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1
Milliken, Paul. The effect of cross-sectional geometry on heavy vehicle performance and safety. Wellington, N.Z: Transfund New Zealand, 2005.
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1917-, Bové Frank James, New Jersey. State Dept. of Health., and National Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control (U.S.). Division of Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities., eds. Population-based surveillance and etiological research of adverse reproductive outcomes and toxic wastes.: A cross-sectional study. [New Jersey]: New Jersey Dept. of Health, 1992.
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Loffredo, Anna Maria, Rainer Wenrich, Charlotte Axelsson, and Wanja Kröger, eds. Changing Time - Shaping World. Bielefeld, Germany: transcript Verlag, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.14361/9783839461358.
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A World of Changemakers - how can a hybrid arts lecture series concept in e-learning create attitudes and shape skills as a playful and critical thinking navigator in an uncertain world? To re-create meaning is an interdisciplinary cross-sectional task of our zeitgeist in a civil society. The international contributors represent key roles in relevant philosophical, technical or economic debates, non-university community art & design projects or companies.
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Walters, Stephen John. Quality of life outcomes in clinical trials and health-care evaluation: A practical guide to analysis and interpretation. Chichester, U.K: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
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Quality of life outcomes in clinical trials and health-care evaluation: A practical guide to analysis and interpretation. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
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Halperin, Sandra, and Oliver Heath. 6. Research Design. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198702740.003.0006.
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This chapter focuses on the basic principles of research design. It first considers different types of research design, including experimental designs, cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, comparative designs, and historical research designs. It also discusses two types of research validity: internal validity and external validity. The chapter proceeds by describing various methods of data collection and the sort of data or evidence each provides, including questionnaires and surveys, interviewing and focus groups, ethnographic research, and discourse/content analysis. Finally, it examines six issues that must be taken into account to ensure ethical research: voluntary participation, informed consent, privacy, harm, exploitation, and consequences for future research.
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Ray, Sumantra (Shumone), Sue Fitzpatrick, Rajna Golubic, Susan Fisher, and Sarah Gibbings, eds. Navigating research methods: quantitative and clinical/epidemiological methods. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199608478.003.0003.
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This chapter focuses on various types of study design used in clinical and healthcare research with an emphasis on observational studies whilst randomised controlled trials are explained in Chapter 15. Within observational studies, the distinction between descriptive and analytical studies is made and different sources of error in epidemiological studies are reviewed. Main features, advantages and disadvantages of analytical observational studies are described for the following designs: ecological studies, cohort studies, case-control studies and cross-sectional studies. A brief overview of experimental studies is also given. Measures of disease occurrence (prevalence, cumulative incidence, incidence rate) as well as effect measures (1.difference measures, ie. attributable risk, and 2. ratio measures, i.e. relative risk, odds ratio, relative risk reduction, attributable fraction) are reviewed. The chapter also presents major characteristics of meta-analysis.
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Hillygus, D. Sunshine, and Steven Snell. Longitudinal Surveys. Edited by Lonna Rae Atkeson and R. Michael Alvarez. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190213299.013.7.
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Longitudinal or panel surveys, in which the same individuals are interviewed repeatedly over time, are increasingly common in the social sciences. The benefit of such surveys is that they track the same respondents so that researchers can measure individual-level change over time, offering greater causal leverage than cross-sectional surveys. Panel surveys share the challenges of other surveys while also facing several unique issues in design, implementation, and analysis. This chapter considers three such challenges: (1) the tension between continuity and innovation in the questionnaire design; (2) panel attrition, whereby some individuals who complete the first wave of the survey fail to participate in subsequent waves; and (3) specific types of measurement error—panel conditioning and seam bias. It includes an overview of these issues and their implications for data quality and outlines approaches for diagnosing and correcting for these issues in the design and analysis of panel surveys.
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Stephens, Keri K. You Can’t Assume a Spherical Chicken. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190625504.003.0013.
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Much of the research on mobile communication has been cross-sectional, focused on a single organization at one point in time. White-collar workers are the ones most often studied because they pioneered the use of mobile devices. When they first hear about this research, they’re shocked to learn that everyone doesn’t communicate like they do. People from all backgrounds should realize that their own assumptions can blind them to understanding and being compassionate about differences. It might be a violation of others’ hopes for a colleague or friend to be unreachable during work hours, but people must learn how to have conversations that re-set expectations and allow them to take control over their own time. Finally, armed with this information, human resources and information technology professionals can design BYOD policies that provide the training and support to allow all types of workers to use mobile devices productively.
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Bhopal, Raj S. Epidemiological study designs and principles of data analysis: A conceptually integrated suite of methods and techniques. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198739685.003.0009.
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Epidemiological studies are unified by their common goals and by their basis in defined populations. The case series (or register-based study) includes examination of trends in deaths, cancers, notifiable diseases, and hospitalizations. Case–control studies are analysed by comparing the exposure to risk factors in cases to those in controls. In a population studied at a specific time and place (a cross-sectional study), measurements can be made of disease, the factors which may cause disease, or both simultaneously. Cohort studies produce data on disease incidence and are especially good on associations between risk factors and disease outcomes. Trials compare treated and untreated populations and are used, primarily, for information on effectiveness of health interventions. Natural experiments, including Mendelian randomization studies, may provide causal evidence. The principles for the analysis of all studies are similar. The design and interpretation should be in the context of traditional, systematic, and meta-analytic reviews.
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Gestión de calidad y su impacto en la innovación ecológica del Distrito de Ica, Perú. Editora Acadêmica Periodicojs, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.51249/hp01.2021.21.
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The purpose of the study was to evaluate the existing impact between quality management and ecological innovation in the District of Ica, during 2018. The model used is a basic research of correlational and explanatory level, with a cross-sectional and non-experimental design. The sample determination technique was stratified by census type, consisting of 60 collaborators, of which 30 were administrative workers of the Municipality of Ica and the other 30, were administrative workers of the Regional Government of Ica to whom a questionnaire with in order to evaluate each of the study variables. The research concluded with an r2= 043, that there is a direct and positive relationship between quality management and ecological innovation. Likewise, the specific hypotheses could be verified, where the existing relationship between each of the stages of the continuous improvement cycle of the quality management system with respect to ecological innovation was tested, concluding that there is a direct and positive relationship in the stages of Plan, Do, Verify, Act and the ecological innovation variable.
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Elwood, Mark. Study designs which can demonstrate and test causation. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199682898.003.0003.
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This chapter presents study designs which can test and show causation. Cohort and intervention studies compare people exposed to an agent or intervention with those unexposed or less exposed. Case-control studies compare people affected by a disease or outcome with a control group of unaffected people or representing a total population. Surveys select a sample of people, not chosen by exposure or outcome. Cohort studies may be prospective or retrospective; case-control studies are retrospective; surveys are cross-sectional in time, but retrospective or prospective aspects can be added. In part two, strengths, weaknesses and applications of these designs are shown. Intervention trials, ideally randomised, are the prime method of assessing healthcare interventions; special types include crossover trials and community-based trials. Non-randomised trials are noted. The strengths and weaknesses of cohort studies, case-control studies, and surveys are shown.
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Ray, Sumantra (Shumone), Sue Fitzpatrick, Rajna Golubic, Susan Fisher, and Sarah Gibbings, eds. Navigating research methods: critical appraisal. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199608478.003.0006.
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This chapter discusses the role of critical appraisal as an integral part of evidence based practice. There is no gold standard for conducting critical appraisal of medical literature. Standard check lists are presented for the specific study designs (randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, case control studies and cross-sectional studies). The check lists include questions which capture four main components of a scientific paper (introduction, methods, results and discussion), and are organized as screening questions (1. Does the research address a clearly focused question?, and 2. Was the type of study appropriate?) and detailed questions focusing on the different aspects of internal and external validity.
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Escudier, Marcel. Engineering applications of Bernoulli’s equation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198719878.003.0008.
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In this chapter it is shown how Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to practical fluid-flow problems. In the case of internal flows, such as that through a Venturi tube, it is also necessary to use the continuity equation to relate changes in cross-sectional area to changes in flow velocity. For liquid flows it is shown that for sufficiently high flowspeeds the static pressure could fall below the saturated vapour pressure and lead to cavitation. The designs of various flow-measuring devices, including the orifice-plate flowmeter, the Venturi-tube flowmeter, and the Pitot tube, are based on Bernoulli’s equation. The changes in flow velocity occurring in flow through a wind-tunnel contraction are explained by Bernoulli’s equation.
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Ghebrehewet, Sam, Paul Cleary, Merav Kliner, and Ewan Wilkinson. Conducting epidemiological studies in health protection. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198745471.003.0023.
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This chapter describes the different types of epidemiological studies that are used in health protection investigations. These include descriptive studies such as case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and analytical studies, particularly case-control and cohort studies. It provides a number of real-life examples illustrating these different types of investigation and their application in health protection practice. It also gives guidance on the type of study to use in different incidents or outbreaks, and on sample size determination. The limitations of the different study designs are described. The particular requirements of randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews, and their role in health protection are described. The roles of qualitative and operational studies are also outlined.
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Costello, Sadie, Jennifer M. Cavallari, David H. Wegman, Marie S. O’Neill, and Ellen A. Eisen. Epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190662677.003.0005.
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This chapter describes the basic principles of epidemiology, emphasizing the aspects most relevant to studies of health effects from occupational and environmental exposures. Numerous examples are provided of how epidemiology can be used to identify and quantify the relations between recent or long-term exposure and health outcomes, such as prevalence or incidence of disease, injury, or mortality. The chapter describes the common study designs, including cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies, with examples of their application. Key aspects of exposure assessment and characterizing and quantifying exposure, are described. The three types of bias in epidemiology, information, selection, and confounding, are defined as well as the healthy worker effect, a potential source of bias unique in occupational studies. Study designs and analytic methods that can reduce or eliminate specific types of bias are also described. Finally, the chapter provides guidance on how to interpret the results of studies, with an eye toward causal inference.
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Li, Quan. Using R for Data Analysis in Social Sciences. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190656218.001.0001.
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This book seeks to teach undergraduate and graduate students in social sciences how to use R to manage, visualize, and analyze data in order to answer substantive questions and replicate published findings. This book distinguishes itself from other introductory R or statistics books in three ways. First, targeting an audience rarely exposed to statistical programming, it adopts a minimalist approach and covers only the most important functions and skills in R that one will need for conducting reproducible research projects. Second, it emphasizes meeting the practical needs of students using R in research projects. Specifically, it teaches students how to import, inspect, and manage data; understand the logic of statistical inference; visualize data and findings via histograms, boxplots, scatterplots, and diagnostic plots; and analyze data using one-sample t-test, difference-of-means test, covariance, correlation, ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, and model assumption diagnostics. Third, it teaches students how to replicate the findings in published journal articles and diagnose model assumption violations. The principle behind this book is to teach students to learn as little R as possible but to do as much reproducible, substance-driven data analysis at the beginner or intermediate level as possible. The minimalist approach dramatically reduces the learning cost but still proves adequate information for meeting the practical research needs of senior undergraduate and beginning graduate students. Having completed this book, students can use R and statistical analysis to answer questions regarding some substantively interesting continuous outcome variable in a cross-sectional design.
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Heckers, Stephan, Neil Woodward, and Dost Öngür. Neuroimaging of Psychotic Disorders. Edited by Dennis S. Charney, Eric J. Nestler, Pamela Sklar, and Joseph D. Buxbaum. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190681425.003.0014.
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Neuroimaging of psychotic disorders began in the 1970s with studies of brain structure, followed by studies of blood flow, glucose metabolism, and receptor chemistry. More recently, studies of functional activation, connectivity, and neurotransmission have been added. The widespread availability of MRI has liberated researchers from the constraints of postmortem research and the limitations of inferring brain abnormalities through neurochemical effects in plasma or urine. Neuroimaging researchers aim to establish diagnostic markers, explain abnormal mental states, test anatomical and neurochemical models, and study the association of risk genes with brain abnormalities. Most studies have been cross-sectional and limited in size. But the ability to assess patients longitudinally and with large-scale study designs will ensure a prominent position for this research domain in the study of psychotic disorders.
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Jordan, Julie-Ann, Judith Wylie, and Gerry Mulhern. Individual Differences in Children’s Paths to Arithmetical Development. Edited by Roi Cohen Kadosh and Ann Dowker. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.015.
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Cross-sectional and longitudinal data consistently indicate that mathematical difficulties are more prevalent in older than in younger children (e.g. Department of Education, 2011). Children’s trajectories can take a variety of shapes such as linear, flat, curvilinear, and uneven, and shape has been found to vary within children and across tasks (J Jordan, Mulhern, and Wylie, 2009). There has been an increase in the use of statistical methods which are specifically designed to study development, and this has greatly improved our understanding of children’s mathematical development. However, the effects of many cognitive and social variables (e.g. working memory and verbal ability) on mathematical development are unclear. It is likely that greater consistency between studies will be achieved by adopting a componential approach to study mathematics, rather than treating mathematics as a unitary concept.
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Richman, Laura Smart, Elizabeth A. Pascoe, and Micah Lattanner. Interpersonal Discrimination and Physical Health. Edited by Brenda Major, John F. Dovidio, and Bruce G. Link. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190243470.013.6.
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Interpersonal discrimination contributes to health inequalities for disadvantaged groups across numerous stigmatized identities. This effect has been found using cross-sectional, prospective, and experimental designs. Interpersonal discrimination has been associated with poor health across a wide range of mental health outcomes, including greater rates of depression, psychological distress, anxiety, and negative well-being, and also physical health outcomes such as hypertension, diabetes, respiratory problems, self-reported ill health, low birth weight, and cardiovascular disease. This chapter examines the relationship between interpersonal discrimination and health. It first reviews the literature, focusing on current best measurement practices, and then provides support for the theoretical model of the pathways by which interpersonal discrimination impacts health outcomes. The chapter then presents an updated meta-analysis that further supports the model and expands on types of discrimination and outcomes. It concludes with a discussion of directions for future research.
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Bhopal, Raj S. What is epidemiology? The nature, scope, variables, principal measures, and designs of a biological, clinical, social, and ecological science. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198739685.003.0001.
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Populations, as with individuals, have unique patterns of disease. The science of epidemiology, which straddles biology, clinical medicine, social sciences, and ecology, seeks to describe, understand, and utilize these patterns to improve population health. Epidemiology’s central paradigm is that analysis of population patterns of disease, particularly by linking these to exposure variables (risk factors), provides understanding of their causes. Epidemiology is useful in other ways, including preventing and controlling disease in populations and guiding health and health-care policy and planning. Epidemiology can help clinicians to manage the health care of individuals. Epidemiology has a large toolbox. At its core lies the measurement of the prevalence and incidence of risk factors and outcomes. These measurements are generated by study types (designs) that serve the various purposes of epidemiology. Of the many kinds of studies available, the most important are case series (register studies), cross-sectional, case–control, cohort, and intervention (trials) studies.
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Sedek, Grzegorz, Thomas Hess, and Dayna Touron, eds. Multiple Pathways of Cognitive Aging. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197528976.001.0001.
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The study of aging and cognition has grown tremendously over the past 50 years, developing from a field dominated by experimentally based information-processing traditions to one represented by a more mature approach both conceptually and methodologically. A quick examination of relevant research over the last 10 years reveals a growth in integrative approaches incorporating behavioral, neuropsychological, and social information. In addition, the concurrent recognition of limitations associated with simple cross-sectional age-group comparisons along with the use of more complex methods has resulted in the development of increasingly sophisticated research designs and analytic tools focused on understanding a multitude of potential mediators and moderators of cognitive change. This all has led away from a monolithic—often negative—view of cognitive aging to one that is more nuanced and sensitive to contextual factors. This recent shift in the psychology of aging discipline from describing cognitive aging in terms of limitations into one focused on understanding the factors associated with adaptive functioning in later life is a prime inspiration for the present volume. Thus, an emphasis here is on understanding both the factors underlying individual differences in trajectories of change in cognitive functioning in later life and the nature of compensatory mechanisms developed by most successful and active middle-aged and older adults through their experiences in dealing with complex tasks. This includes the consideration of motivational factors as a driver of both cognitive change and adaptive functioning. The 15 contributions offer unique insights and highlight innovative methodological approaches that have been used to study these issues.
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Grant, Warren, and Martin Scott-Brown. Prevention of cancer. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0350.
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In the UK, the four commonest cancers—lung cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer—result in around 62 000 deaths every year. Although deaths from cancer have fallen in the UK over the last 20 years, the UK still suffers from higher cancer death rates than many other countries in Western Europe. In 1999, the UK government produced a White Paper called Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation that outlined a national target to reduce the death rate from cancer by at least 20% in people under 75 by 2010. The subsequent NHS Cancer Plan of 2000 designed a framework by which to achieve this target through effective prevention, screening, and treatment programmes as well as restructuring and developing new diagnostic and treatment facilities. But do we know enough about the biology of the development of cancer for government health policies alone to force dramatic changes in survival? The science behind the causes of cancer tells us that its origin lies in acquired or inherited genetic abnormalities. Inherited gene mutation syndromes and exposure to environmental mutagens cause cancer, largely through abnormalities in DNA repair mechanisms, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation. Although screening those thought to be at highest risk, and regulating exposure to environmental carcinogens such as tobacco or ionizing radiation, have reduced, and will continue to reduce, cancer deaths, there are many other environmental factors that have been shown to increase the population risk of cancer. These will be outlined in this chapter. However, the available evidence is largely from retrospective and cross-sectional population-based studies and therefore limits the ability to apply this knowledge to the risk of the individual patient who may been seen in clinic. Although we may be able to put him or her into a high-, intermediate-, or low-risk category, the question ‘will I get cancer, doc?’ is one that we cannot answer with certainty. The NHS Cancer Plan of 2000, designed to reduce cancer deaths in this country and to bring UK treatment results in line with those other countries in Europe, focuses on preventing malignancy as part of its comprehensive cancer management strategy. It highlights that the rich are less likely to develop cancer, and will survive longer if they are diagnosed than those who live in poverty. This may reflect available treatment options, but is more likely to be related to the lifestyle of those with regular work, as they may be more health aware. The Cancer Plan, however, suggests that relieving poverty may be more labour intensive and less rewarding than encouraging positive risk-reducing behaviour in all members of the population. Eating well can reduce the risk of developing many cancers, particularly of the stomach and bowel. The Cancer Plan outlines the ‘Five-a-Day’ programme which was rolled out in 2002 and encouraged people to eat at least five portions of fruit and vegetables per day. Obese people are also at higher risk of cancers, in particular endometrial cancer. A good diet and regular exercise not only reduce obesity but are also independent risk-reducing factors. Alcohol misuse is thought to be a major risk factor in around 3% of all cancers, with the highest risk for cancers of the mouth and throat. As part of the Cancer Plan, the Department of Health promotes physical activity and general health programmes, as well as alcohol and smoking programmes, particularly in deprived areas. Focusing on these healthy lifestyle points can potentially reduce an individual lifetime risk of all cancers. However, our knowledge of the biology of four cancers in particular has led to the development of specific life-saving interventions. Outlined in this chapter are details regarding ongoing prevention strategies for carcinomas of the lung, the breast, the bowel, and the cervix.