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1

Slavatinsky, S. A. "High-energy cosmic-ray interactions." Il Nuovo Cimento C 19, no. 6 (November 1996): 991–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02508141.

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2

Schultz, Ludolf. "Cosmic ray interactions in meteorites." Meteoritics 27, no. 4 (September 1992): 325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1992.tb00213.x.

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3

Ostapchenko, S. S. "Models for cosmic ray interactions." Czechoslovak Journal of Physics 56, S1 (September 2006): A149—A159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10582-006-0151-1.

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4

WEBB, G. M., A. ZAKHARIAN, M. BRIO, and G. P. ZANK. "Wave interactions in magnetohydrodynamics, and cosmic-ray-modified shocks." Journal of Plasma Physics 61, no. 2 (February 1999): 295–346. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377898007399.

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Multiple-scales perturbation methods are used to study wave interactions in magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), in one Cartesian space dimension, with application to cosmic-ray-modified shocks. In particular, the problem of the propagation and interaction of short wavelength MHD waves, in a large-scale background flow, modified by cosmic rays is studied. The wave interaction equations consist of seven coupled evolution equations for the backward and forward Alfvén waves, the backward and forward fast and slow magnetoacoustic waves and the entropy wave. In the linear wave regime, the waves are coupled by wave mixing due to gradients in the background flow, cosmic-ray squeezing instability effects, and damping due to the diffusing cosmic rays. In the most general case, the evolution equations also contain nonlinear wave interaction terms due to Burgers self wave steepening for the magnetoacoustic modes, resonant three wave interactions, and mean wave field interaction terms. The form of the wave interaction equations in the ideal MHD case is also discussed. Numerical simulations of the fully nonlinear cosmic ray MHD model equations are compared with spectral code solutions of the linear wave interaction equations for the case of perpendicular, cosmic-ray-modified shocks. The solutions are used to illustrate how the different wave modes can be generated by wave mixing, and the modification of the cosmic ray squeezing instability due to wave interactions. It is shown that the Alfvén waves are coupled to the magnetoacoustic and entropy waves due to linear wave mixing, only in background flows with non-zero field aligned electric current and/or vorticity (i.e. if B·∇×B≠0 and/or B·∇×u≠0, where B and u are the magnetic field induction and fluid velocity respectively).
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5

Ostapchenko, S. "Hadronic Interactions at Cosmic Ray Energies." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 175-176 (January 2008): 73–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2007.10.011.

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6

Lipari, Paolo. "Cosmic ray astrophysics and hadronic interactions." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 122 (July 2003): 133–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(03)80370-5.

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7

Маурчев, Евгений, Evgeniy Maurchev, Юрий Балабин, and Yuriy Balabin. "RUSCOSMIC — the new software toolbox for detailed analysis of cosmic ray interactions with matter." Solar-Terrestrial Physics 2, no. 4 (February 2, 2017): 3–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/24269.

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At present, cosmic ray (CR) physics uses a considerable variety of methods for studying CR characteristics of both primary and secondary fluxes. Experimental methods make the main contribution, using various types of detectors, but numerical methods increasingly complement it due to the active development in computer technology. This approach provides researchers with the most extensive information about details of the process or phenomenon and allows us to make the most competent conclusions. This paper presents a concept of the RUSCOSMIC © software package based on the GEANT4 toolkit and representing a range of different numerical models for studying CR propagation through medium of different systems (radiation detectors, Earth’s atmosphere). The obtained results represent response functions of the main radiation detectors as well as some typical characteristics of secondary CR fluxes. Comparative results also show the operation of the module verification of calculations with experimental data.
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8

Hudson, Hugh S., Alec MacKinnon, Mikolaj Szydlarski, and Mats Carlsson. "Cosmic ray interactions in the solar atmosphere." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 491, no. 4 (December 17, 2019): 4852–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz3373.

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ABSTRACT High-energy particles enter the solar atmosphere from Galactic or solar coronal sources, and produce ‘albedo’ emission from the quiet Sun that is now observable across a wide range of photon energies. The interaction of high-energy particles in a stellar atmosphere depends essentially upon the joint variation of the magnetic field and plasma density, which heretofore has been characterized parametrically as P ∝ Bα with P the gas pressure and B the magnitude of the magnetic field. We re-examine that parametrization by using a self-consistent 3D MHD model (Bifrost) and show that this relationship tends to P ∝ B3.5 ± 0.1 based on the visible portions of the sample of open-field flux tubes in such a model, but with large variations from point to point. This scatter corresponds to the strong meandering of the open-field flux tubes in the lower atmosphere, which will have a strong effect on the prediction of the emission anisotropy (limb brightening). The simulations show that much of the open flux in coronal holes originates in weak-field regions within the granular pattern of the convective motions seen in the simulations.
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9

Klein, Spencer R. "Muon Production in Relativistic Cosmic-Ray Interactions." Nuclear Physics A 830, no. 1-4 (November 2009): 869c—872c. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2009.10.128.

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10

Wibig, Tadeusz. "Ultra high-energy cosmic ray proton interactions." Physics Letters B 678, no. 1 (July 2009): 60–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physletb.2009.06.015.

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11

Jankiewicz, Marcin, Roman V. Buniy, Thomas W. Kephart, and Thomas J. Weiler. "Space–time foam and cosmic-ray interactions." Astroparticle Physics 21, no. 6 (September 2004): 651–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2004.04.008.

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12

Capdevielle, J. N. "Microscopic parton physics and cosmic ray interactions." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 39, no. 1 (February 1995): 154–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0920-5632(95)00018-5.

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13

Homola, Piotr, Dmitriy Beznosko, Gopal Bhatta, Łukasz Bibrzycki, Michalina Borczyńska, Łukasz Bratek, Nikolay Budnev, et al. "Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory." Symmetry 12, no. 11 (November 5, 2020): 1835. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym12111835.

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The Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory (CREDO) is a newly formed, global collaboration dedicated to observing and studying cosmic rays (CR) and cosmic-ray ensembles (CRE): groups of at least two CR with a common primary interaction vertex or the same parent particle. The CREDO program embraces testing known CR and CRE scenarios, and preparing to observe unexpected physics, it is also suitable for multi-messenger and multi-mission applications. Perfectly matched to CREDO capabilities, CRE could be formed both within classical models (e.g., as products of photon–photon interactions), and exotic scenarios (e.g., as results of decay of Super-Heavy Dark Matter particles). Their fronts might be significantly extended in space and time, and they might include cosmic rays of energies spanning the whole cosmic-ray energy spectrum, with a footprint composed of at least two extensive air showers with correlated arrival directions and arrival times. As the CRE are predominantly expected to be spread over large areas and, due to the expected wide energy range of the contributing particles, such a CRE detection might only be feasible when using all available cosmic-ray infrastructure collectively, i.e., as a globally extended network of detectors. Thus, with this review article, the CREDO Collaboration invites the astroparticle physics community to actively join or to contribute to the research dedicated to CRE and, in particular, to pool together cosmic-ray data to support specific CRE detection strategies.
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14

Mastichiadis, A., R. J. Protheroe, and S. A. Stephens. "Cosmic Ray Positron Production by Gamma Ray Interactions on Starlight." Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 9, no. 1 (1991): 115–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1323358000025133.

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AbstractWe examine the production of cosmic ray positrons by photon-photon pair production of high-energy γ-rays on starlight photons. We start by calculating the production rate as a function of positron energy and distance from the Sun resulting from interactions with sunlight. The results are generalized to production on other types of star. We calculate the average production rate per unit volume averaged over the local region of the galaxy, and we estimate the contribution to the observed intensity from this process.
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15

STANEV, TODOR. "ULTRA HIGH ENERGY COSMIC RAYS: ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION." Modern Physics Letters A 25, no. 18 (June 14, 2010): 1467–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217732310033530.

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We introduce the highest energy cosmic rays and briefly review the powerful astrophysical objects where they could be accelerated. We then introduce the interactions of different cosmic ray particles with the photon fields of the Universe and the formation of the cosmic ray spectra observed at Earth. The last topic is the production of secondary gamma rays and neutrinos in the interactions of the ultrahigh energy cosmic rays.
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16

Zirakashvili, V. N. "Cosmic ray propagation and interactions in the Galaxy." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 256-257 (November 2014): 101–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2014.10.012.

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17

Erlykin, A. D., and A. W. Wolfendale. "Properties of cosmic ray interactions at PeV energies." Astroparticle Physics 18, no. 2 (October 2002): 151–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0927-6505(02)00101-9.

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18

Capdevielle, J. N., and R. Attallah. "Parton distribution functions and UHE cosmic-ray interactions." Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 21, no. 1 (January 1, 1995): 121–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0954-3899/21/1/012.

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19

Sloan, T. "Simulation of Cosmic Ray v Interactions in Water." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 81 (September 1, 2007): 012001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/81/1/012001.

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20

Dembinski, Hans P. "LHCb: Recent results related to cosmic ray interactions." EPJ Web of Conferences 208 (2019): 05003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201920805003.

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The LHCb experiment is designed to study flavor physics of b and c quarks. The detector is optimized for the study of identified hadrons produced in the forward direction, which also makes LHCb very interesting for the understanding of cosmic-ray induced air showers. LHCb is analysing proton-proton, protonlead, and lead-lead collisions. As a unique feature, LHCb is also studying beam interactions with noble gases using its SMOG system. We present recent measurements of charmed mesons, which are used to obtain production cross-sections, to constrain the parton PDF, to test pomeron and multi-particle interactions, nuclear and collective effects. These mostly have an indirect impact on the modeling of hadronic interactions. Finally, we present a direct measurement of the anti-proton production in proton collisions with helium gas, which are important for the understanding of AMS-02 and PAMELA data.
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21

Dembinski, Hans P. "LHCb: Recent results related to cosmic ray interactions." EPJ Web of Conferences 208 (2019): 15005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201920815005.

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The LHCb experiment is designed to study flavor physics of b and c quarks. The detector is optimized for the study of identified hadrons produced in the forward direction, which also makes LHCb very interesting for the understanding of cosmic-ray induced air showers. LHCb is analysing proton-proton, protonlead, and lead-lead collisions. As a unique feature, LHCb is also studying beam interactions with noble gases using its SMOG system. We present recent measurements of charmed mesons, which are used to obtain production cross-sections, to constrain the parton PDF, to test pomeron and multi-particle interactions, nuclear and collective effects. These mostly have an indirect impact on the modeling of hadronic interactions. Finally, we present a direct measurement of the anti-proton production in proton collisions with helium gas, which are important for the understanding of AMS-02 and PAMELA data.
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22

Kapoor, V., R. K. Shivpuri, and S. K. Jha. "Alpha-emulsion nucleus interactions at cosmic-ray energies." Il Nuovo Cimento A 85, no. 3 (February 1985): 262–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02902452.

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23

Strong, Andrew W., Igor V. Moskalenko, and Vladimir S. Ptuskin. "Cosmic-Ray Propagation and Interactions in the Galaxy." Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 57, no. 1 (November 2007): 285–327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.57.090506.123011.

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24

Edsjö, J., J. Elevant, R. Enberg, and C. Niblaeus. "Neutrinos from cosmic ray interactions in the Sun." Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 2017, no. 06 (June 19, 2017): 033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1475-7516/2017/06/033.

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25

Tatischeff, Vincent, and Jürgen Kiener. "γ-ray lines from cosmic-ray interactions with interstellar dust grains." New Astronomy Reviews 48, no. 1-4 (February 2004): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.newar.2003.11.013.

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26

Mori, Masaki. "The Galactic Diffuse Gamma‐Ray Spectrum from Cosmic‐Ray Proton Interactions." Astrophysical Journal 478, no. 1 (March 20, 1997): 225–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/303785.

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27

Itow, Yoshitaka. "Opening Remarks ~ Prospects of very high energy cosmic ray interactions for astroparticle physics." EPJ Web of Conferences 208 (2019): 01001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201920801001.

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Hadronic interactions of very high energy cosmic rays have been studied in various aspects of motivation. In recent decades, mainly motivated by air shower experiments, modelling of very high energy cosmic ray interactions have been greatly improved together with new data obtained from high energy colliders such as the LHC. Regarding recent rapid progress of multi-messenger astronomy, a precise knowledge on secondary particle production by cosmic rays at very high energy is largely indispensable. This would give us a new insight and new motivation to study minimum bias hadronic interactions of very high energy cosmic rays.
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28

Schuppan, F., C. Röken, N. Fedrau, and J. Becker Tjus. "Ionisation as indicator for cosmic ray acceleration." ASTRA Proceedings 1 (June 2, 2014): 13–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/ap-1-13-2014.

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Abstract. Astrospheres and wind bubbles of massive stars are believed to be sources of cosmic rays with energies E &amp;lesssim; 1 TeV. These particles are not directly detectable, but their impact on surrounding matter, in particular ionisation of atomic and molecular hydrogen, can lead to observable signatures. A correlation study of both gamma ray emission, induced by proton-proton interactions of cosmic ray protons with kinetic energies Ep ≥ 280 MeV with ambient hydrogen, and ionisation induced by cosmic ray protons of kinetic energies Ep < 280 MeV can be performed in order to study potential sources of (sub)TeV cosmic rays.
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29

Ostapchenko, Sergey. "High energy cosmic ray interactions and UHECR composition problem." EPJ Web of Conferences 210 (2019): 02001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201921002001.

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The differences between contemporary Monte Carlo generators of high energy hadronic interactions are discussed and their impact on the interpretation of experimental data on ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) is studied. Key directions for further model improvements are outlined. The prospect for a coherent interpretation of the data in terms of the UHECR composition is investigated.
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30

Navarra, G. "Cosmic ray composition and interactions: measurements at the knee." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 75, no. 1-2 (March 1999): 72–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(99)00217-0.

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31

Battistoni, G. "Hadronic interactions and TeV muons in cosmic ray cascades." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 75, no. 1-2 (March 1999): 99–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(99)00220-0.

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32

WEBB, G. M., M. BRIO, G. P. ZANK, and T. STORY. "Wave–wave interactions in two-fluid cosmic-ray hydrodynamics." Journal of Plasma Physics 57, no. 3 (April 1997): 631–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022377897005461.

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33

Berezinsky, V. S., T. K. Gaisser, F. Halzen, and Todor Stanev. "Diffuse radiation from cosmic ray interactions in the galaxy." Astroparticle Physics 1, no. 3 (July 1993): 281–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0927-6505(93)90014-5.

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34

Kajita, Takaaki. "Atmospheric neutrinos and the implications to cosmic ray interactions." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 175-176 (January 2008): 301–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2007.11.017.

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35

Attallah, R., J. N. Capdevielle, C. Meynadier, B. Szabelska, and J. Szabelski. "A Monte Carlo generator for cosmic-ray nuclei interactions." Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 22, no. 10 (October 1, 1996): 1497–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0954-3899/22/10/012.

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36

Ostapchenko, S. S. "Simulations of cosmic ray interactions: past, present, and future." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 47 (October 1, 2006): 222–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/47/1/027.

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37

Seckel, D., Todor Stanev, and T. K. Gaisser. "Signatures of cosmic-ray interactions on the solar surface." Astrophysical Journal 382 (December 1991): 652. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/170753.

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38

Morejon, L., A. Fedynitch, D. Boncioli, D. Biehl, and W. Winter. "Improved photomeson model for interactions of cosmic ray nuclei." Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 2019, no. 11 (November 7, 2019): 007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1475-7516/2019/11/007.

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39

Attallah, R., J. N. Capdevielle, and M. C. Talai. "Coplanar emission in very high energy cosmic ray interactions." Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 31, no. 5 (March 25, 2005): 373–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0954-3899/31/5/008.

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40

Pierog, Tanguy. "Modelling hadronic interactions in cosmic ray Monte Carlo generators." EPJ Web of Conferences 99 (2015): 09002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/20159909002.

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41

Robinett, R. W. "Searching for supersymmetry in high-energy cosmic-ray interactions." Physical Review D 33, no. 5 (March 1, 1986): 1239–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevd.33.1239.

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42

Ostapchenko, Sergey. "High Energy Cosmic Ray Interactions - an Overview Sergey Ostapchenko." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 60 (March 1, 2007): 167–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/60/1/033.

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43

Owen, Ellis R., Alvina Y. L. On, Shih-Ping Lai, and Kinwah Wu. "Observational Signatures of Cosmic-Ray Interactions in Molecular Clouds." Astrophysical Journal 913, no. 1 (May 1, 2021): 52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/abee1a.

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44

DING, L. K., C. L. JING, G. R. JING, J. L. REN, Q. Q. ZHU, H. Y. DAI, E. C. LOH, P. SOKOLSKY, and P. SOMMERS. "ENERGY DISSIPATION OF HADRONIC INTERACTIONS WELL ABOVE COLLIDER ENERGIES VIEWED FROM FLY'S EYE DATA ON DEPTHS OF SHOWER MAXIMA." International Journal of Modern Physics A 13, no. 04 (February 10, 1998): 635–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x98000287.

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Using the depths of shower maxima, as measured by Fly's Eye experiment,we study the energy dissipation of hadronic showers resulting from cosmic interactions at energies between 3×1017 eV and 1019 eV. We place, based on Fly's Eye data, a set of constraints on the expected depths of shower maxima for proton-initiated showers, disentangling the hadronic interaction features from the cosmic ray composition. It is shown that in the energy region substantially above collider energies, only Monte Carlo simulations using hadronic interaction models characterized by a strong energy dissipation predict the depths of shower maxima that are consistent with this set of constraints. Between the two equally good fitsof the energy dependences of cross-section and multiplicity at collider energies — the power law and log-square law, we find that the cosmic ray data favor the power law above collider energies. The Feynman scaling in the fragmentation region above collider energies is valid only if the cross-section for inelastic hadron–air–nucleus interactions increases much more rapidly than the trend established at accelerator energies. The multiple nucleon interaction picture appears to be plausible for hadron–nucleus interactions.
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45

Ohishi, Michiko, Masaki Mori, and Mark Walker. "Gamma‐Ray Spectra Due to Cosmic‐Ray Interactions with Dense Gas Clouds." Astrophysical Journal 610, no. 2 (August 2004): 868–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/421732.

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46

CURRAT, CHARLES A. "Measuring Cosmic Ray and Atmospheric Neutrinos in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory." International Journal of Modern Physics A 20, no. 14 (June 10, 2005): 3106–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x05025863.

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High energy muons and neutrinos are produced by the interaction of primary cosmic rays in the Earth's upper atmosphere. These primary interactions produce mesons that decay into muons and neutrinos. SNO is in a unique position amongst underground experiments in the world. At the depth of over 6 km water equivalent, it is the deepest underground laboratory currently in operation. SNO can make a number of novel measurements using muons. First, SNO is sensitive to the downward muon rate coming from primary cosmic ray interactions. Second, SNO's great depth makes possible the detection of atmospheric neutrinos (via the detection of neutrino induced muons) from the nadir to inclinations as large as cos (θ zenith ) ≃ 0.4 above the horizon. Although SNO is a modest-size Cherenkov detector, SNO's unique niche allows it to make important model-independent checks of atmospheric neutrino oscillations.
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47

Korkut, Turgay. "FLUKA Monte Carlo Simulations about Cosmic Rays Interactions with Kaidun Meteorite." Advances in High Energy Physics 2013 (2013): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/826730.

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An asteroid called Kaidun fell on December 3, 1980, in Yemen (15° 0′N, 48° 18′E). Investigations on this large-sized meteorite are ongoing today. In this paper, interactions between cosmic rays-earth atmosphere and cosmic rays-Kaidun meteorite were modeled using a cosmic ray generator FLUKA Monte Carlo code. Isotope distributions and produced particles were given after these interactions. Also, simulation results were compared for these two types of interactions.
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48

MÉSZÁROS, PETER. "GAMMA-RAY BURSTS AS VHE-UHE SOURCES." International Journal of Modern Physics D 17, no. 09 (September 2008): 1319–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218271808012875.

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Gamma-ray bursts are capable of accelerating cosmic rays up to GZK energies Ep ~ 1020 eV, which can lead to a flux at Earth comparable to that observed by large EAS arrays such as Auger. The semi-relativistic outflows inferred in GRB-related hypernovae are also likely sources of somewhat lower energy cosmic rays. Leptonic processes, such as synchrotron and inverse Compton, as well as hadronic processes, can lead to GeV-TeV gamma-rays measurable by GLAST, AGILE, or ACTs, providing useful probes of the burst physics and model parameters. Photo-meson interactions also produce neutrinos at energies ranging from sub-TeV to EeV, which will be probed with forthcoming experiments such as IceCube, ANITA and KM3NeT. This would provide information about the fundamental interaction physics, the acceleration mechanism, the nature of the sources and their environment.
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49

Yoast-Hull, T., J. S. Gallagher, and E. Zweibel. "The Galactic center: a model for cosmic ray interactions in starburst galaxies?" Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 9, S303 (October 2013): 153–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s174392131400043x.

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AbstractThe Galactic center contains strong magnetic fields, high radiation fields, and dense molecular gas, as is also the case in starburst galaxies. The close proximity of the Galactic center allows for more and better observations of the interstellar medium than for extragalactic sources making it an ideal place for testing models for cosmic ray interactions. We compare our semi-analytic model for cosmic ray interactions to published data for both the Galactic center and the starburst galaxy NGC 253. We present the predicted radio and γ-ray spectra and compare the results with published measurements. In this way we provide a quantitative basis for assessing the degree to which the Galactic center resembles a starburst system.
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50

TAYLOR, ANDREW M. "HIGH ENERGY NEUTRINOS FROM ACCELERATORS OF COSMIC RAY NUCLEI." International Journal of Modern Physics D 17, no. 09 (September 2008): 1401–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218271808012978.

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Ongoing experimental efforts to detect cosmic sources of high energy neutrinos are guided by the expectation that astrophysical accelerators of cosmic ray protons also generate high energy neutrinos through their interactions with ambient matter and/or photons. However the predicted neutrino flux is reduced if cosmic ray sources accelerate not only protons but also a significant number of heavier nuclei, as is indicated by recent air shower data. I consider two plausible extragalactic class of sources, active galactic nuclei and gamma-ray bursts, and demand consistency with the observed cosmic ray composition and energy spectrum at Earth after allowing for propagation through intergalactic radiation fields. This allows me to calculate the degree of photo-disintegration and pion production expected to occur in these sources, and hence the neutrino fluxes from them.
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