Journal articles: 'Corals – Reproduction'

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Gilmour, James, Conrad W. Speed, and Russ Babcock. "Coral reproduction in Western Australia." PeerJ 4 (May 18, 2016): e2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2010.

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Larval production and recruitment underpin the maintenance of coral populations, but these early life history stages are vulnerable to extreme variation in physical conditions. Environmental managers aim to minimise human impacts during significant periods of larval production and recruitment on reefs, but doing so requires knowledge of the modes and timing of coral reproduction. Most corals are hermaphroditic or gonochoric, with a brooding or broadcast spawning mode of reproduction. Brooding corals are a significant component of some reefs and produce larvae over consecutive months. Broadcast spawning corals are more common and display considerable variation in their patterns of spawning among reefs. Highly synchronous spawning can occur on reefs around Australia, particularly on the Great Barrier Reef. On Australia’s remote north-west coast there have been fewer studies of coral reproduction. The recent industrial expansion into these regions has facilitated research, but the associated data are often contained within confidential reports. Here we combine information in this grey-literature with that available publicly to update our knowledge of coral reproduction in WA, for tens of thousands of corals and hundreds of species from over a dozen reefs spanning 20° of latitude. We identified broad patterns in coral reproduction, but more detailed insights were hindered by biased sampling; most studies focused on species ofAcroporasampled over a few months at several reefs. Within the existing data, there was a latitudinal gradient in spawning activity among seasons, with mass spawning during autumn occurring on all reefs (but the temperate south-west). Participation in a smaller, multi-specific spawning during spring decreased from approximately one quarter of corals on the Kimberley Oceanic reefs to little participation at Ningaloo. Within these seasons, spawning was concentrated in March and/or April, and October and/or November, depending on the timing of the full moon. The timing of the full moon determined whether spawning was split over two months, which was common on tropical reefs. There were few data available for non-Acroporacorals, which may have different patterns of reproduction. For example, the massivePoritesseemed to spawn through spring to autumn on Kimberley Oceanic reefs and during summer in the Pilbara region, where other common corals (e.g.Turbinaria&Pavona) also displayed different patterns of reproduction to theAcropora. The brooding corals (Isopora&Seriatopora) on Kimberley Oceanic reefs appeared to planulate during many months, possibly with peaks from spring to autumn; a similar pattern is likely on other WA reefs. Gaps in knowledge were also due to the difficulty in identifying species and issues with methodology. We briefly discuss some of these issues and suggest an approach to quantifying variation in reproductive output throughout a year.

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Paxton, Camille W., Maria Vanessa B. Baria, Virginia M. Weis, and Saki Harii. "Effect of elevated temperature on fecundity and reproductive timing in the coral Acropora digitifera." Zygote 24, no. 4 (September 9, 2015): 511–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0967199415000477.

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SummaryThe synchrony of spawning is of paramount importance to successful coral reproduction. The precise timing of spawning is thought to be controlled by a set of interacting environmental factors, including regional wind field patterns, timing of the sunset, and sea surface temperatures (SST). Climate change is resulting in increased SST, which is causing physiological stress in corals and could also be altering spawning synchrony and timing. In this study, we examined the effect of increasing seawater temperature by 2°C for 1 month prior to the predicted spawning time on reproduction in the coral Acropora digitifera. This short period of elevated temperature caused spawning to advance by 1 day. In animals incubated at elevated temperature, egg number per egg bundle did not change, however, egg volume significantly decreased as did sperm number. Our results indicate that temperature is acting both as a proximate cue to accelerate timing and as a stressor on gametogenesis to reduce fecundity. This finding suggests that increasing SSTs could play a dramatic role in altering reproductive timing and the success of corals in an era of climate change.

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Randall, CJ, AP Negri, KM Quigley, T. Foster, GF Ricardo, NS Webster, LK Bay, PL Harrison, RC Babcock, and AJ Heyward. "Sexual production of corals for reef restoration in the Anthropocene." Marine Ecology Progress Series 635 (February 6, 2020): 203–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps13206.

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Coral-reef ecosystems are experiencing frequent and severe disturbance events that are reducing global coral abundance and potentially overwhelming the natural capacity for reefs to recover. While mitigation strategies for climate warming and other anthropogenic disturbances are implemented, coral restoration programmes are being established worldwide as an additional conservation measure to minimise coral loss and enhance coral recovery. Current restoration efforts predominantly rely on asexually produced coral fragments—a process with inherent practical constraints on the genetic diversity conserved and the spatial scale achieved. Because the resilience of coral communities has hitherto relied on regular renewal with natural recruits, the scaling-up of restoration programmes would benefit from greater use of sexually produced corals, which is an approach that is gaining momentum. Here we review the present state of knowledge of scleractinian coral sexual reproduction in the context of reef restoration, with a focus on broadcast-spawning corals. We identify key knowledge gaps and bottlenecks that currently constrain the sexual production of corals and consider the feasibility of using sexually produced corals for scaling-up restoration to the reef- and reef-system scales.

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Hagedorn, Mary, and Virginia L. Carter. "Cryobiology: principles, species conservation and benefits for coral reefs." Reproduction, Fertility and Development 28, no. 8 (2016): 1049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rd16082.

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Coral reefs are some of the oldest, most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth because they can support one-quarter of all marine life in our oceans. Despite their importance, the world’s coral reefs continue to be degraded at unprecedented rates by local and global threats that are warming and creating a more acidic ocean. This paper explores the reproductive challenges of coral for ex situ conservation, using IVF and cryopreservation, and our practical biobanking methods. Coral present challenges for cryopreservation because their reproductive period is often limited to a few nights yearly, they are mostly hermaphrodites with diverse modes of reproduction, including asexual reproduction (i.e. fragmentation and parthenogenesis) and sexual reproduction (i.e. self- and cross-fertilisation) and they express physiological toxins that can inhibit cryopreservation. We have banked spermatozoa from 12 coral species using the same field-hardy methods and have created new coral with thawed spermatozoa. In addition, we describe the cryopreservation of coral symbionts, whose physiology only permits the highest success seasonally. As part of a multidisciplinary conservation strategy, these collections may provide a major hedge against extinction for corals facing the damaging effects of climate change and loss of genetic diversity, and promise to help offset threats to our reefs worldwide.

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Salcedo-Sanz, S., J. Del Ser, I. Landa-Torres, S. Gil-López, and J. A. Portilla-Figueras. "The Coral Reefs Optimization Algorithm: A Novel Metaheuristic for Efficiently Solving Optimization Problems." Scientific World Journal 2014 (2014): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/739768.

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This paper presents a novel bioinspired algorithm to tackle complex optimization problems: the coral reefs optimization (CRO) algorithm. The CRO algorithm artificially simulates a coral reef, where different corals (namely, solutions to the optimization problem considered) grow and reproduce in coral colonies, fighting by choking out other corals for space in the reef. This fight for space, along with the specific characteristics of the corals' reproduction, produces a robust metaheuristic algorithm shown to be powerful for solving hard optimization problems. In this research the CRO algorithm is tested in several continuous and discrete benchmark problems, as well as in practical application scenarios (i.e., optimum mobile network deployment and off-shore wind farm design). The obtained results confirm the excellent performance of the proposed algorithm and open line of research for further application of the algorithm to real-world problems.

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GUEST, J. R., A. H. BAIRD, B. P. L. GOH, and L. M. CHOU. "Seasonal reproduction in equatorial reef corals." Invertebrate Reproduction & Development 48, no. 1-3 (January 2005): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07924259.2005.9652186.

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Twan, Wen-Hung, Jiang-Shiou Hwang, Yan-Horn Lee, Hua-Fang Wu, Ying-Hsiu Tung, and Ching-Fong Chang. "Hormones and reproduction in scleractinian corals." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 144, no. 3 (July 2006): 247–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.01.011.

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Pratchett, Morgan S., Andrew S. Hoey, Chun-Hong Tan, Chao-Yang Kuo, Andrew G. Bauman, Rajani Kumaraswamy, and Andrew H. Baird. "Spatial and Temporal Variation in Fecundity of Acropora spp. in the Northern Great Barrier Reef." Diversity 11, no. 4 (April 16, 2019): 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d11040060.

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The amount of energy invested in sexual reproduction by scleractinian corals depends on their life history strategies (i.e., allocation of energy between growth, reproduction, and maintenance). However, energy allocated to reproduction will also be affected by the amount of energy acquired and prevailing environmental conditions. Coral fecundity is therefore likely to vary spatially, especially along marked gradients in environmental conditions. One of the foremost gradients in reef structure and environmental conditions occurs with distance from the coast, whereby inner-shelf or near shore reefs are generally subject to higher levels of nutrients, sediments and pollutants, which often adversely affect reef-building corals. This study quantified fecundity (oocytes per polyp) for three species, Acropora nasuta, A. spathulata, and A. hyacinthus, at six locations in the northern Great Barrier Reef (GBR), encompassing inner-, mid- and outer-shelf reefs. Replicate colonies were sampled at each location prior to the predicted date of spawning in 2013 and 2014. Both shelf position and year were important factors explaining variation in fecundity for each of the three coral species. Most notably, there were clear and consistent declines in the number of oocytes between 2013 and 2014, coinciding with the incidence of category 4 Cylone Ita in early 2014. Contrary to expectations, polyp-level fecundity was no lower (and in some cases substantially higher) on inner-shelf reefs, compared to conspecifics growing on mid-shelf or outer-shelf reefs. The observed patterns are much more complicated than anticipated, necessitating further research to understand differential population dynamics of corals on inner-shelf versus mid- and outer-shelf reefs.

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Strychar, Kevin B., Mike Coates, and Paul W. Sammarco. "Loss of Symbiodinium from bleached Australian scleractinian corals (Acropora hyacinthus, Favites complanata and Porites solida)." Marine and Freshwater Research 55, no. 2 (2004): 135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf03080.

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Coral bleaching results from the dissociation of Symbiodinium and is primarily related to sea surface temperatures above mean yearly maximums. The numbers of live, dead, and mitotic Symbiodinium cells lost from three scleractinian corals from three different families (Acropora hyacinthus, Favites complanata, and Porites solida), which have not been studied previously in central Queensland (Australia), were compared at 28, 30, 32, and 34°C. Specific expulsion rates, growth rates, and mitotic indices were compared for each host at each temperature. Porites solida was the most robust coral, A. hyacinthus bleached more readily at low temperatures and F. complanata showed levels of intermediate bleaching tolerance to elevated temperatures. However, the timing of Symbiodinium cell loss was similar between all corals tested. Mitotic indices and specific growth rates were found to be positively associated with increasing temperature; thus, symbiont reproduction increased despite elevated losses of Symbiodinium from the host. Because all corals in the present study were symbiotic with Symbiodinium from clade C, different levels of stress tolerance to temperature suggests that bleaching resistance is an attribute associated with the coral host and, to a lesser degree, the symbiont.

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Henry, Lea-Anne, Ellen LR Kenchington, and Angela Silvaggio. "Effects of mechanical experimental disturbance on aspects of colony responses, reproduction, and regeneration in the cold-water octocoral Gersemia rubiformis." Canadian Journal of Zoology 81, no. 10 (October 1, 2003): 1691–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z03-161.

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Responses of delicate soft corals to mechanical injuries inflicted by bottom fishing (e.g., trawling, dredging) are not known. Effects of mechanical disturbance on the soft coral Gersemia rubiformis (Ehrenberg, 1834) were examined by experimentally simulating disturbances caused by bottom fishing. Eight colonies were collected in the Bay of Fundy and maintained in individual aquaria. Four colonies were rolled over and crushed 10 times, once every 2 weeks over 2 months, while four were left undisturbed. Colony response was recorded both 4 days and 1 week post disturbance in both treatments by assigning states reflecting colony and polyp physiognomy. Proportions of corals in different states did not differ between treatments over time. Crushing immediately induced complete colony retraction and daughter colonies were produced in crushed corals. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA genetic markers demonstrated that daughter colonies were sexually derived. Despite initial fast growth, daughter colonies experienced high mortality. Premature larval expulsion may have been intrinsically initiated to dispose of resource-costly planulae during colony repair. Corals regenerated well from acute localized injuries, which, along with the ability to temporarily retract and survive repeated crushing, may benefit G. rubiformis in heavily disturbed habitats such as areas impacted by bottom fishing activities where the probability of mechanical disturbance is high.

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Holcomb, M., A. L. Cohen, and D. C. McCorkle. "An investigation of the calcification response of the scleractinian coral Astrangia poculata to elevated pCO2 and the effects of nutrients, zooxanthellae and gender." Biogeosciences 9, no. 1 (January 4, 2012): 29–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-29-2012.

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Abstract. The effects of nutrients and pCO2 on zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate colonies of the temperate scleractinian coral Astrangia poculata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) were investigated at two different temperatures (16 °C and 24 °C). Corals exposed to elevated pCO2 tended to have lower relative calcification rates, as estimated from changes in buoyant weights. Experimental nutrient enrichments had no significant effect nor did there appear to be any interaction between pCO2 and nutrients. Elevated pCO2 appeared to have a similar effect on coral calcification whether zooxanthellae were present or absent at 16 °C. However, at 24 °C, the interpretation of the results is complicated by a significant interaction between gender and pCO2 for spawning corals. At 16 °C, gamete release was not observed, and no gender differences in calcification rates were observed – female and male corals showed similar reductions in calcification rates in response to elevated CO2 (15% and 19% respectively). Corals grown at 24 °C spawned repeatedly and male and female corals exhibited two different growth rate patterns – female corals grown at 24 °C and exposed to CO2 had calcification rates 39% lower than females grown at ambient CO2, while males showed a non-significant decline of 5% under elevated CO2. The increased sensitivity of females to elevated pCO2 may reflect a greater investment of energy in reproduction (egg production) relative to males (sperm production). These results suggest that both gender and spawning are important factors in determining the sensitivity of corals to ocean acidification, and considering these factors in future research may be critical to predicting how the population structures of marine calcifiers will change in response to ocean acidification.

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Albright, Rebecca. "Reviewing the Effects of Ocean Acidification on Sexual Reproduction and Early Life History Stages of Reef-Building Corals." Journal of Marine Biology 2011 (2011): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/473615.

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Ocean acidification (OA) is a relatively young yet rapidly developing scientific field. Assessing the potential response(s) of marine organisms to projected near-future OA scenarios has been at the forefront of scientific research, with a focus on ecosystems (e.g., coral reefs) and processes (e.g., calcification) that are deemed particularly vulnerable. Recently, a heightened emphasis has been placed on evaluating early life history stages as these stages are generally perceived to be more sensitive to environmental change. The number of acidification-related studies focused on early life stages has risen dramatically over the last several years. While early life history stages of corals have been understudied compared to other marine invertebrate taxa (e.g., echinoderms, mollusks), numerous studies exist to contribute to our status of knowledge regarding the potential impacts of OA on coral recruitment dynamics. To synthesize this information, the present paper reviews the primary literature on the effects of acidification on sexual reproduction and early stages of corals, incorporating lessons learned from more thoroughly studied taxa to both assess our current understanding of the potential impacts of OA on coral recruitment and to inform and guide future research in this area.

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Holcomb, M., A. L. Cohen, and D. C. McCorkle. "A gender bias in the calcification response to ocean acidification." Biogeosciences Discussions 8, no. 4 (August 23, 2011): 8485–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-8-8485-2011.

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Abstract. The effects of nutrients and pCO2 on zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate colonies of the temperate scleractinian coral Astrangia poculata (Ellis and Solander, 1786) were investigated at two different temperatures (16 °C and 24 °C). Corals exposed to elevated pCO2 tended to have lower relative calcification rates, as estimated from changes in buoyant weights. No nutrient effect was observed. At 16 °C, gamete release was not observed, and no gender differences in calcification rate were observed. However, corals grown at 24 °C spawned repeatedly and male and female corals exhibited two different growth rate patterns. Female corals grown at 24 °C and exposed to CO2 had calcification rates 39 % lower than females grown at ambient CO2, while males showed only a 5 % decline in calcification under elevated CO2. At 16 °C, female and male corals showed similar reductions in calcification rates in response to elevated CO2 (15 % and 19 % respectively). At 24 °C, corals spawned repeatedly, while no spawning was observed at 16 °C. The increased sensitivity of females to elevated pCO2 may reflect a greater investment of energy in reproduction (egg production) relative to males (sperm production). These results suggest that both gender and spawning are important factors in determining the sensitivity of corals to ocean acidification and their inclusion in future research may be critical to predicting how the population structures of marine calcifiers will change in response to ocean acidification.

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Gress, Erika, and Dominic A. Andradi-Brown. "Assessing population changes of historically overexploited black corals (Order: Antipatharia) in Cozumel, Mexico." PeerJ 6 (July 4, 2018): e5129. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5129.

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Black corals (Antipatharians) are crucial structural and ecological components of many mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs; reefs 30–150 m depth). In Mexico, black corals are harvested for the jewellery industry, which has historically led to population depletion. Harvesting began in the early 1960s and was concentrated around Cozumel Island until 1995. Since then, harvesting permits have been granted only for the mainland coast. Here we compare Cozumel populations between 1998 and 2016 for the two black coral species targeted by the jewellery industry. We found that densities of Plumapathes pennacea in 2016 were substantially lower than in 1998. However, the 2016 P. pennacea population has shifted to be dominated by larger colonies, suggesting disproportionate juvenile mortality or recruitment failure. Low numbers of Antipathes caribbeana were recorded, and no change in population density or colony size was detected between 1998 and 2016. Despite harvesting occurring for almost 70 years in the Mexican Caribbean, no information on reproduction, recruitment and other dynamics of the targeted species is available. We advocate for harvesting permits to be based on scientific evidence, and for implementation of future restrictions to prevent total depletion of black corals in the area.

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Hanafy, M. H., M. A. Aamer, M. Habib, Anthony B. Rouphael, and Andrew H. Baird. "Synchronous reproduction of corals in the Red Sea." Coral Reefs 29, no. 1 (October 11, 2009): 119–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00338-009-0552-2.

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Wijayanti, Diah Permata, and Michio Hidaka. "Is genetic involve in the outcomes of contact reactions between parent and offspring and between siblings of the coral Pocillopora damicornis?" ILMU KELAUTAN: Indonesian Journal of Marine Sciences 23, no. 2 (June 21, 2018): 69. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/ik.ijms.23.2.69-80.

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Various allogeneic responses have been characterized in stony corals. The responses were thought to be genetically control. However, very little is known about the genetic mechanism of allorecognition in corals. Therefore, the contact reaction between parent-offspring and between siblings of the coral Pocillopora damicornis has been studied. Three types of contact reactions were observed: between young colonies, between adult and young colonies, and between adult colonies. Siblings, which were primary polyps or young colonies derived from the same broodparent, invariably fused. All but one pair of parent-offspring grafts exhibited fusion. However, some pairs of young colonies derived from the same two broodparents showed a different contact response than did the broodparents when their branch tips were paired. When the same pairs of the young colonies were repeated to contact at different age, most pairs yielded the same results. Together with the findings that young colonies were able to recognize their partner less than 1 month after the initial contact, we suggest that contact reaction in coral and time needed for the stable reaction are most probably under genetic control. Keywords: coral, young colonies, reproduction, parent-offspring relationship, histocompatibility

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OKAMOTO, Mineo, Satoshi NOJIMA, Syuichi FUJIWARA, and Yasuo FURUSHIMA. "Development of ceramic settlement devices for coral reef restoration usingin situsexual reproduction of corals." Fisheries Science 74, no. 6 (December 2008): 1245–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1444-2906.2008.01649.x.

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Chui, Apple Pui Yi, Man Chung Wong, Siu Hong Liu, Ga Wun Lee, Sze Wai Chan, Pui Ling Lau, Sin Man Leung, and Put Ang. "Gametogenesis, Embryogenesis, and Fertilization Ecology ofPlatygyra acutain Marginal Nonreefal Coral Communities in Hong Kong." Journal of Marine Biology 2014 (2014): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/953587.

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Understanding the reproductive biology of dominant coral species in subtropical nonreefal coral communities is critical in providing important information on the processes underlying the distribution limits of coral species and communities. This is the first study that investigates the reproduction cycle, gametogenesis, and fertilization ecology ofPlatygyra acuta. Results indicated thatP. acutais hermaphroditic and exhibits a single annual gametogenic cycle. Oogenic and spermatogenic cycle occurs for 6-7 months and for 2 months, respectively, prior to annual mass spawning event in May to June in Hong Kong. It took 18 hours forP. acutato complete embryonic development, develop cilia, and start to rotate. High (>70%) fertilization success can be achieved under a broad range of sperm concentrations from 104to 107 sperms mL−1. Fertilization success remained consistently high 6 h after spawning, indicating a prolonged viability of its gametes that is much longer than that recorded for other coral species. Significantly higher percentage of fertilization success was recorded in the first of the two consecutive nights of spawning, suggesting differences in the quality of the eggs and/or sperms between days of spawning. These results serve as important baseline information for better understanding of corals in marginal communities.

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Olischläger, Mark, and Christian Wild. "How Does the Sexual Reproduction of Marine Life Respond to Ocean Acidification?" Diversity 12, no. 6 (June 13, 2020): 241. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d12060241.

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Recent research indicates that synchronicity of sexual reproduction in coral spawning events is breaking down, leading to aging populations and decreased recruitment success. In this perspective, we develop a hypothesis that this phenomenon could be caused by ongoing ocean acidification (OA). We hypothesize, that the underlying physiological machinery could be the carbon concentrating mechanism (CCM). The endosymbiotic zooxanthellae of corals could use this mechanism to sense calm water motion states in a comparable way to that known from macroalgae. In macroalgae, it is well-established that dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) acts as the trigger for signaling low water motion. Hence, evolutionarily developed signals of low water motion, suited for gamete-release, may be misleading in the future, potentially favoring opportunistic species in a broad range of marine organisms.

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Jones, Alison M., and Ray Berkelmans. "Tradeoffs to Thermal Acclimation: Energetics and Reproduction of a Reef Coral with Heat TolerantSymbiodiniumType-D." Journal of Marine Biology 2011 (2011): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/185890.

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The photo-physiological characteristics of thermo-tolerantSymbiodiniumtypes have been postulated to have negative effects on the energetics of the reef corals by reducing fitness. To investigate this, two key and inextricably coupled indicators of fitness, lipids and reproduction, were monitored in colonies of the broadcast-spawning coralAcropora milleporaover a two-year period that included a natural bleaching event. In the absence of bleaching ITS1-type clade D predominant colonies had 26% lower stored lipids compared to C2 colonies. At spawning time, this correlated with 28% smaller eggs in type-D colonies. This energetic disparity is expected to have reduced larval duration and settlement-competency periods in type-D compared to type-C2 colonies. More importantly, irrespective of the effect of genotype, the fitness of all corals was adversely affected by the stress of the bleaching event which reduced prespawning lipids by 60% and halved the number of eggs compared to the previous year. Our results extend work that has shown that direct temperature stress and symbiont change are likely to work in concert on corals by demonstrating that the lipids and reproduction of the reef building corals on tropical reefs are likely to be impaired by these processes as our climate warms.

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Ruiz-Diaz, Claudia P., Carlos Toledo-Hernandez, Alex E. Mercado-Molina, María-Eglée Pérez, and Alberto M. Sabat. "The role of coral colony health state in the recovery of lesions." PeerJ 4 (January 5, 2016): e1531. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1531.

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Coral disease literature has focused, for the most part, on the etiology of the more than 35 coral afflictions currently described. Much less understood are the factors that underpin the capacity of corals to regenerate lesions, including the role of colony health. This lack of knowledge with respect to the factors that influence tissue regeneration significantly limits our understanding of the impact of diseases at the colony, population, and community level. In this study, we experimentally compared tissue regeneration capacity of diseased versus healthy fragments ofGorgonia ventalinacolonies at 5 m and 12 m of depth. We found that the initial health state of colonies (i.e., diseased or healthy) had a significant effect on tissue regeneration (healing). All healthy fragments exhibited full recovery regardless of depth treatment, while diseased fragments did not. Our results suggest that being diseased or healthy has a significant effect on the capacity of a sea fan colony to repair tissue, but that environmental factors associated with changes in depth, such as temperature and light, do not. We conclude that disease doesn’t just compromise vital functions such as growth and reproduction in corals but also compromises their capacity to regenerate tissue and heal lesions.

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Tanner, Jason E. "Competition between scleractinian corals and macroalgae: An experimental investigation of coral growth, survival and reproduction." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 190, no. 2 (August 1995): 151–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(95)00027-o.

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Nozawa, Yoko, Mutsunori Tokeshi, and Satoshi Nojima. "Reproduction and recruitment of scleractinian corals in a high-latitude coral community, Amakusa, southwestern Japan." Marine Biology 149, no. 5 (March 11, 2006): 1047–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00227-006-0285-5.

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de Paula, Alline Figueira, Débora de Oliveira Pires, and Joel Christopher Creed. "Reproductive strategies of two invasive sun corals (Tubastraea spp.) in the southwestern Atlantic." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 94, no. 3 (January 16, 2014): 481–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315413001446.

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The azooxanthellate sun corals Tubastraea coccinea and T. tagusensis are invasive species which were introduced into Brazilian shallow-water tropical rocky reefs by oil and gas platforms. Both species are simultaneous hermaphrodites and brooders. Histological analysis shows a continuous reproduction with the presence of different stages of development of oocytes, spermatic cysts and larvae occurring together in the same polyps (overlapping). Gametogenesis, embryogenesis, planulation and settlement were observed. Although most of the colonies showed only oocytes, none had only testes. Spermatic cysts were observed in 8.3% of T. coccinea colonies and in 5.5% of colonies of T. tagusensis. The maximum diameter of oocyte of T. tagusensis (1252.5 µm) was greater than T. coccinea (901.8 µm) and mature spermaries 700 µm in diameter formed the typical arrangement of ‘bouquets’. Although all colonies showed oocytes throughout the year, two reproductive peaks of 3–4 months duration were observed. The larvae of T. coccinea and T. tagusensis had a competency period of 18 d in aquaria and settled near the parental colony. The investigation of gametogenesis, temporal patterns of reproduction, fecundity and sexual maturation helps to explain the rapid expansion in to new habitats and high population growth in these invasive sun corals.

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Ferse, Sebastian C. A., Margaux Y. Hein, and Lena Rölfer. "A survey of current trends and suggested future directions in coral transplantation for reef restoration." PLOS ONE 16, no. 5 (May 3, 2021): e0249966. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249966.

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Coral transplantation has been used in reef restoration for several decades, but information on the type of projects, their scope, scale, and success is mostly limited to published scientific studies and technical reports. Many practitioners do not have the capacity to share their progress in peer-reviewed literature, yet likely have a wealth of information to share on how to improve the efficiency of transplantation efforts. In order to incorporate non-published data on coral transplantation projects and gain an overview of the general features of these projects, we conducted an initial systematic online survey of projects run by various practitioners. Surveyed projects (n = 50) covered most of the tropical belt and ranged in size from a few hundred transplanted corals to >5000 transplants. The most frequent source of coral fragments were corals already broken from some previous impact (“corals of opportunity”; 58% of projects), followed by fragments stored in different types of aquaculture systems (42% of projects). The use of sexual reproduction was very limited. Fast-growing, branching corals were used in 96% of projects, being by far the most common transplanted growth form. About half of the projects mentioned undertaking maintenance of the transplantation plots. The majority of projects undertook subsequent monitoring (80%), yet the available data indicates that duration of monitoring efforts was not adequate to evaluate long-term success. The findings underline that while some general principles for successful coral restoration projects are reasonably well established, others need to be mainstreamed better in order to improve the effectiveness of coral transplantation for reef restoration. This relates in particular to sustainable funding, adequate site assessment, and long-term monitoring using established protocols. Additional information is needed to better understand and address potential challenges with regards to the sourcing of transplants and use of slow-growing species. A better integration of practitioners is necessary to improve the understanding of coral transplantation effectiveness. The results underline a need to develop and use monitoring protocols that allow gauging and comparing the effectiveness of coral transplantation among various projects, as well as for accessible platform(s) to allow the exchange of experiences made in different projects. Regular surveys of restoration projects are recommended to collate and share information among practitioners. We provide a number of recommendations for items to include in future surveys.

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Tanner, J. E. "Seasonality and lunar periodicity in the reproduction of Pocilloporid corals." Coral Reefs 15, no. 1 (March 1996): 59–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01626077.

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Carroll, A., P. Harrison, and M. Adjeroud. "Sexual reproduction of Acropora reef corals at Moorea, French Polynesia." Coral Reefs 25, no. 1 (December 3, 2005): 93–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00338-005-0057-6.

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Tanner, J. E. "Seasonality and lunar periodicity in the reproduction of Pocilloporid corals." Coral Reefs 15, no. 1 (February 1, 1996): 59–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s003380050028.

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Murphy, James W. A., Abby C. Collier, and Robert H. Richmond. "Antioxidant enzyme cycling over reproductive lunar cycles in Pocillopora damicornis." PeerJ 7 (June 7, 2019): e7020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7020.

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The impacts of continued degradation of watersheds on coastal coral reefs world-wide is alarming, and action addressing anthropogenic stressors and subsequent rehabilitation of watersheds and adjacent reefs is an urgent priority. The aim of this study is to develop and improve the use of antioxidant enzymes as bioindicators of stress in coral species. In order to fully develop such tools, it is necessary to first understand baseline cycling of these enzymes within coral tissues. Due to inherent links between reproduction and oxidative stress, these aims may be facilitated by sampling coral tissues over reproductively-linked lunar cycles to determine variations from baseline. By developing a greater understanding of biochemical markers of stress in corals, specifically antioxidant defense enzymes catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in Hawaiian Pocillopora damicornis, we have provided molecular tools that identify thresholds of stress on coral reefs. Our results suggest that the coral reproductive state is a significant factor affecting the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Specifically, CAT and GR display maximum activity during peak reproductive state. Whereas significant maximal Se-independent GPx and SOD activity was measured during off-peak reproductive cycles. Such insight into the cyclical variation of the activity of these enzymes should be applied towards differentiating the influence of natural biological activity cycling in diagnostic tests identifying the effects of different physical environmental factors and chemical pollutants on coral health. Through the development and application of these molecular biomarkers of stress, we look to improve our ability to identify problems at the sub-lethal level, when action can be taken to mitigate a/biotic impacts.

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Twan, Wen-Hung, Jiang-Shiou Hwang, Yan-Horn Lee, Shan-Ru Jeng, Wen-Shiun Yueh, Ying-Hsiu Tung, Hua-Fang Wu, Sylvie Dufour, and Ching-Fong Chang. "The Presence and Ancestral Role of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone in the Reproduction of Scleractinian Coral, Euphyllia ancora." Endocrinology 147, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 397–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2005-0584.

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The objectives of this study were to investigate the presence of immunoreactive GnRH (irGnRH) in scleractinian coral, Euphyllia ancora, study its seasonal variation, and evaluate its biological activity. irGnRH was detected and quantified in coral polyps. The biological activity of coral irGnRH was tested on pituitary cells from black porgy by evaluating its ability to stimulate LH release. Coral extracts (10−9–10−5m irGnRH) as well as mammalian (m) GnRH agonist (10−10–10−6m) had a similar dose-dependent effect on LH release. Furthermore, GnRH receptor antagonist dose-dependently inhibited the stimulation of LH release in response to coral extracts (10−5m irGnRH) and mGnRH agonist (10−6m). Peak levels of irGnRH (10-fold increase) were observed during the spawning period in a 3-yr investigation. Significantly higher aromatase activity and estradiol (E2) levels were also detected during the period of spawning compared with the nonreproductive season. In in vivo experiments, mGnRH agonist time- and dose-dependently stimulated aromatase activity as well as the concentrations of testosterone and E2 in free and glucuronided forms in coral. In conclusion, our data indicate that irGnRH does exist in coral, with its ability to stimulate LH release in fish. Seasonal variations of coral irGnRH, with a dramatic increase during the spawning period, concomitant to that in aromatase and E2, as well as the ability of mGnRH agonist to stimulate coral aromatase, steroidogenesis, and steroid glucuronization suggest that irGnRH plays an important role in the control of oocyte growth and mass spawning in corals.

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Lager, Claire V. A., Mary Hagedorn, Kuʻulei S. Rodgers, and Paul L. Jokiel. "The impact of short-term exposure to near shore stressors on the early life stages of the reef building coral Montipora capitata." PeerJ 8 (July 3, 2020): e9415. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9415.

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Successful reproduction and survival are crucial to the continuation and resilience of corals globally. As reef waters warm due to climate change, episodic largescale tropical storms are becoming more frequent, drastically altering the near shore water quality for short periods of time. Therefore, it is critical that we understand the effects warming waters, fresh water input, and run-off have on sexual reproduction of coral. To better understand the effects of these near shore stressors on Hawaiian coral, laboratory experiments were conducted at the Institute of Marine Biology to determine the independent effects of suspended sediment concentrations (100 mg l−1 and 200 mg l−1), lowered salinity (28‰), and elevated temperature (31 °C) on the successful fertilization, larval survival, and settlement of the scleractinian coral Montipora capitata. In the present study, early developmental stages of coral were exposed to one of three near shore stressors for a period of 24 h and the immediate (fertilization) and latent effects (larval survival and settlement) were observed and measured. Fertilization success and settlement were not affected by any of the treatments; however, larval survival was negatively affected by all of the treatments by 50% or greater (p > 0.05). These data show that early life stages of M. capitata may be impacted by near shore stressors associated with warming and more frequent storm events.

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Nonaka, Masanori, Masaru Nakamura, and Katherine Muzik. "Sexual Reproduction in Precious Corals (Coralliidae) Collected in the Ryukyu Archipelago." Pacific Science 69, no. 1 (January 2015): 15–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2984/69.1.2.

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Rinkevich, B. "Do reproduction and regeneration in damaged corals compete for energy allocation?" Marine Ecology Progress Series 143 (1996): 297–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps143297.

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Precoda, Kristin, Marah J. Hardt, Andrew H. Baird, and Joshua S. Madin. "Tissue biomass trades off with growth but not reproduction in corals." Coral Reefs 39, no. 4 (May 12, 2020): 1027–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00338-020-01925-7.

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Pires, D. O., J. C. Silva, and N. D. Bastos. "Reproduction of deep-sea reef-building corals from the southwestern Atlantic." Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 99 (January 2014): 51–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.07.008.

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Shikina, Shinya, Che-Chun Chen, Yi-Ling Chiu, Pin-Hsuan Tsai, and Ching-Fong Chang. "Apoptosis in gonadal somatic cells of scleractinian corals: implications of structural adjustments for gamete production and release." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1930 (July 2020): 20200578. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0578.

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Apoptosis is an evolutionarily conserved process of programmed cell death. Here, we show structural changes in the gonads caused by apoptosis during gametogenesis in the scleractinian coral, Euphyllia ancora . Anatomical and histological analyses revealed that from the non-spawning to the spawning season, testes and ovaries increased in size due to active proliferation, differentiation and development of germ cells. Additionally, the thickness and cell density of the gonadal somatic layer decreased significantly as the spawning season approached. Further analyses demonstrated that the changes in the gonadal somatic layer were caused by apoptosis in a subpopulation of gonadal somatic cells. The occurrence of apoptosis in the gonadal somatic layer was also confirmed in other scleractinian corals. Our findings suggest that decreases in thickness and cell density of the gonadal somatic layer are structural adjustments facilitating oocyte and spermary (male germ cell cluster) enlargement and subsequent gamete release from the gonads. In animal reproduction, apoptosis in germ cells is an important process that controls the number and quality of gametes. However, apoptosis in gonadal somatic cells has rarely been reported among metazoans. Thus, our data provide evidence for a unique use of apoptosis in animal reproduction.

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Wagner, Daniel, Rhian G. Waller, and Robert J. Toonen. "Sexual reproduction of Hawaiian black corals, with a review of the reproduction of antipatharians (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia)." Invertebrate Biology 130, no. 3 (August 8, 2011): 211–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7410.2011.00233.x.

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Comizzoli, Pierre, and William V. Holt. "Breakthroughs and new horizons in reproductive biology of rare and endangered animal species." Biology of Reproduction 101, no. 3 (February 17, 2019): 514–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioz031.

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Abstract Because of higher extinction rates due to human and natural factors, more basic and applied research in reproductive biology is required to preserve wild species and design proper strategies leading to sustainable populations. The objective of the review is to highlight recent, inspiring breakthroughs in wildlife reproduction science that will set directions for future research and lead to more successes in conservation biology. Despite new tools and approaches allowing a better and faster understanding of key mechanisms, we still know little about reproduction in endangered species. Recently, the most striking advances have been obtained in nonmammalian species (fish, birds, amphibians, or corals) with the development of alternative solutions to preserve fertility or new information about parental nutritional influence on embryo development. A novel way has also been explored to consider the impact of environmental changes on reproduction—the allostatic load—in a vast array of species (from primates to fish). On the horizon, genomic tools are expected to considerably change the way we study wildlife reproduction and develop a concept of “precision conservation breeding.” When basic studies in organismal physiology are conducted in parallel, new approaches using stem cells to create artificial gametes and gonads, innovations in germplasm storage, and more research on reproductive microbiomes will help to make a difference. Lastly, multiple challenges (for instance, poor integration of new tools in conservation programs, limited access to study animals, or few publication options) will have to be addressed if we want reproductive biology to positively impact conservation of biodiversity.

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Szmant, AM. "Sexual reproduction by the Caribbean reef corals Montastrea annularis and M. cavernosa." Marine Ecology Progress Series 75 (1991): 13–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps075013.

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Chang, Ching-Fong, Wen-Hung Twan, Jiang-Shiou Hwang, and Hua-Fang Wu. "THE PRESENCE AND ROLES OF GONADOTROPINRELEASING HORMONE IN THE REPRODUCTION OF CORALS." Biology of Reproduction 77, Suppl_1 (July 1, 2007): 154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolreprod/77.s1.154.

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Szmant, AM. "Sexual reproduction by the Caribbean reef corals Montastrea annularis and M. cavernosa." Marine Ecology Progress Series 74 (1991): 13–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps074013.

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Chadwick, N. E., and C. Adams. "Locomotion, asexual reproduction, and killing of corals by the corallimorpharian Corynactis californica." Hydrobiologia 216-217, no. 1 (June 1991): 263–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00026473.

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Hancock, JR, AR Barrows, TC Roome, AS Huffmyer, SB Matsuda, NJ Munk, SA Rahnke, and C. Drury. "Coral husbandry for ocean futures: leveraging abiotic factors to increase survivorship, growth, and resilience in juvenile Montipora capitata." Marine Ecology Progress Series 657 (January 7, 2021): 123–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps13534.

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Reef restoration via direct outplanting of sexually propagated juvenile corals is a key strategy in preserving coral reef ecosystem function in the face of global and local stressors (e.g. ocean warming). To advance our capacity to scale and maximize the efficiency of restoration initiatives, we examined how abiotic conditions (i.e. larval rearing temperature, substrate condition, light intensity, and flow rate) interact to enhance post-settlement survival and growth of sexually propagated juvenile Montipora capitata. Larvae were reared at 3 temperatures (high: 28.9°C, ambient: 27.2°C, low: 24.5°C) for 72 h during larval development, and were subsequently settled on aragonite plugs conditioned in seawater (1 or 10 wk) and raised in different light and flow regimes. These juvenile corals underwent a natural bleaching event in Kāne‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i (USA), in summer 2019, allowing us to opportunistically measure bleaching response in addition to survivorship and growth. This study demonstrates how leveraging light and flow can increase the survivorship and growth of juvenile M. capitata. In contrast, larval preconditioning and substrate conditioning had little overall effect on survivorship, growth, or bleaching response. Importantly, there was no optimal combination of abiotic conditions that maximized survival and growth in addition to bleaching tolerances. This study highlights the ability to tailor sexual reproduction for specific restoration goals by addressing knowledge gaps and incorporating practices that could improve resilience in propagated stocks.

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Hallock, Pamela, D. E. Williams, E. M. Fisher, and S. K. Toler. "Bleaching in foraminifera with algal symbionts: implications for reef monitoring and risk asessment." Anuário do Instituto de Geociências 29, no. 1 (January 1, 2006): 108–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.11137/2006_1_108-128.

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Reef-dwelling larger foraminifers share key characteristics with reefbuilding corals: they are prolific producers of calcium carbonate, they are physiologically dependent upon algal endosymbionts, and representatives of both groups have suffered bleaching episodes in recent decades. Since 1991, bleaching has been observed in populations of Amphistegina in all subtropical oceans, with peak bleaching in 1992 and secondary peaks in 1998 and 2005. Amphistegina populations exhibiting chronic, intermediate-intensity bleaching characteristically show anomalously high incidences of shell breakage, shell deformities, evidence of predation, and microbial infestation. Asexual reproduction is profoundly affected; broods from partly bleached parents typically have fewer individuals, many of which are anomalous in shape and size. Key differences between bleaching in corals and Amphistegina are that corals typically bleach by expelling their symbionts, while Amphistegina bleach when damaged symbionts are digested, and that mass coral bleaching requires high light but correlates most consistently with elevated temperatures, while bleaching in Amphistegina is induced by light. Amphistegina are particularly sensitive to the shorter (300-490 nm) wavelengths of solar radiation, which have increased in intensity relative to longer visible wavelengths (>;490-700 nm) in clear reef waters over the past 30 years as a consequence of stratospheric ozone depletion. Abundances and visual assessments of Amphistegina populations can be used as a low-cost risk-assessment tool. These protists are sensitive to environmental conditions over days to weeks, and provide a method to quickly distinguish between water quality (local) and photo-oxidative (global) stresses. Risk assessments based on the combined use of in situ measurements and low-cost indicators can provide resource managers with essential information to decide when more costly chemical or molecular procedures are needed to determine local sources of stress.

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PETERSEN, D., J. FALCATO, P. GILLES, and R. JONES. "Sexual reproduction of scleractinian corals in public aquariums: current status and future perspectives." International Zoo Yearbook 41, no. 1 (July 2007): 122–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2007.00006.x.

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Twan, Wen-Hung, Hua-Fang Wu, Jiang-Shiou Hwang, Yan-Horn Lee, and Ching-Fong Chang. "Corals have already evolved the vertebrate-type hormone system in the sexual reproduction." Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 31, no. 2-3 (April 2005): 111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10695-006-7591-1.

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Pires, Débora O., Bárbara Segal, and Alice C. Caparelli. "Reproductive effort of an endemic major reef builder along an inshore–offshore gradient in south-western Atlantic." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 91, no. 8 (June 30, 2010): 1613–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315410000767.

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Mussismilia braziliensisis endemic to the south-western Atlantic, where it plays an important role as a major reef builder. It occurs in a wide range of sediment conditions between coastal and offshore environments. Here, we investigated its reproductive effort along an inshore–offshore gradient. Three sites were sampled with varying distances (15 to 60 km) from the mainland in the Abrolhos Reef Complex (18° S). Reproductive effort was estimated as fecundity (number of eggs per: polyp, cm2, mm3, and mesenteries). Mean fecundity per polyp was 338.7 (±73.5 SD) and the highest number of eggs per polyp was 987. Percentages of fertile mesenteries per polyp were similar among sites. However, the fecundity per mesentery varied among colonies and among sites. Fecundity per polyp increased as its area, volume, height and number of fertile mesenteries increases. The area closest to the coast (‘Pedra de Leste’) presented the highest mean fecundity per polyp (410 eggs ± 159.2 SD), cm2(233.47 eggs ± 219.44 SD), mm3(4.95 eggs ± 2.34 SD) and mesentery (10.6 eggs ± 4.3 SD). Corals closest to the coast had 55% higher fecundity per polyp and 64% higher fecundity per cm2than corals offshore. This area presented the highest contribution of non-carbonate sediments deposited on the reefs. Therefore, we suggest that colonies ofM. braziliensismay present higher uptake rates of particulate matter at inshore reefs, which allow for higher rates of tissue growth (less nutrient limitation) and energy allocation to reproduction.

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Nakajima, Yuichi, Po-Shun Chuang, Nobuo Ueda, and Satoshi Mitarai. "First evidence of asexual recruitment of Pocillopora acuta in Okinawa Island using genotypic identification." PeerJ 6 (November 12, 2018): e5915. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5915.

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Okinawa Island is located near the center of the Nansei Islands (∼24–31°N), at a relatively high latitude for coral reefs. Nevertheless, more than 80 coral genera (over 400 species) are abundant in the Nansei Islands. Since March, 2017, scleractinian corals have been held in an outdoor tank at the OIST Marine Science Station at Seragaki, Onna with natural sea water flow-through in order to be used in molecular biological and physiological studies. In January, 2018, we found small pocilloporid-like colonies suspected to have originated asexually. We collected 25 small colonies and measured their sizes and weights. Also, we validated the classification and clonality of the colonies using a mitochondrial locus and nine microsatellite loci. Almost all of the small colonies collected in the outdoor tank were ≤1 cm in both width and height. The weight of dried skeletons ranged from 0.0287 to 0.1807 g. Genetic analysis determined that they were, in fact, Pocillopora acuta. Only one mitochondrial haplotype was shared and two microsatellite multilocus genotypes were detected (20 colonies of one and four colonies of the other). The mitochondrial haplotype and one microsatellite multilocus genotype for 20 colonies corresponded to those of one P. acuta colony being kept in the tank. One small colony matched both multilocus genotypes. This may have been a chimeric colony resulting from allogenic fusion. These small colonies were not produced sexually, because the only potential parent in the tank was the aforementioned P. acuta colony. Instead, they were more likely derived from asexual planula release or polyp bail-out. Corals as Pocillopora acuta have the capacity to produce clonal offspring rapidly and to adapt readily to local environments. This is the first report of asexual reproduction by planulae or expelled polyps in P. acuta at Okinawa Island.

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Malul, Dror, Roi Holzman, and Uri Shavit. "Coral tentacle elasticity promotes an out-of-phase motion that improves mass transfer." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287, no. 1929 (June 24, 2020): 20200180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2020.0180.

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Corals rely almost exclusively on the ambient flow of water to support their respiration, photosynthesis, prey capture, heat exchange and reproduction. Coral tentacles extend to the flow, interact with it and oscillate under the influence of waves. Such oscillating motions of flexible appendages are considered adaptive for reducing the drag force on flexible animals in wave-swept environments, but their significance under slower flows is unclear. Using in situ and laboratory measurements of the motion of coral tentacles under wave-induced flow, we investigated the dynamics of the tentacle motion and its impact on mass transfer. We found that tentacle velocity preceded the water velocity by approximately one-quarter of a period. This out-of-phase behaviour enhanced mass transfer at the tentacle tip by up to 25% as compared with an in-phase motion. The enhancement was most pronounced under flows slower than 3.2 cm s −1 , which are prevalent in many coral-reef environments. We found that the out-of-phase motion results from the tentacles' elasticity, which can presumably be modified by the animal. Our results suggest that the mechanical properties of coral tentacles may represent an adaptive advantage that improves mass transfer under the limiting conditions of slow ambient flows. Because the mechanism we describe operates by enhancing convective processes, it is expected to enhance other fitness-determining transport phenomena such as heat exchange and particle capture.

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Baird, AH, and PA Marshall. "Mortality, growth and reproduction in scleractinian corals following bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef." Marine Ecology Progress Series 237 (2002): 133–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps237133.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Corals – Reproduction'

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