthal variations across the Himalayas, indicating complex crustal structure across the Garhwal Himalaya. We constrain the receiver function modelling using the calculated uppermost mantle (Pn and Sn) velocities. Common conversion point stacking image of P-to-S conversions as well as receiver function modelling results show a prominent intracrustal low shear velocity layer with a flat–ramp–flat geometry beneath the Main Central Thrust zone. This low velocity indicates the possible presence of partial melts/fluids in the intracrustal depths beneath the Garhwal Himalaya. We correlate the inferred intracrustal partial melts/fluids with the local seismicity and suggest that the intracrustal fluids are one of the possible reasons for the occurrence of upper-to-mid-crustal earthquakes in this area. The results further show that the Moho depth varies from ∼45 km beneath the Sub Himalayas to ∼58 km to the south of the Tethys Himalayas. The calculated lower crustal shear wave velocities of ∼3.9 and 4.3 km s−1 beneath the Lesser and Higher Himalayas suggest the presence of granulite and partially eclogite rocks in the lower crust below the Lesser and Higher Himalayas, respectively. We also suggest that the inferred lower crustal rocks are the possible reasons for the presence and absence of the lower crustal seismicity beneath the Lesser and Higher Himalayas, respectively.

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Richard, Antonin, David A. Banks, Nina Hendriksson, and Yann Lahaye. "Lithium isotopes in fluid inclusions as tracers of crustal fluids: An exploratory study." Journal of Geochemical Exploration 184 (January 2018): 158–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.10.017.

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SANTOSH, M., Toshiaki TSUNOGAE, and Shin-ichi YOSHIKURA. ""Ultrahigh density" carbonic fluids in ultrahigh-temperature crustal metamorphism." Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences 99, no. 4 (2004): 164–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2465/jmps.99.164.

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42

Walther, J. V. "Determining the thermodynamic properties of solutes in crustal fluids." American Journal of Science 291, no. 5 (May 1, 1991): 453–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2475/ajs.291.5.453.

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43

Pokrovski, Gleb S., Sami Kara, and Jacques Roux. "Stability and solubility of arsenopyrite, FeAsS, in crustal fluids." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66, no. 13 (July 2002): 2361–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-7037(02)00836-0.

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Miller, J. A., I. S. Buick, I. Cartwright, and A. Barnicoat. "Fluid processes during the exhumation of high-P metamorphic belts." Mineralogical Magazine 66, no. 1 (February 2002): 93–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/0026461026610016.

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AbstractFluids can play a direct role in exhumation by influencing exhumation mechanisms and the driving processes for these mechanisms. In addition, the process of exhumation leads to the development of fluid-related features that in themselves may not drive exhumation. Fluids involved in exhumation are generally derived from dehydration reactions occurring during decompression, but at shallower crustal levels may also involve the introduction of exotic fluids. The composition of fluids attending exhumation are generally saline – CO2 mixtures, but N2, CH4, H2O mixtures have also been recorded. Studies of fluid features related to exhumation have found that fluids may contribute to density changes and the initiation of partial melting during decompression, as well as the development of extensive vein systems. However, the preservation of geochemical signatures related to fluid processes occurring prior to high-P and ultrahigh-P metamorphism indicates that large-scale pervasive fluid flow systems, in general, do not operate at any stage during the exhumation history. Large-scale channelled fluid flow may have operated in detachment faults and shear zones related to exhumation, and this requires further study. The most significant role of fluids during exhumation appears to be their controlling influence on the preservation of high-P or ultrahigh-P rocks.

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45

Antipin, V. S., L. V. Kushch, D. Odgerel, and O. Yu Belozerova. "Early Mesozoic Rare-Metal Granites and Metasomatites of Mongolia: Mineral and Geochemical Features and Hosted Ore Mineralization (Baga Gazriin Chuluu Pluton)." Russian Geology and Geophysics 62, no. 9 (September 1, 2021): 1061–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/rgg20194162.

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Abstract —We present results of petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical study of all types of rocks of a multiphase pluton and consider the chemical evolution of igneous and metasomatic rocks of the Baga Gazriin Chuluu pluton, based on new precise analytical data. At the early stage of their formation, the pluton granites were already enriched in many trace elements (Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Nb, Ta, Th, and U), F, and HREE relative to the upper continental crust. They show strong negative Ba, Sr, La, and Eu anomalies, which is typical of rare-metal Li–F granites. The geochemical evolution of the Baga Gazriin Chuluu multiphase pluton at the postmagmatic stage was marked by the most intense enrichment of greisens and microclinites with lithophile and ore elements (Sn, W, and Zn) and the formation of ore mineralization. In the permeable rift zone where the Baga Gazriin Chuluu pluton is located, the fluid–magma interaction took place under the impact of a mantle plume. High-temperature mantle fluids caused melting of the crustal substratum, which determined the geochemical specifics of Li–F granite intrusions. Genesis of granitic magma enriched in Li, F, Rb, Sn, and Ta is possible at the low degrees of melting of the lower crustal substratum. The Baga Gazriin Chuluu pluton formed in the upper horizons of the Earth’s crust, where magma undergoes strong differentiation and the saturation of fluids with volatiles can lead to the postmagmatic formation of metasomatites of varying alkalinity (zwitters (greisens), microclinites, and albitites) producing rare-metal mineralization. By the example of the early Mesozoic magmatism area of Mongolia, it is shown that the formation of granites and associated rare-metal minerals is due to the interaction of mantle fluids with the crustal material and the subsequent evolution of granitic magmas.

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Brenguier, F., M. Campillo, T. Takeda, Y. Aoki, N. M. Shapiro, X. Briand, K. Emoto, and H. Miyake. "Mapping pressurized volcanic fluids from induced crustal seismic velocity drops." Science 345, no. 6192 (July 3, 2014): 80–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1254073.

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Volcanic eruptions are caused by the release of pressure that has accumulated due to hot volcanic fluids at depth. Here, we show that the extent of the regions affected by pressurized fluids can be imaged through the measurement of their response to transient stress perturbations. We used records of seismic noise from the Japanese Hi-net seismic network to measure the crustal seismic velocity changes below volcanic regions caused by the 2011 moment magnitude (Mw) 9.0 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. We interpret coseismic crustal seismic velocity reductions as related to the mechanical weakening of the pressurized crust by the dynamic stress associated with the seismic waves. We suggest, therefore, that mapping seismic velocity susceptibility to dynamic stress perturbations can be used for the imaging and characterization of volcanic systems.

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47

Zhang, Mingjie, Pengyu Feng, Tong Li, Liwu Li, Juerong Fu, Peng Wang, Yuekun Wang, Zhongping Li, and Xiaodong Wang. "The Petrogenesis of the Permian Podong Ultramafic Intrusion in the Tarim Craton, Western China: Constraints from C-He-Ne-Ar Isotopes." Geofluids 2019 (August 22, 2019): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/6402571.

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The Podong Permian ultramafic intrusion is only one ultramafic intrusion with massif Ni-Cu sulfide mineralization in the Pobei layered mafic-ultramafic complex, western China. It is obviously different in sulfide mineralization from the nearby coeval Poyi ultramafic intrusion with the largest disseminated Ni-Cu sulfide mineralization and mantle plume contribution (Zhang et al., 2017). The type and addition mechanism of the confirmed crustal contaminations and possible mantle plume involved in the intrusion formation require evidences from carbon and noble gas isotopic compositions. In the present study, we have measured C, He, Ne, and Ar isotopic compositions of volatiles from magmatic minerals in the Podong ultramafic intrusion. The results show that olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase minerals in the Podong intrusion have variable δ13C of CO2 (-24.5‰ to -3.2‰). The CH4, C2H6, C3H8, and C4H10 hydrocarbon gases show normal or partial reversal distribution patterns of carbon isotope with carbon number and light δ13C1 value of CH4, indicating the hydrocarbon gases of biogenic origin. The δ13C of CO2 and CH4 suggested the magmatic volatile of the mantle mixed with the volatiles of thermogenic and crustal origins. Carbon and noble gas isotopes indicated that the Podong intrusion could have a different petrogenesis from the Poyi ultramafic intrusion. Two types of contaminated crustal materials can be identified as crustal fluids from subducted altered oceanic crust (AOC) in the lithospheric mantle source and a part of the siliceous crust. The carbon isotopes for different minerals show that magma spent some time crystallizing in a magma chamber during which assimilation of crustal material occurred. Subduction-devolatilization of altered oceanic crust could be the best mechanism that transported large proportion of ASF (air-saturated fluid) and crustal components into the mantle source. The mantle plume existing beneath the Poyi intrusion could provide less contribution of real materials of silicate and fluid components.

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LOVELL, J. H., S. CRAMPIN, and T. J. SHEPHERD. "Stress in the Earth's crust: the link between crustal fluids and extensive-dilatancy anisotropy." Journal of the Geological Society 147, no. 6 (November 1990): 971–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsjgs.147.6.0971.

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Pinto, Victor Hugo Guimarães, Gianreto Manatschal, Anne Marie Karpoff, Emmanuel Masini, Rodolfo Araújo Victor, Adriano Roessler Viana, and Marc Ulrich. "Mass-Transfer and Fluid Flow along Extensional Detachment Faults in Hyperextended Rift Systems: The Examples of Tasna in the Alps, Mauléon in the Pyrenees, and Hobby High Offshore Iberia." Geosciences 13, no. 12 (December 8, 2023): 374. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13120374.

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Hyperextended rift systems are characterized by extreme crustal thinning and mantle exhumation associated with extensional detachment faults. These faults cut through thinned continental crust, reaching the underlying mantle and allowing for seawater to infiltrate and react with the crustal and mantle rocks. Hydrothermal fluid systems linked to detachment faults result in fluid–rock reactions occurring along the detachments, resulting in the breakdown and alteration of minerals, loss of elements and strain weakening in both mantle and crustal rocks. We present new geological observations and geochemical data from the modern Iberia and fossil Alpine Tethys Ocean Continent Transition and the West Pyrenean Mauléon hyperextended rift basin. We show evidence for a km-scale fluid flow along detachment faults and discuss the conditions under which fluid flow and mass transfer occurred. Convective fluid systems are of major importance for mass transfer between the mantle, crustal and marine reservoirs. We identified gains in Si, Mg, Fe, Mn, Ca, Ni, Cr and V along extensional detachment faults that we relate to channelized, hydrothermal crust- and mantle-reacted fluid systems migrating along detachments in the hyperextended continental crust. The observation that fault rocks of extensional detachment and syn-extensional sedimentary rocks are enriched in mantle-derived elements such as Cr, Ni and V enables us to define the pathways of fluids, as well as to estimate their age relative to detachment faulting and sedimentation. Because all three examples show a similar mass transport of elements along detachment systems at km-scale, we conclude that these examples are linked to convective fluid systems that may affect the thermal state of the lithosphere, as well as the rheology and chemistry of rocks in hyperextended systems, and may have implications for ore mineral exploration in hyperextended rift systems.

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Long, Leland Timothy. "A Model for Major Intraplate Continental Earthquakes." Seismological Research Letters 59, no. 4 (October 1, 1988): 273–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/gssrl.59.4.273.

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Abstract Traditional paradigms of continental seismicity assert the stationarity of the earthquake process and a causal association of earthquakes with active faults, increasing levels of stress, and crustal structures, in a framework of Plate Tectonics. I propose, instead, that the seismicity associated with a magnitude six or greater intraplate continental earthquake is a transient phenomenon responding to a perturbation in crustal strength independent of existing faults and crustal structures. Regional plate stress may still provide the driving energy, but the causative stress is released by a perturbation in crustal strength in the vicinity of a major earthquake. The timing of a major earthquake and the characteristics of the associated seismicity may then be described by a sequence of five phases which are as follows: (1) Initiation. A major intraplate continental earthquake is initiated with a disturbance in the hydraulic or thermal properties of the crust below the epicenter. Such disturbances could be induced by the intrusion of a sill or by partial melting. (2) Strength corrosion. A corrosion in crustal strength follows the upward migration of fluids or heat from the area of recent disturbance. (3) Stress concentration. As a weakened central zone deforms in response to tectonic plate stress, stresses are concentrated in the surrounding rigid crust. (4) Failure. A major earthquake occurs when the stress surrounding the weakened core exceeds the crustal strength, either because the concentrated stresses are anomalously high or because the dispersing fluids have spread beyond the core. (5) Crustal healing. The final phase in the occurrence of a major intraplate continental earthquake is an extended aftershock sequence which is concentrated along the rupture zone of the main event. The occurrence of a major intraplate earthquake as described above releases the strain energy in a perturbed area. Additional major events would be unlikely until the strength has recovered sufficiently to equalize intraplate stress and permit a repeat of the cycle.

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