Academic literature on the topic 'Corporation law, california'

During the late nineteenth century, as the “trust problem” occupied the attention of politicians and entrepreneurs across the nation, California farmers began an experiment that would irretrievably alter the form and function of agricultural marketing cooperatives. Taking a cue from the robber barons, leaders in the state's promising raisin industry set out to apply the advantages of corporation law—and of the modern trust—to the principles of cooperation. As early as 1899, the raisin industry's merger of corporation and cooperative caught the attention of the San Francisco Chronicle's agricultural editor, Edward F. Adams. “The principle of cooperation in [agriculture] for marketing purposes,” he wrote, “is identical with that of the cooperation of capitalists in what are called ‘Trusts.’”

A lack of female representation on corporate boards has plagued our country for decades. Until a few years ago, there was not a single state or federal regulation that required corporations to fill board seats with female directors. Instead, the federal government talked around the issue. In 2010, the SEC established an optional reporting structure for corporations to communicate their hiring practices, but did little else. With no national plan in place, many states implemented legislation that urged corporations to hire female directors. But this legislation barely moved the needle. The country needed a mandate. And in 2018, California implemented the first one – SB 826. SB 826 required each publicly held corporation with executive offices in California to place specific numbers of women on its board, depending on the board’s size. The private sector quickly followed, with institutions such as Goldman Sachs and Nasdaq announcing that in order to receive funding or list on its exchange, corporations must have at least one female director. After SB 826 was enacted, the number of women on California boards more than doubled. And many states are now using SB 826 as a model to enact similar bills. But while SB 826 saw few legal challenges overall, in May 2022, it was overturned under California’s Equal Protection Clause. Even if this decision is appealed, states looking to follow California’s lead should be cautious of another threat to such a mandate’s longevity – the internal affairs doctrine. The internal affairs doctrine is a conflict of laws principle that establishes that the state law of incorporation governs a company’s internal affairs. More than half of the corporations in the U.S. are incorporated in Delaware, leaving state statutes highly vulnerable to being rendered ineffective. It is clear that mandates work. But when mandates are put in place, they should stay in place. In this Note, I propose two alternative solutions [to the female representation problem] that would increase female participation on corporate boards. First, even if Equal Protection challenges ultimately fail, rather than relying on sporadic state statutes, stakeholders should pressure Delaware to enact a corporate code that would mandate female representation on corporate boards. Second, to circumvent Equal Protection challenges altogether, the private sector should expand its mandates to consider the number of female directors in relation to the size of each board, similarly to SB 826.

Public debate on mandating gender representation on boards of directors in the United States is close to a boiling point. California introduced a mandatory quota in 2018 only to see it constitutionally disqualified in 2022, and the Nasdaq Stock Market followed suit with new diversity rules in 2021 for all corporations listed on the exchange. While public discourse focuses on corporate performance, not much is known about the link between gender diversity and corporate normative obedience. In this study we explore the relationship between boardroom gender representation and corporate compliance with the law. We examine the impact of gender diversity on corporate obedience in a sample of 660 public corporations. Our findings indicate that gender diversity has a substantial positive impact on corporate compliance. Notably, every one percent increase in female representation on the board is associated with at least a four percent decrease in the probability that the corporation will be associated with a violation of the law. The key contributions of this Article to the literature are threefold: First, the findings of this Article call for an empirical reevaluation of gendered theories of female white-collar offenders. Second, this Article adds a unique perspective to the broad discussion of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) aspects of corporate purpose. Third, this Article sheds innovative light on the discussion about corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the means to enhance it.

On May 10, 2011, a jury verdict in the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California made California-based Lindsey Manufacturing Company the first company ever to be criminally convicted of violating the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA).1 In a press statement, the Assistant Attorney General Lanny Breuer of the U.S. Department of Justice's (DOJ's) Criminal Division stated that ''Lindsey Manufacturing is the first company to be tried and convicted on FCPA violations, but it will not be the last.'' Understanding what led to the first ever criminal conviction of a corporation in the history of a law that is over thirty years old may add to attorneys' understanding of the current and evolving risks their clients face under the FCPA and how best to mitigate those risks. Neither has there been any recent change to U.S. law nor have U.S. authorities announced any official changes to enforcement policy. However, enforcement of anti-bribery laws in the United States, as well as in other jurisdictions, has become more aggressive and widespread. Increasingly aggressive enforcement also has intensified doubts about the value to corporations of cooperation with the U.S. and other enforcement authorities during FCPA investigations. This evolution of the enforcement landscape seems likely to have contributed to the Lindsey decision to defend against anti-bribery charges, and the conviction may in turn shift companies' calculation as to the benefits of cooperation. Companies worldwide have been watching the Lindsey trial closely and now await the sentence, as a gauge of what outcome may await other companies that choose to fight the U.S. Government in an FCPA case. However, the Lindsey conviction may not necessarily spur greater cooperation with enforcement authorities if current aggressive enforcement trends continue and the benefits of cooperation are sufficiently dubious. Regardless of the final outcome in Lindsey, now more than ever, clients should appreciate the value and importance of implementing an effective FCPA compliance program, as U.S. authorities have now amply demonstrated that they are willing and able to criminally prosecute uncooperative companies under the FCPA.

_ Early January brought with it significant changes in the environmental side of the oil and gas industry. ExxonMobil and Chevron, the two largest US oil producers, announced they will exit California, and the Biden administration froze LNG export approvals. After 50 years of producing oil in California, ExxonMobil will take a $2.5 billion writedown of the value of some of its California properties to be recorded in its fourth-quarter earnings. The company said the decision is primarily related to its Santa Ynez operations off the coast of Santa Barbara. Its US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filing said, “While the Corporation is progressing efforts to enable a restart of production, continuing challenges in the state regulatory environment have impeded progress in restoring operations.” After the Refugio oil spill in May 2015 (approximately 100,000 gal), resulting from a leak from a pipeline owned by Plains All American Pipeline, ExxonMobil acquired the damaged asset in October 2015. Just a few months before the purchase, the Santa Barbara County Board denied ExxonMobil’s request to truck its oil produced off the coast of Gaviota to its Las Flores Canyon processing facility and on to refiners located in Pentland, California. Seeking an alternative, ExxonMobil planned to replace two stretches of the 112-mile corroded pipeline for transit of its oil. Met with opposition to replace the damaged pipeline and denied permission to repair and restart production at the site (halted since 2015), ExxonMobil is now selling the Santa Ynez operation to Sable Offshore, a blank-check company created in 2020. The company will loan Sable the money for the purchase of its three offshore production platforms, pipeline, and onshore processing facility. Sable’s agreement with ExxonMobil requires production to be started by early 2026 or the assets and liabilities revert to ExxonMobil. Chevron, headquartered in San Ramon, California, will write down $3.5 billion to $4 billion in assets, citing its home state’s regulations that “have resulted in lower anticipated future investment levels.” The company intends to continue operating its oil fields and related assets. In the SEC filing, Chevron wrote it also will incur fourth-quarter charges related to decommissioning of US Gulf of Mexico assets that have reached the end of their productive lives. The company sold some of those assets, but US law stipulates that previous owners may be responsible for those costs if the current owner declares bankruptcy. Chevron wrote it’s “probable” that it may see such costs. January closed with another unexpected announcement on 26 January. The Biden administration paused decisions on permits to export LNG to non-free trade agreement countries to review current projects seeking approvals. US Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm stated, “We must review export applications using the most comprehensive, up-to-date analysis of the economic, environmental, and national security considerations.” She added that this was not a ban on exports and would not affect already authorized exports, which when combined with existing plants, total 48 Bcf/D. “Within this decade another 12 Bcf/D of US export capacity already authorized and under construction will come online,” Granholm said. While environmental impact (greenhouse gas emissions including CO2 and methane) was one of the reasons for the decision, along with market, economic, national security, and energy security, Granholm pointed out that facilities totaling 22 Bcf/D of capacity have been approved but have not yet started construction. This capacity, combined with existing infrastructure, is “more than enough to make the US a ‘behemoth’ in the LNG field,” according to Holland & Knight in an analysis dated 29 January. The international law firm said this raises the question of whether further development of LNG facilities could hurt US citizens as higher percentages of produced gas are exported. “This line of thinking follows the historical rhetoric on this issue as domestic users of natural gas want to ensure their feedstock price is stable. To support those claims, recent studies have concluded that ‘higher LNG exports create a tighter domestic natural gas market (all else held equal), increasing domestic natural gas prices.’” Could unintended consequences of these recent announcements rear up in the future? And could they be a behemoth for the US or global markets? For Further Reading Growth in 2022 US LNG Liquefaction Capacity Hits Top of the Charts by Pat Davis Szymczak, SPE Oil and Gas Facilities.

This article gives an overview of current legal initiatives for enhanced transparency regulations for corporations and the actions they take against trafficking in human beings (THB). The California Transparency in Supply Chains Act (CTSCA) has an influence on legal initiatives in Europe, in particular in the United Kingdom. The UK's Modern Slavery Act includes the obligation for corporations to report on actions taken against THB and slavery. In addition, at the European Union level, measures to enhance obligatory reporting on non-fnancial matters, such as human rights matters, are to be implemented in national legislation in the next years. This article compares the California Transparency in Supply Chains Act with the UK's Modern Slavery Act. In order to decrease exploitation along the supply chain, the article concludes that legislation should not only require obligatory reporting but also oblige corporations to implement measures to prevent THB related to their activities.

While Mexico’s agricultural exports have rapidly expanded over the past two decades, a strike by farmworkers in San Quintín, Baja California, in 2015 drew attention to the labor problems and workers’ demands in the industry. In response, foreign agribusiness corporations implemented private labor standards through fair-trade labels to address these problems in their global produce supply chains. Based on ethnographic research, I argue that these private standards fail to improve farmworkers’ labor conditions and instead serve to “fairwash” fresh produce and to prevent union organizing even when rights under Mexican law are violated. While fair-trade programs provide little empowerment to agricultural workers, I document how farmworkers have developed alternative visions of food justice through independent labor organizing.

Mexico is the largest soft drink market in the world, with high rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Due to strains on the nation’s productivity and healthcare spending, Mexican lawmakers implemented one of the world’s first public health taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) in 2014. Because Mexico’s tax was designed to reduce SSB consumption, it faced strong opposition from transnational food and beverage corporations. We analysed previously secret internal industry documents from major corporations in the University of California San Francisco’s Food Industry Documents Archive that shed light on the industry response to the Mexican soda tax. We also reviewed all available studies of the Mexican soda tax’s effectiveness, contrasting the results of industry-funded and non-industry-funded studies. We found that food and beverage industry trade organisations and front groups paid scientists to produce research suggesting that the tax failed to achieve health benefits while harming the economy. These results were disseminated before non-industry-funded studies could be finalized in peer review. Mexico still provided a real-world context for the first independent peer-reviewed studies documenting the effectiveness of soda taxation—studies that were ultimately promoted by the global health community. We conclude that the case of the Mexican soda tax shows that industry resistance can persist well after new policies have become law as vested interests seek to roll back legislation, and to stall or prevent policy diffusion. It also underscores the decisive role that conflict-of-interest-free, peer-reviewed research can play in implementing health policy innovations.

This case is based on Coding Autism, a limited liability company founded in April 2017 and located in Westlake Village (California). The case features the decision process followed by the cofounder, Oliver Thornton regarding the opportunity to seek B Corp certification. B Corp is a certification granted by the nonprofit B Lab founded in Philadelphia in 2006 that recognizes for-profit organizations for meeting the “highest standards of verified social and environmental performance, public transparency, and legal accountability and aspire to use the power of markets to solve social and environmental problems.” The case describes the social issue, the start-up, and the social entrepreneur’s background as well as his rationale and analysis finally to become a certified B Corp. The case introduces the students to the social issue of unemployment among young adults within the Autistic spectrum. It also explains what a B Corp is, the process to become certified, the B Impact Assessment, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of seeking the certification. It also describes the differences between the B Corp certification and the relatively new legal status, the benefit corporation. This case sheds light on a critical question relevant for social entrepreneurship students, scholars, and sustainable business practitioners.

Denna uppsats behandlar borgenärsskyddet vid värdeöverföringar. Det primära målet för begränsningar vid värdeöverföringar är att skydda borgenärer. Borgenärsskyddet i svensk rätt återfinns i 17 kap. 3 § aktiebolagslagen i form av beloppsspärren, som benämns som principen om skyddet för det bundna kapitalet, och försiktighetsregeln. De lege lata ger inte lagregeln något nämnvärt skydd för bolagets borgenärer. Framförallt kritiseras kravet på att aktiekapitalet inte fyller den funktion som lagstiftaren åsyftat. Behovet av en mer modern lösning kring borgenärsskyddet vid värdeöverföring bör således ses över. Vid studier av andra rättskällor finns flertalet lösningar i ett försök att på ett mer reellt sätt uppnå det primära syftet. En lösning som framförts i kalifornisk rätt är § 500 California Corporations Code, där lagstiftaren utformat två alternativa tester. En värdeöverföring får endast genomföras om aktiebolaget disponerar över behållna vinstmedel (retained earnings) eller, om bolaget inte disponerar över behållna vinstmedel, bolaget skall disponera över tillgångar som minst motsvarar en och en fjärdedel (1,25) av bolagets totala skulder samtidigt som omsättningstillgångarna minst skall motsvara dess kortfristiga skulder. Bolaget måste även efter värdeöverföringen vara solvent, jfr. § 501 California Corporations Code. Denna reglering är en strängare reglering än § 6.40 MBCA, en modellakt utarbetad i USA. Den kaliforniska modellens förtjänster ligger i att den i förväg kan förutse om en värdeöverföring är lovlig eller olovlig, samtidigt som den är mer flexibel ifråga om bolagets storlek eller branschtillhörighet. Bristerna med § 500 California Corporations Code har sin grund i att aktiebolag tätt inpå en konkurs kan disponera över behållna vinstmedel, samtidigt som modellen är relativt dålig på att förutspå om ett bolag efter en värdeöverföring skulle riskera att vara på obestånd. Jag har istället valt att kombinera § 500 Cal. Corp. Code (b) med den svenska försiktighetsregeln och ett explicit solvenskrav. Genom denna kombination skulle denna lösning vara väl applicerbar i svensk rätt och ett starkt alternativ till att ersätta den nu gällande regleringen i 17 kap. 3 § ABL.

Przedmiotem rozprawy był przegląd oraz ocena metod, przy pomocy których systemy prawne regulują spółki zagraniczne. Przez spółkę zagraniczną rozumiano spółkę, która została utworzona przez obcy porządek prawny i do której taki obcy porządek prawny się przyznaje. W pracy przeprowadzono badania porównawcze, analizując systemy prawne wybranych państw angielskiego, niemieckiego oraz francuskiego kręgu językowego, jak również rozwiązania polskie oraz holenderskie.Kluczowe znaczenie w rozprawie odegrał podział na metodę kolizyjną oraz metodę merytoryczną, a zasadnicza teza rozprawy mówiła, że metoda kolizyjna jest nadużywana i powinna w niektórych przypadkach ustąpić miejsca metodzie merytorycznej.Wśród współczesnych kolizyjnych regulacji spółek zagranicznych można wyróżnić trzy grupy. Po pierwsze, rozwiązania, które poddają wszystkie zdarzenia i stosunki spółki rządom prawa, które niekoniecznie spółkę utworzyło. Najważniejszy przypadek tego typu regulacji stanowi teoria siedziby rzeczywistej. Potencjalnie usuwa ona spod rządów prawa inkorporacji również zdarzenia z udziałem aktów publicznych oraz stosunki organizacyjne - dla regulacji których nadaje się tylko porządek inkorporacji. Jedynie w tym systemie prawnym zostały wydane odpowiednie akty publicznego i wyłącznie do niego zostały dostosowane stosunki organizacyjne. Druga kategoria to rozwiązania kolizyjne, które zawsze kierują do porządku macierzystego spółki, w tym przede wszystkim teoria inkorporacji. Faktycznie powstrzymują się one od regulacji stosunków korporacyjnych zagranicznych spółek. Trzecią grupę stanowią ograniczone rozwiązania kolizyjne, które poddają własnemu prawu tylko niektóre stosunki spółek zagranicznych blisko związanych z własnym obszarem. Są one zorientowane praktycznie i zazwyczaj obejmują stosunki, które nadają się do skutecznej regulacji kolizyjnej.Dwie najważniejsze kategorie merytorycznych regulacji spółek zagranicznych to uznanie oraz przepisy nakładające dodatkowe obowiązki na podmioty stosunków korporacyjnych. Uznanie polega na rozciągnięciu na system uznający skutków prawnych powstałych pod rządami systemu obcego. Należy je stosować wobec zdarzeń prawnych, których elementem jest akt publiczny o charakterze konstytutywnym oraz do stosunków organizacyjnych. Przepisy nakładające dodatkowe obowiązki na spółkę zagraniczną lub podmioty w nią zaangażowane nie regulują bezpośrednio stosunków korporacyjnych. Przede wszystkim wymagają one od spółek zagranicznych ujawnienia określonych informacji w rejestrze państwa przyjmującego oraz ustanowienia na miejscu przedstawiciela i wskazania adresu. Mogą one jednak również nakładać na osoby zaangażowane w spółkę obowiązek określonego ułożenia jej stosunków korporacyjnych i w ten sposób pośrednio je normować. Sankcje za naruszenie tych przepisów mogą przypominać faktyczne konsekwencje zastosowania rozwiązań kolizyjnych, jednak ich wykorzystanie nie prowadzi do niedogodności, z jakimi wiąże się regulacja kolizyjna.Najważniejsze zagadnienie na tle polskiej ustawy o prawie prywatnym międzynarodowym to wykładnia pojęcia siedziby, którym posługuje się ona dla wyznaczenia prawa właściwego dla osób prawnych. Owa siedziba powinna być rozumiana jako siedziba statutowa, a nie jako siedziba rzeczywista. Taka konieczność wynika z orzecznictwa Trybunału Sprawiedliwości Unii Europejskiej, które nakazuje, by spółka, która przeniosła siedzibę rzeczywistą w ramach Europejskiej Wspólnoty Gospodarczej, była uznawana jako spółka państwa swojej inkorporacji. Polska ustawa stanowi co prawda, że przeniesienie siedziby w ramach EOG nie prowadzi do utraty podmiotowości prawnej, ale wyjątek wprowadzony przez ten przepis jest zbyt wąski, aby uczynić zadość wymogom prawa europejskiego. Za teorią siedziby statutowej przemawiają również liczne względy funkcjonalne.
The subject of the thesis was the assessment of methods with which legal systems regulate foreign companies. Foreign company was understood as a company which has been incorporated by a foreign legal system and which is recognized by this system as its own. A comparative research was carried out in the dissertation, covering legal systems of selected English, German and French speaking countries, as well as Polish and Dutch law.Crucial for the dissertation was the distinction between the conflict-of-laws and substantive methods and its main thesis was that the conflict-of-laws method is used too often and should yield precedence to the substantive method in some cases.Among modern conflict-of-laws regulations of foreign companies three groups can be distinguished. First, solutions which subject all legal events and legal relations of a company to substantial law which did not necessarily create the company. The most important instance of the regulations of this kind is the real seat theory. Potentially it removes from authority of the law of incorporation, among others, legal events which include public acts and organizational legal relations – whereas those can effectively be governed only by the law of incorporation. Only within the law of incorporation relevant public acts have been issued and only to this law organizational legal relations have been adjusted. The second category of the conflict-of-laws regulations consists in solutions which always indicate parent law of a company as applicable. They include especially the theory of incorporation. In fact, these solutions refrain from regulation of corporate relations of foreign companies. The third group consists in limited conflict-of-laws regulations which subject to their own substantive law only selected relations of foreign companies closely connected with their country. They are practically oriented and usually cover relations which are suitable for effective conflict-of-laws regulation.Two most important categories of substantive regulations of foreign companies are the recognition and provisions imposing additional obligations on parties of corporate relations. The recognition consists in extension of legal effects which arose under a foreign legal system to the recognizing system. It should be applied to legal events which include constitutive public acts and to organizational relations. Provisions imposing additional obligations on foreign companies or persons involved in them do not regulate directly corporate relations. Above all, they require from foreign companies disclosure of certain information in the register of the admitting country and appointment of a representative and indication of an address there. They may, however, impose on persons involved in a company an obligation to specifically arrange its corporate relations and in this manner indirectly regulate these relations. Legal sanctions for breach of these provisions may resemble actual consequences of use of the real seat theory, but their application does not result in problems associated with the conflict-of-laws regulation.The most important question with respect to the Polish Act on the Private International Law is interpretation of the term “seat”, which the Act uses to designate law applicable to legal entities. It should be understood as the seat set in articles of association and not as the real seat. This results from the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, which mandates that a company transferring its real seat within the European Economic Area be recognized as the company of the country of its incorporation. Although the Polish Act provides that transfer of the seat within the EEA does not result in loss of legal personality of the company, nevertheless this exception is not broad enough to satisfy requirements of the European law. Many functional arguments also speak in favour of the statutory seat theory.

AbstractThe United States is the birthplace of benefit corporations precisely because of American society’s over-reliance on the private sector to solve societal problems. U.S. federal and state regulation continuously fails to provide robust social safety nets or prevent ecological disasters. American society looks to companies to do such work. U.S. social enterprise entities attempt to upend the U.S. legal framework which binds fiduciaries to focus on shareholder value. These entities are permitted, and sometimes required, to consider environmental, social, and governance (“ESG”) impacts of their operations, essentially internalizing ESG costs that would otherwise be paid by American communities and the environment. This chapter traces social enterprise development under U.S. law, starting with a brief discussion of corporate law as a creature of state law. It then provides an overview of the two major types of social enterprise entities in the United States: (1) the Delaware Public Benefit Corporation, and (2) the California Social Purpose Corporation. The chapter briefly discusses other types of U.S. social enterprise entities, including hybrid ventures, worker cooperatives, and the low-profit liability company. The chapter concludes with a discussion of responses to companies’ ESG efforts by legal scholars, asset managers, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. These responses and the uptake of publicly traded public benefit corporations indicate a seismic shift forward in the use of ESG frameworks in the United States.

This chapter is based on long-term research with people affected by the Ok Tedi mine in Papua New Guinea, including involvement in a lawsuit seeking to halt its destructive environmental impact. It considers examples of ethnographic refusal, when anthropologists do not write about events that might harm their informants. It also examines relationships between engaged anthropologists and colleagues, lawyers and law, corporations, nongovernmental organizations, and communities. This chapter and the next address these questions in the context of long-term research projects, while the other examples in the book consider these issues in relation to short-term, problem-focused research, which have their own challenges and opportunities.

Cultural analyses based in semiotics and bureaucratic approaches to intellectual property law tend to treat brands primarily as communications media that relay information from corporations to consumers. Trademark protections are justified largely as measures that protect an efficient transfer of information and in terms of the legal doctrine of “brand dilution.” This chapter questions that framing by analyzing brands as design elements that derive their value and meaning from the contexts of material culture and social practice in which branded goods circulate, drawing evidence from the design and marketing strategies of Maya apparel workshop owners. The chapter involves a critical engagement with the sociology and anthropology of fashion and examines the branding strategies of several fashion firms, especially Abercrombie & Fitch. The chapter argues that the globalization of trademark law is an attempt to concretize and naturalize neocolonial divides along lines of geography, race, and gender that position some populations as rightful creators and consumers and others as mere copycats. The last section describes the efforts of some Maya workshop owners to market their goods using unique brands that reference their indigenous identity, and then explores the political implications and lessons for the anthropology of intellectual property law.

The conclusion argues that Internet firms and the U.S. government have common interests in expanding the surveillance economy, which refers to the massive online accumulation of information. It also considers measures to address the considerable challenges raised by the state-endorsed non-binding enforcement agreements. It explores ways in which states and corporations can use technology to regulate in ways that are fair, proportionate, and accountable. The chapter offers several recommendations. First is the need to cultivate greater public awareness of corporate regulation on the Internet. One way to do so is through industry transparency reports, in which corporate actors participating in the regulation disclose their involvement in regulation, a practice that has become more common following Edward Snowden’s disclosure of Internet firms’ involvement in the U.S. government’s Internet surveillance programs. The book ends with a call to establish digital rights and looks for inspiration to Brazil’s 2014 law, Marco Civil da Internet, which codified a set of digital rights.

Abstract This chapter describes the microelectronics revolution. It examines whether ‘revolution’ when applied to electronics is historically responsible. It describes the principles of semiconductors, the invention of the transistor, integrated circuits (ICs) and the microprocessor, and how history acknowledges its inventors. Moore’s Law is defined and discussed. Minicomputers, DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation), and the dominance of the PDP series of minicomputers from the mid-1960s are described, up to the death of minicomputers as a class in the mid-1990s. The history of the microprocessor, its role in the personal computer movement, the Altair kit computer, the Californian Homebrew Computer Club, and the birth of Apple are described. It concludes with the entrance of the IBM PC into the business and home computer markets, and the founding of Microsoft.

Abstract This chapter focuses on effective teams-their formation and maintenance. We provide a brief background on the team as it exists in an organization as well as a general way of looking at team processes across cultures. Finally, we present a number of applications of our model to topics in team dynamics such as conformity and stimulating creativity, team decisions, motivation of team members, and combination of the team with technological innovations. Why do we form into teams, and what is their function in an effective company? In many U.S. corporations, teams are formed at the initiative of management to solve management, production, sales, and other problems as to help the company maintain a competitive edge. For instance, Ed Lawler of the University of Southern California surveyed Fortune 1,000 companies and found that the amount of management-initiated teamwork has increased substantially from 1987 to the present. He argues that companies using a “high involvement,” or team-based approach are among the most effective. People also voluntarily join teams in order to satisfy their self-motives and cultural values, and they do so with people similar to themselves. In some countries like Germany and Sweden, work teams are organized through national labor laws in a system of participative management. Regardless of why people join a team, a key question is how do we transform a group of employees into a successful team? What will be clear from this chapter is that creating an effective team is tied to our self-knowledge and our cultural background.

Lean burn, natural gas, reciprocating engines are becoming widely utilized for stationary industrial applications due to their high efficiency and low emissions. However, despite the low engine emissions, some locations still require exhaust after-treatment to meet the local emissions requirements. Due to the high oxygen content (greater than 4%) in the exhaust of lean burn engines, 3-Way (non-selective) catalysts are not suitable to reduce NOx. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), which utilizes a consumable reductant to reduce NOx over a catalyst, is very effective at reducing NOx and is becoming an accepted technology for large, stationary engine applications. In the summer of 2001, Stewart & Stevenson installed 16 Deutz TGB632V16 natural gas fired engines for NEO Corporation at the Chow II power plant. MIRATECH SCR provided and commissioned 16 selective catalytic reduction systems for these engines using a 40% urea solution as the reductant. This paper describes the installed SCR systems and reports some of the emissions testing results and costs. With the SCR systems in place, the engines were successfully able to meet the permitted exhaust emissions requirements of 0.07 g/bhp-hr of NOx, 0.1 g/bhp-hr of CO, and 0.15 g/bhp-hr of VOC’s (volatile organic compounds) with less than 10 ppmvd of ammonia slip @ 15% O2. Additional measurements were made of formaldehyde and acrolein. Very low levels of these emissions were found after the SCR.

Waukesha Engine, Dresser, Inc., (Waukesha) entered into a program with the California Energy Commission (CEC) to develop and demonstrate a 500 kWe ultra-low emission, Advanced Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine (ARICE) for power generation. The purpose of the program was to demonstrate a natural gas fueled engine with emissions control technology that could achieve the following ARICE goals: • Reduce specified emissions by 90%; • Increase thermal efficiency by 10%; • Reduce installed costs of Distributed Generation (DG) systems by 10%; • Maintain engine durability. All changes are with respect to current levels defined at the time the program began. To work towards meeting these program goals Waukesha partnered with two primary subcontractors, Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and MIRATECH Corporation. The program was originally defined in two phases. In Phase I Waukesha would develop and demonstrate a cooled EGR system. In Phase II further enhancements would be applied to the cooled EGR system with the intent of achieving still further gains in efficiency and reductions in emissions. A cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system was installed on a base Waukesha H24GSI engine. The diluent properties of the EGR added to the stoichiometric fuel-air charge reduce peak cylinder combustion temperature. The lower combustion temperatures result in lower NOx values without the need for excess air which would yield oxygen in the exhaust gas. The lack of oxygen in the exhaust gas allows the use of an efficient, cost-effective, three-way catalyst (TWC) to reduce all three primary emittants — NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons. This paper describes the Phase I design and development of an ultra-low emission, natural gas engine operating at stoichiometric conditions with cooled EGR and a TWC. Hardware modifications to incorporate the cooled EGR system on the base engine are covered. The TWC and control system developed are briefly described. The EGR engine with control system and three-way catalyst successfully completed a 500 hour durability test at SwRI. Stable control of the engine across the load range and acceptable load response by the unit have been demonstrated. Very low emissions of the three primary pollutants were measured downstream of the catalyst both before and after the 500 hours of durability testing. The phase I emissions goals were easily met. Emission levels near the Phase II goals were achieved. The Phase I engine efficiency was increased 12% and BMEP was increased 33% compared to the baseline engine. Examination of the engine and systems after the 500 hour run did not show signs of unusual wear or deposits. The potential for a cooled EGR system to produce significantly reduced NOx in a reciprocating natural gas engine was demonstrated. Remaining challenges include the demonstration of consistent, long term emissions performance and the long term durability of engine systems and components operating with EGR.

Worldwide regulations currently set very stringent emissions standards for new on-road heavy-duty diesel engines (HDDE’s). For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources Board (CARB) require 2010 and subsequent HDDE and vehicles to emit less than 0.2 g/bhp-hr (0.27 g/kW-hr) NOx and 5.0 g/bhp-hr (6.7 g/kW-hr) CO in addition to other strictly regulated pollutants. Diesel or biodiesel fired Microturbine engines are in use in hybrid electric vehicular (HEV) urban bus applications because of their extremely low emissions. In Capstone’s model years 2001 through 2003, liquid fueled gas turbines were certified by CARB for on-road heavy duty engine use, including urban bus applications. The engines achieved a low emission level of 0.7 g/hp-hr (0.94 g/kW-hr) NOx, 0.2 g/hp-hr (0.27 g/kW-hr) CO and 0.01 g/hp-hr (0.013 g/kW-hr) PM, which met emissions compliance levels for EPA and CARB regulations until 2010. To meet the upcoming 2010 EPA and CARB HDDE regulations, continuous research and development efforts have been taken at Capstone Turbine Corporation for its C30 family engines to further reduce the criteria pollutant emissions. Pollutant emissions were measured and analyzed for a Capstone C30 engine using ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and five other opportunity fuels to obtain their actual cycle emissions for a typical New York City M60 route. By injector modification alone, the C30 engine was able to achieve 62% reduction in NOx emission. Additionally, an adjustment of turbine exit temperature was able to further reduce NOx. It was predicted that the liquid-fueled C30 engines would be able to demonstrate the compliance to the 2010 EPA/CARB new ultra-low emission standards.

We propose a framework for Design Roadmapping that parallels existing product roadmapping and technology roadmapping processes. It leverages three needs we have observed in organizations as they use existing roadmapping processes: (1) to focus on development of customer and user experiences, not just on features; (2) to increase engagement of designers early in the planning process; and (3) to provide a means for rapidly responding to changes in the environment. Design Roadmapping is an attempt to reconcile differences that arise when customer/user needs are not considered simultaneously with technology choices. The proposed Design Roadmapping process assists project prioritization and selection. The process aggregates design experience elements along a timeline that associates key user needs with the products, services and/or systems the organization wishes to deliver. To illustrate the Design Roadmapping process, we conducted a case study in which we applied the Design Roadmapping process to projects undertaken by a large corporation’s innovation lab located in research centers in San Francisco and Mountain View, California, in partnership with corporate stakeholders located in Asia. The five-step Design Roadmapping procedure is provided along with detailed information. The decisions from the Design Roadmapping process have been incorporated into the company’s commercial plans. Key findings in this corporate case study bolster the positive impact of the Design Roadmapping in moving strategic thinking from a technology/feature-driven process to one that is design/experience-driven. It shows how firms might weigh choices between user needs, design principles and technological innovation.