Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Cook Islands'

This thesis examines the effects of coastal protection structures upon the sandy coastline of Rarotonga, Cook Islands. The coastline is surrounded by a fringing coral reef which is continuous except for six passages. Water from the open sea enters the lagoonal area by waves breaking over the roof and propagates towards the shore as reformed waves. A detailed analysis of beach change and adjustments in front of and adjacent to coastal protection structures is presented. While there has been a substantial increase in data in the nearshore oceanographic regime and the nearshore coastal zone on Rarotonga, generally there has been a lack of monitoring of coastal structures, and in the effects on tropical coastal environments. Five sites in the west and southern coast of Rarotonga were selected for monitoring. All sites were located on sandy beach coastlines. An examination of the beach sediment at each site by determination of settling velocities in a 2 metre water column using a MacArthur Rapid Sediment Analyser indicated a medium grain size range. This finding differs from earlier measurements for the Rarotongan Resort site when predominantly coarse grain sediments were found. Such a finding has impact implications for the stability of coastal sediments. The principal method of data collection was by repeated profile surveys over a ten week period between May and July 1995. The profiles were examined first, by the conventional method of profile plots and secondly by excursion distance analysis. The excursion distance analysis was used to examine temporal and spatial variations for each site. During the study period a storm of swells originating from a southern source area brought unusually high waves in the seas around the Southern Cook Islands on the 8th and 9th June. All study sites were affected by up to 6 metre swells with energetic wave periods in the range of 10-15 seconds. The impact of the swell storm helped generate results for this study. Five factors were noted from this study as important to the way the beach profile in front and adjacent to coastal protection structures responded in the short term to the incident coastal processes during the study period. These are the position of the coastal protection structure in the beach profile, the structural configuration of the coastal structure, how the structure is tied in with the land behind it, the seaward volume of beach sediment and the sediment characteristic within the foreshore. Most of the foreshore adjustment occurred in the lower and middle foreshore with flattening and steepening respectively taking place during the high energy swell storm. In the recovery period the profiles tended to broaden out. A spatial analysis of the field data showed both along-shore and across-shore variations in the morphology of the beach and the topography of the lagoon floor. Movement of sediment in discrete amounts were identified in generally three positions in the beach profile: lower foreshore, nearshore and the mid-lagoonal area. Following the storms across-shore movement of sediment was identified, presumably rehabilitating areas in front of the coastal structures. Overall it was observed that beach change in front of coastal structures was similar to beaches without structures if there is abundant sediment offshore. The erosional response to storms, however, was typically different with bars forming offshore where coastal structures had been established.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Sydney, 2000.
Title from title screen (viewed July 29, 2009) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy to the Dept. of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts. Bibliography: leaves 185-189. Also available in print form.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Sydney, 2000.
Title from title screen (viewed July 29, 2009) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy to the Dept. of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts. Bibliography: leaves 185-189. Also available in print form.

This thesis is about tivaivai, which are unquilted quilts made and used by Cook Islands women in the Cook Islands ceremonial economy. They are the paramount form of valuable in ritual exchanges during kinship ���life��� events, and other public gifting events, which draw people together via translocal and transnational kin and wider social networks. How Cook Islands women use tivaivai as the gift and/or as decoration in these ceremonial arenas is part of the way Cook Islanders do economy as a local model of livelihood (Gudeman 2001, 2008). Such a model is founded on the material and nonmaterial aspects of the base, as in the priorities dictated by a group���s cultural framework. This is an expanded, more encompassing notion of economy, and necessarily moves beyond standard Western economic theory and the centrality of the market. I argue that tivaivai are semiotic media of value (Turner 2006b, 2008; cf. Graeber 2001), so they are iconic valuables, and indexical symbols of the structural properties of the Cook Islands system of social relations. As such weighted valuables, tivaivai are models of and models for how to be a Cook Islands woman and mother. As the gift and as decoration of ritual venues, tivaivai materialise the key values of kinship and aro���a (love) which orientate the way Cook Islanders exist and act in the world, so tivaivai are the access to and axis of prestige as mana for women. This relationship among value, values, and valuables is also important, because as such weighted valuables, tivaivai dignify the gifting of lesser valuables in a ritual complex, which is deployed in the various types of Cook Islands ceremonial events to transform people and objects. These lesser valuables include envelope wrapped money and food. I argue that the gifting of envelope wrapped money is as much about the reality of living in a capitalist political economy like New Zealand and the formulation of subaltern strategies to get by and prosper in New Zealand, as it is about the display of Cook Islands values, womanliness, mothering, and the pursuit of mana.

This multi-media art project investigates the notion of Cook Islands humour, and subsequently place, through the context of the religious pageant Nuku. This pageant has been practiced annually in the Cook Islands for over one hundred and sixty years. While it is not a pageant based on humour, I suggest, through experience and research, that many of the characteristics of Cook Islands humour are revealed in Nuku. The aim of this project is not to recreate the narrative set out in the Nuku pageant but to use this event to explore ways to visually express the humour of the Cook Islands. After researching and experimenting in two dimensional mediums, my emphasis changed to experimenting with three dimensional mediums, incorporating materials that have connotative meanings in Cook Islands society.

This multimedia visual arts project investigates, from a personal perspective, changes in the context of Cook Islands’ women’s adornment. In a modern world, changes in adornment have become disconnected from cultural traditions and so this study explores how over time evolving patterns of adornment are employed by women to identify their place in society. Observations have been drawn from the developing relationship between the researcher and the women in Rarotonga, the Cook Islands’ community where this project took place. These observations are documented explored and articulated primarily through the medium of photography, and principally by way of the snapshot and the portrait. This examination of Cook Islands’ women and their adornment from traditional adornment to the contemporary influences of modern day fashion has further been explored through a visual response to the relationships between the women and the layers of their adornment. This visual arts project is compromised of an exegesis with a value of 20% and a practical component of 80%.

This research is an exploration of the politics and governance of resource use and environmental conservation in the geographical context of Tongareva – a remote atoll in the northern Cook Islands, eastern South Pacific – with a specific focus on the harvest of a species of giant clam, pasua (Tridacna maxima). The thesis examines a range of management practices, social relations and ecological conditions in order to demonstrate the socio-political-ecological nexus that produces pasua management on the island. Theoretically, the dissertation engages with recent debates around the social and the environmental as mutually constitutive domains, elaborating this relation by demonstrating that the use and conservation of pasua is negotiated in and through space. In particular, the thesis examines the complex interplay and co-constitution of so-called customary mechanisms for resource management by examining the politics surrounding the practice of rahui, a form of harvest closure. I explore how exchange networks, authority structures and economic changes intersect to determine and shape the politics of pasua harvest and rahui on Tongareva and place both the island and pasua in very specific ways. The research combines an analysis of oral ecological histories, key player interviews, participant observation along with findings from a comprehensive survey of pasua abundance and distribution in the lagoon. It pursues this combination of data collection not in order to use ecological ‘facts’ to verify social ‘beliefs’ but because it sees such knowledges as different but equally valid – if differently empowered – forms of resource knowledge.  The dissertation also concludes that conservation in particular localities is never limited to events that occur in that context alone, but rather is connected to myriad other places by the movement of people, ideas and species.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are having remarkable effects and promise potential solutions to many of the South Pacific islands’ geographic, economic and social challenges. Access to ICTs is also an increasingly important factor for education and training in the region. While the Pacific eLearning Observatory, supported by the University of the South Pacific, has been monitoring the development and access to ICT in education across the 12 university’s campuses, studies that specifically examine the attitudes and understanding of educators working on the islands of the South Pacific towards the use of ICT in their profession, as well as for their professional development, are rare. This study aims at addressing the gap in the literature by examining the professional development of facilitators working in blended learning environment across the remote islands of the Cook Islands. The research outcomes of this study are based on the analysis of in-depth, semi-structured interviews, and the theoretical foundation of this thesis is grounded in the social and situated theory of learning. By closely examining the facilitators’ perceptions, the project sheds new light on the still little recognised concept of online communities of practice in teaching and learning. The central finding of the study is that participation in online communities of practice offers on-going opportunities for learning, development and support, and reduces the feeling of remoteness and isolation associated with the geographical conditions of the South Pacific region.

The demands imposed on teachers who are L2 speakers of English, in the Teaching of English as a Second Language (TESL) have had far-reaching consequences. In these situations, the consequences are compounded when the teacher is a L3 speaker of English teaching English to students who are predominantly L2/L3 speakers. Such consequences were explicitly stated in a number of reports, reviews and observations (Elley, 1979; Chamberlain, 1987; Laws and Horsley, 1988; The Ministerial Taskforce, 1989) and others. Issues relating to quality of education and quality of English teaching were frequently addressed and questioned. The author's experience as a teacher of English, Head of the English Department at Titikaveka College and English Adviser for secondary schools led to a growing concern and need to delve into these problems at both the primary and secondary levels. In the absence of research in this important area, the author sought to conduct investigation in four schools. The author was further motivated to conduct research as a result of a number of recent changes within the education system. Major concerns were firstly, the introduction of the Grade 6 National Examination in 1991; secondly, the change-over from the South Pacific English Option paper to a full New Zealand English paper in the New Zealand School Certificate (NZSC) Examination in 1989; and finally, the introduction of the New Zealand Bursary Examination in 1992. The question foremost in the author's mind was how adequately were the schools equipped to implement such changes given an array of major constraints. In this study, it is hypothesised that, most of the problems related to TESL in the Cook Islands stem primarily, and mainly from the poor quality of teachers in the classroom. This does not deny the existence of problems which emanate from other factors which impact on TESL, such as the language policy and curriculum, the adequacy or inadequacy of teaching resources, and whether indeed they are appropriate and the kinds of teaching methods which prevail. These are all acknowledged as contributing factors. The argument presented in this study, is that, while these are contributing factors, they are considered not as important as the teacher factor. The thrust of this thesis recognises the teacher as the most important classroom resource, the "key" factor which ultimately determines the quality and indeed the success or failure of an education system. This is true in the particular context of the Cook islands where teaching-learning resources, by its broadest definition, are very limited. In terms of the quality of the teacher's resourcefulness, this in turn is determined by his/her level of education and the kind of training received. Underlying the thesis presented is the contention that if the teacher is well-educated and highly-trained, then teaching and learning for the child make the possibility of attaining Level IV, the highest stage in Beeby's paradigm more likely. That is, teaching which stresses meaning and understanding, problem solving and creativity and the catering of individual differences (Beeby 1966: 72). Needless to say, the converse is more likely to happen, where and when teachers have had very limited education, inadequate and inappropriate training. In accordance with the purpose as outlined in Chapter 1, this study comprises 6 chapters and a conclusion. Chapter 1 discusses the nature of the problem from a number of interrelated dimensions, which have to varying degrees impacted on the teaching of ESL in the Cook Islands. The chapter concludes by stressing the purpose and relevance of the study in terms of educational, economic and social significance. Chapter 2 reviews and discusses, from a historical perspective, the literature as it relates firstly to the teaching of English in the Pacific but more specifically the teaching of English in the Cook Islands. The chapter then discusses the theoretical development and research in the teaching and learning of ESL in an attempt to arrive at a theoretical framework. Chapter 3 presents the research instruments and procedures used to gather and analyse the data. In the main, office sources, classroom observations, questionnaires and interviews formed the basis for eliciting data. Chapter 4 draws together the major findings of the study. The limited size of the sample placed some restrictions on the analysis of results derived from this study. Nevertheless, the analysis identified some significant trends upon which conclusions can be drawn. The last two chapters, Chapter 5 and Chapter 6 deal with the interpretative aspects of the study with the intention of arriving at valid recommendations to the problems identified. In summary, the study found that the teacher in the Cook Islands context is the key factor in the process of teaching and learning of ESL. When the teacher is well-educated and adequately trained, then the possibility of quality teaching and meaningful learning becomes a reality for the student.

Throughout the Pacific, many species of echinoderms and molluscs have cultural value and are harvested extensively in subsistence fisheries. Many of these species are sedentary and often associated with distinct reef-top habitats. Despite the significance of reef habitats and their fauna for fisheries and biodiversity etc, little information has been available on the distribution of habitats and their influence on the reef-top fauna in the Cook Islands. This thesis developed a novel approach to assess the status of the shallow-water reef-tops of Rarotonga, Cook Islands, to provide critical information to fisheries and conservation managers. The approach used remote sensing (aerial photography with ground truthing) to map the spatial arrangement and extent of the entire reef-top habitats accurately, and historical wind data and coastline shape to determine the windward and leeward sides of the island. The benthic habitat maps and degree of wind exposure were used to design and undertake a stratified sampling programme to assess the distribution and abundance of the epibenthic macroinvertebrate fauna of the reef-top. I quantified the distribution and abundance of the epibenthic macroinvertebrates and how they varied with habitat, assessed the effectiveness of a traditional ra�ui (marine protected area) for conserving stocks of Trochus niloticus and other invertebrates, and investigated the reproductive biology and impacts of traditional gonad harvesting on Holothuria leucospilota. There were four major habitat types (rubble/rock, sand/coral matrix, algal rim and sand) identified, the most extensive being rubble/rock (45%) and sand/coral matrix (35%). The degree of exposure to winds was found to correlate with the reef development and habitat distribution. The assemblage composition of each major habitat type differed significantly from every other habitat. The rubble/rock habitat had the greatest substratum heterogeneity and structural complexity, and the highest number of species and individuals. The overall abundance of the fauna was dominated by holothurians (68%) and echinoids (30%), while Trochus niloticus and Tridacna maxima accounted for the remaining 2% of the total invertebrate assemblage. Clear habitat partitioning was also found for adult and juvenile Trochus niloticus and Tridacna maxima. In the traditional fishery for Holothuria leucospilota, the mature gonads of males are harvested by making an incision in the body-wall of the animal, removing the gonads and then returning the animal to the reef to allow regeneration. Monthly collections of H. leucospilota were used to describe the reproductive biology of this species. Gametogenesis and spawning were synchronous between the sexes and spawning occurred annually during summer, when water temperature and photoperiod were at their highest. Although the incision in the body-wall and gonad removal had no impact on the survival of H.leucospilota in experimental cages, their body weight, and general sheltering and feeding behaviors were affected. Gonads took at least 41 days to start regenerating, suggesting a considerable delay in the spawning of fished individuals. In 1998, five Rarotongan communities re-introduced the traditional ra�ui system of resource management, prohibiting all fishing and gathering from their reefs. The performance of the Nikao ra�ui, which had been put in place to allow trochus stocks to increase, was investigated. Comparisons of macroinvertebrate assemblage composition and species density were made between three fishing treatments, i.e. fished areas adjacent to the ra�ui, within the ra�ui after two years of protection, and in the ra�ui after it had been lifted for three weeks to allow a commercial trochus harvest. Analysis of variance on the count data for the twelve most abundant species, and non-metric multi-dimensional scaling indicated that there were no differences in the microhabitat or the invertebrate assemblage composition between the three fishing treatments. However, there were significant differences between the rubble/rock and sand/coral matrix habitat types. The results on the effectiveness of the Nikao ra�ui are equivocal, due to the small sample size, and the variability between samples which was highlighted by the wide confidence intervals. This study highlights the importance of habitat to the macroinvertebrate fauna of the reef-top and the need for accurate habitat maps to increase the cost-effectiveness of future resource surveys, to provide information to management, and for the design of Marine Protected Areas. The mapping and survey methods must be reliable and repeatable in terms of the limitations of time, and the availability of expertise, funding and resources. The results provide important information for fisheries and conservation managers of Rarotonga and other Pacific Islands to better design rigorous sampling programmes for monitoring the status of reef-top resources, and for evaluating and planning Marine Protected Areas.

The effects of the public sector reform impacted on all aspects of public services including the performance of the economy. Central to this argument was the re-organization of the operations of the public service from the traditional administration system to the new public management (NPM). Education, a critical service in any economy was not spared. Literatures around the application of NPM (a derivative of market principles and practices) to education (which was value based) suggested that NPM was dangerous for education and could deplete the value system of education and replace that with a focus on accounting for money by individuals who were self-interested and who would seek to maximize their benefit with guile. Arguments against NPM suggested that the human factor was neglected and that education had led to chaos among professionals, stakeholders and students. However, those who argued for the introduction of NPM suggested that it had made the provision of education more efficient, effective and relevant to the needs to the clients. It held those working in the education sector accountable for the resources used and made the system more responsive to the needs of the clients of education. Education in the Cook Islands experienced many changes since western type education was introduced by the Missionaries in the late 1800s. Cook Islands people have always regarded education as a right and also believed their participation in education would improve their lives as well as positively contribute to economic growth. As the public sector reform was a global phenomenon, the currents of NPM also converged on the Cook Islands and affected the delivery of education. Those changes revolutionalized education in ways that was not commonplace in the Cook Islands. However, professionals and stakeholders within education made the most of the system and diverged some of the practices to suit the need, the environment and the culture of the Cook Islands people. Change also refocused education from teachers teaching to student learning reinforcing the dedication of many teachers and education administrators to ensure NPM served the best interest of their clients; the students, despite the workload placed on them. The challenge in this thesis was to understand how the NPM system affected education and how the Cook Islands education professionals worked within the system in their favour. The stories of teachers and Ministry of Education professionals demonstrated that there was no resistance to the application of NPM system in the Cook Islands. In fact, the system was embraced by the education sector suggesting it was a positive change from their previous system of traditional administration. Much of their system was inherited from New Zealand where the environment, layers of bureaucracy and economic status of the country was different. Instead, it appeared the Cook Islands took much of what others deemed as dangerous for education and turned it into a positive opportunity for the Cook Islands education. This thesis presents the story of the revolution in the Cook Island education system.

Thesis (MHSc--Health Science) -- AUT University, 2007.
Includes bibliographical references. Also held in print (xi, 107 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm.) in North Shore Campus Theses Collection (T 610.73099623 IRO)

The purpose of the thesis was to investigate culturally responsive pedagogy in physical education for Cook Island secondary schools. Cook Island core values were incorporated into culturally responsive practice for physical education teaching at Years 9 and 10 in three Rarotongan secondary schools. Two qualitative studies and one study of quantitative research were conducted to establish an understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy and how this might be implemented into the Cook Island secondary school physical education programme. The first study involved interviewing nine community elders, four physical education teachers, four school administrators and five government officials. The question guiding the study was "What core values are needed to structure a physical education pedagogy that is responsive to Cook Island culture?" The pa metua (elders) identified the following six core values: tāueue (participation), angaanga taokotai (cooperation), akatano (discipline), angaanga oire kapiti (community involvement), te reo Maori Kuki Airani (Cook Island Maori language), and auora (physical and spiritual wellbeing). The elders emphasised the importance of these values underlying culturally responsive practice in the Cook Islands. For the second part of the study, an action research group was formed which consisted of the researcher and four physical education teachers. The teachers implemented the core values identified in Study One in three Rarotongan secondary schools. This was accomplished with the inclusion of two phases of planning, action, observation and reflection. While the teachers enjoyed using culturally responsive practice in physical education, they also expressed a need for training in culturally responsive practices if such an implementation was to be successful. Coupled with this was the teachers' own lack of knowledge of te reo Maori Kuki Airani and the tension between western and cultural knowledge. The third section of the study explored student perceptions of the use of cultural activities in physical education. One hundred and one questionnaires were distributed to Year 9 and 10 students in three secondary schools. The findings showed that the students had valued the opportunity to engage in cultural activities in their physical education programme. However, the same tensions the teachers found in relation to the predominance of western pedagogies versus cultural values were evident in the students' comments. The data analyses and findings of the three studies showed that there is a need to address policy and practice in order to achieve a culturally responsive pedagogy in physical education in secondary schools in the Cook Islands.

In this thesis I propose to address what are, in my view, significant educational problems: how to tease out and analyse those principles, concerning equity and social justice, which underlie a particular program of teacher education. I want to discuss the kinds of principles, issues and considerations which have to be faced when designing such a program as the Diploma of Teaching (Early Childhood Education) for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students at James Cook University. The issues I will address are these: (a) The extent to which the notion of equality of educational opportunity is being addressed in the provision of teacher-education programs in Queensland in general, and James Cook University in particular; (chapter 1). (b) Ways in which the Diploma of Teaching (Early Childhood Education) p r o g r am aims to produce teachers able to act as agents of bi-cultural transmission; (chapters 2 and 3). (c) The value, usefulness and desirability of James Cook University setting up a teacher-education program specifically for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students from geographically remote communities, thus increasing the participation rates of Aborigines and Islanders in teacher-education programs; (chapters 4 and 5). This process of analysis has led me to structure the thesis around three dimensions: (i) The historical context of the program; (ii) The program as one response to the problems faced by educational institutions in meeting the educational needs of Aboriginal people; (iii) A basis for the next phase in the development of new programs of teacher - education for indigenous students living in remote communities. This is a qualitative research project, based on my interpretation of available documentation, my use of relevant literature, and my own involvement as planner of, and teacher in the program. It is not a quantitative research project. The structure of the thesis has, as its introduction, an analysis of the extremely complex situation which exists at James Cook University. This analysis leads to a search for a set of principles to provide the theoretical underpinning of the program, which in turn leads through a combination of theory and practice to the "praxis" of the program as a model of equity and educational practice in teacher-education. The thesis is concluded by the presentation of the current stage in the development of a program for teacher-education students in remote communi ties. The conceptual framework for my thesis has been developed through my determination to increase my understanding of the complexities of developing teacher-education programs for indigenous students at James Cook University. The thesis is developed through case study techniques including: personal observation and recording of my work as Program Planner; a situational analysis of the historical background, leading up to the development of the Diploma of Teaching (Early Childhood Education) ; a discussion of the stages through which the development team proceeded with intentionality and empathy towards its task of constructing a specific program of teacher-education; and my use of existing literature to comprehend the educational and social problems which the program attemted to alleviate. Throughout my thesis the specificity of the "case", and the eclectic position I have adopted, have acted as boundaries of my conceptual framework. My thesis attempts to show that the "case" of the development of teacher-education programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students at James Cook University, although an idiosyncratic instance , is valuable as illumination , if not for generalisation, and thus has a credibility and usefulness. The characteristics of the case-study method are frequently more appropriate to expansion is than reductionist activities, and I have tried to show how the different perspectives of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people, together with the beliefs, attitudes and values of such different interest-groups as university academics, Commonwealth and State Education Department bureaucrats, and teachers and parents in schools, have emphasised both the importance of questioning assumptions and the importance of critical, experiential understanding.

In the mid-Cenozoic, New Zealand underwent slow subsidence interspersed with unconformity development, however significant controversy exists around both the extent of submergence below sea level during this period of maximum drowning, as well as the causes of these unconformities. Detailed field observations, combined with extensive petrographic analyses, stable isotopes, cathodoluminescence, and thin section staining were used to develop lithofacies, depositional, and sequence stratigraphic models of the mid-Cenozoic succession in the Waitaki region, South Island, to address these controversies. Twelve facies types have been described for Late Eocene-Early Miocene sedimentary rocks, leading to the identification of two major (Mid Oligocene & Early Miocene) and one minor (Late Oligocene) sequence boundaries. Surtseyan volcanism in the east produced a palaeohigh, resulting in a submerged rimmed cool-water carbonate platform, with low-lying land to the west. This eastern palaeohigh developed karst during sea-level lowstands, which correlate with silty submarine bored hardgrounds in the west. Glauconitic and phosphatic facies deposited during early marine transgression suggest an authigenic factory supplied by terrigenous clays existed during lowered sea level that was progressively shut down in favour of a carbonate factory as sea level rose and terrigenous supply decreased. The eastern palaeohigh served to nucleate this carbonate factory by raising the sea floor above the influence of siliciclastic sediment supply and providing a shallow substrate for marine colonisation. The higher energy eastern facies display dissolution of aragonitic taxa, while deeper western facies retained an aragonitic assemblage. This early bathymetric high created a barrier to submarine currents, but was gradually reduced by erosion during subsequent lowstands. Calcareous facies were often subjected to minor seafloor cement precipitation to shallow burial diagenesis, while eastern facies developed some meteoric cement during subaerial exposure. Comparisons between sea-level change in the study area and the New Zealand megasequence indicate eustatic changes as the primary driver of water depth in the Waitaki region until the development of the modern plate boundary in the Early Miocene.

The variation between surface and air temperature within a city and its surrounding area is a result of variations in surface cover, thermal capacity and 3-dimensional geometry. This study examines the spatiotemporal formation of the daytime Surface Urban Cool Island (SUCI) and night-time Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI) effect in Erbil, Iraq, as a case study for cities in semi-arid climates more generally. It furthermore quantifies the influence of rapid urban expansion on the urban heat/cool island effect over a 20 year period. Satellite images acquired by Landsat 4, 5, 7 and 8 between 1992 and 2013 are used to retrieve Land Surface Temperature (LST). Normalised Ratio Scale (NRS) is applied to the multi-mission Landsat data, which is used to adjust the temperature range for different acquisition times of images within the same temporal range. In addition, LST data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board Aqua and Terra from January 2003 to December 2014 are analysed. In order to establish the drivers of the observed patterns of LST and SUCI/SUHI, the relationships of LST with wetness, greenness, NDVI, soil moisture and other variables are assessed. The results indicate that during the daytime in summer, autumn and winter, densely built-up areas had lower LST acting as cool islands (SUCI) compared to the non-urbanised area around the city. In contrast, at night-time, Erbil experienced higher LST and demonstrated a significant SUHI effect. The mean LST of the newly urbanised and vegetated areas between 1992 and 2013 decreased by 2.28°C and 7.29°C respectively. Soil moisture (wetness) is the main marker of the SUCI/SUHI effect, whilst urban expansion may cause a decrease of daytime LST in dry climate zones. The NRS method is appropriate for detecting temperature trends greater than 2°C in Landsat data.

På grund av världens växande befolkning och urbaniseringen blir problem relaterade till fenomenet urbana värmeöar mer och mer påtagliga. Eftersom urbana parker kan minska påfrestningen skapad av urbana värmeöar kan de vara ett kraftfullt verktyg vid klimatdesign i städer. Temperaturen nära en yta bestäms av energiutbytet mellan ytan och luften ovanför och det är därför nödvändigt att man förstår energibalansen vid markytan för att kunna hantera parkernas mikroklimat. Syftet med det här arbetet var att studera skillnaderna mellan energibalansen för olika ytor i parken och i dess omgivning och att relatera skillnaderna i energibalanserna till temperaturskillnaderna.

Mätningarna utfördes under tre klara sommardagar i parken Humlegården i centrala Stockholm. Mätutrustningen var monterad på en kärra som flyttades från mätplats till mätplats. Mätplatserna representerade olika typiska ytor i Humlegården och i dess omgivning: en skuggad och en öppen gräsmatta, en öppen och en skuggad grusyta och två asfaltytor, varav en löper i nord-sydlig riktning och en i öst-västlig riktning.

Energiflödena beräknades med hjälp av data för luft- och yttemperatur, vindhastighet, luftfuktighet och nettostrålning.

Resultaten visade att den tydligaste skillnaden mellan gräs- och grusytorna i parken var att gräsytorna hade ett större nedåtriktat latent värmeflöde under natten och ett mindre markvärmeflöde under hela dygnet. Den mest distinkta skillnaden mellan de skuggade och öppna ytorna i parken var att de skuggade ytorna hade mindre energiflöden under dagen och att de till skillnad från de andra ytorna hade ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under dagen. Den största skillnaden mellan ytorna i och utanför parken var att asfaltytorna hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och markvärmeflöde under natten.

Under natten var den svalaste mätplasten den öppna gräsmattan, vilken också var den enda mätplasten med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde under natten. Jämfört med de andra ickeskuggade mätplasterna hade den öppna gräsmattan ett mindre markvärmeflöde. Varmaste mätplasterna under natten var asfaltytorna som även hade ett större uppåtriktat sensibelt och markvärmeflöde än de andra ytorna. Under dagen var de skuggade ytorna i parken de svalaste platserna. De var de enda ytorna med ett nedåtriktat sensibelt värmeflöde och nettostrålningen vid ytan var mindre än för de flesta andra mätplatser.

The world’s growing population and the increasing urbanization has made problems related to the urban heat island phenomenon to become more pronounced and since urban parks reduce the stress produced by the urban heat island they can be powerful tools in urban climate design. The temperature near the surface in a park is determined by the energy exchanges between the surface and the air above and it is therefore necessary to understand the surface energy balance of parks to intelligently manage their thermal microclimate. The objectives of this work were to study how the energy balances differ between different surfaces inside parks and in their built-up surroundings and to relate the surface energy balances to temperature differences.

Measurements were conducted during three clear summer days in the park Humlegården located in central Stockholm. The measuring instruments were mounted on a cart, which was transported from observation site to observation site. The observation sites represented typical surfaces found in an urban park and its surroundings: one shaded and one open grass surface, one open and one shaded gravel surface and two paved surfaces representing streets running in the north-south and east-west directions respectively. The energy fluxes were calculated using air and surface temperatures, wind speed, air humidity and net radiation data.

The most pronounced differences between the shaded and open surfaces in the park was that the shaded surfaces in general had smaller energy fluxes during daytime and that they had a downward directed sensible heat flux while the open surfaces had an upward directed sensible heat flux during the day. The most significant difference between the grass and the gravel surfaces in the park was that the grass surfaces had a bigger downward directed latent heat flux during the night and a smaller ground heat flux during both day and night. The largest differences between the surfaces inside the park and those in its built-up vicinities were that the paved surfaces had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux during the night than the other surfaces. During the day the north-south directed paved site had a downward directed ground heat flux that was much larger than the ground heat flux for the other sites.

The coolest site during the night was the non-shaded grass surface, which was the only site with a downward directed sensible heat flux during the night. Compared to the other nonshaded sites the open grass surface had a much smaller ground heat flux. Warmest sites during the night were the paved surfaces, which had a larger upward directed sensible and ground heat flux than the other surfaces. At the built-up sites the walls also contributed with sensible heat flux, i.e. the total sensible heat flux in the built-up area was larger than what comes from the street surface only. During the day the shaded surfaces in the park were the coolest sites. The shaded surfaces had less net radiation compared to the other non-shaded surfaces and were the only sites that had a downward directed sensible heat flux.

Tuatara (Sphenodon spp.) were once widespread over both the North and the South Islands of New Zealand approximately 1000 years ago but are now restricted to offshore islands due to introduced predators and habitat destruction. The survival of tuatara is now threatened by climate change because of isolation on islands that prevent them from migrating to cooler regions, and by their limited capacity to adapt due to their long life span and low genetic diversity. The thermal suitability of cooler regions for future translocations could be the key for tuatara conservation. The overall aim of the study was to determine the effect of cool temperature on the physiology, behaviour and egg incubation of Cook Strait tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). As well answering specific questions about tuatara and their adaptation to cool temperature this study aimed at answering general questions about the behavioural and evolutionary ecology of reptiles. I first compared the preferred body temperature, feeding responses and tolerance to cold temperature of tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) with three lizard species that inhabit the Otago region of southern New Zealand: Hoplodactylus maculatus, Naultinus gemmeus and Oligosoma maccanni. As well as testing the co-adaptation hypothesis between preferred body temperature and physiological performance of reptiles, I wanted to determine whether tuatara (which are planned to be reintroduced from a warmer site to the Otago region) have similar responses to cool temperature as do Otago lizard species. I found that tuatara show responses to cold temperatures similar to those of lizards from southern New Zealand, suggesting that if tuatara are translocated outside of their geographical range, they are likely to survive. I then tested if tuatara were capable of modifying their thermoregulatory behaviour if translocated to a cooler region. To do so, I conducted a laboratory experiment in which tuatara were provided with three thermal treatments corresponding to the thermal environments they would experience in their current habitat and the proposed reintroduction site. Contrary to the prediction of the cost-benefit model of thermoregulation, tuatara became active thermoregulators when the thermal quality of the habitat decreased. The results suggest that the model is less applicable to cold-adapted species and that if translocated to cooler regions, tuatara will be able to adjust their thermoregulatory behaviour to their thermal environment. Tuatara are temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) reptiles and their translocation to cooler regions could have an dramatic impact on the sex ratio of new populations. To determine if potentially lower incubation temperature would be a limiting factor for the reintroduction of tuatara, I translocated eggs to the proposed reintroduction site. Some tuatara embryos developed at the site (and later hatched in the laboratory), but incubation lasted longer than in natural nests and all hatchlings were female. This trend observed in biased sex ratio might change in the context of climate change as an increase of soil temperature by 3�C would allow the production of males at the proposed site. The present study demonstrates that the translocation of tuatara further south, outside of their current geographical range, is possible and recommended. Tuatara show similar responses to cool temperatures compared with lizards that live in southern New Zealand, they can also adjust their thermoregulatory behaviour if translocated to cooler habitats, and tuatara embryos could potentially develop successfully in cooler regions. The greatest chance for the future survival of tuatara and TSD species in general, lies in translocation to other locations that are thermally suitable.

The Chatham Islands are located in the SW Pacific Ocean, approximately 850 km to the east of the South Island of New Zealand. This small group of islands is situated near the eastern margin of the Chatham Rise, an elongated section of submerged continental crust that represents part of the Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic Gondwana accretionary margin. The location and much of the geology of the Chatham Islands are attributed to intra-plate basaltic volcanism, initiated during the Late Cretaceous, in association with development of a failed rifting system to the south of the Chatham Rise. Despite the volcanic nature of much of the geology, the majority of the Cenozoic sedimentary stratigraphic record on the islands comprises non-tropical skeletal carbonate deposits whose deposition was often coeval with submarine volcanics and volcaniclastic deposits. This has resulted in complex stratigraphic relationships, with the volcanic geology exerting a strong influence on the geometry and distribution of the carbonate deposits. These limestones, despite some general field descriptions, have been little studied and are especially poorly understood from a petrographic and diagenetic perspective. The carbonate geology in detail comprises eleven discrete limestone units of Late Cretaceous through to Pleistocene age which were studied during two consecutive field expeditions over the summers of 2005 and 2006. These limestone occurrences are best exposed in scattered coastal outcrops where they form prominent rugged bluffs. While many of the younger (Oligocene to Pliocene) outcrops comprise of poorly exposed, thin and eroded limestone remnants (it;5 m thick), older (Late Paleocene to Early Oligocene) exposures can be up to 100 m in thickness. The character of these limestones is highly variable. In outcrop they display a broad range of textures and skeletal compositions, often exhibit cross-bedding, display differing degrees of porosity occlusion by cementation, and may include rare silicified horizons and evidence of hardground formation. Petrographically the limestones are skeletal grainstones and packstones with a typical compositional makeup of about 70% skeletal material, 10% siliciclasts, and 20% cement/matrix. Localised increases in siliciclastics occur where the carbonates are diluted by locally-derived volcaniclastics. The spectrum of skeletal assemblages identified within the Chatham Island limestones is diverse and appears in many cases to be comparable to the bryozoan dominant types common in mainland New Zealand and mid-latitude Australian cool-water carbonates in general. However, some key departures from the expected cool-water carbonate skeletal makeup have been identified in this study. The occurrence of stromatolitic algal mats in Late Cretaceous and Early Eocene carbonate deposits indicates not cool-temperate, but certainly warm-temperate paleoclimatic conditions. A change to cool-temperate conditions is recorded in the limestone flora/fauna from the mid-Late Miocene times following the development and later northward movement of the Subtropical Front. An uncharacteristic mix of shallow-shelf (bryozoans) and deeper water fauna (planktic foraminifera), together with their highly fragmented and abraded nature, is indicative of the likely remobilisation and redistribution of carbonate, primarily during episodic storm events. The Chatham Islands limestones formed within the relative tectonic stability of an oceanic island setting, which was conducive to ongoing carbonate accumulation throughout much of the Cenozoic. This contrasts markedly with other mainland New Zealand shelf carbonates which formed over sporadic and short-lived geological periods, experiencing greater degrees of burial cementation controlled by a relatively more active tectonic setting. As a consequence of the tectonically stable setting, the Chatham Islands limestones have experienced little burial and exhibit a paucity of burial cementation effects. They remain commonly soft and friable. Detailed petrographic investigations have shown the limestones are variably cemented by rare uneven acicular spar fringes, poorly to well-developed syntaxial rim cements about echinoderm fragments, and equant/blocky microsparite. Staining of thin sections and cathodoluminescence petrography show these spar cement generations are non-ferroan and their very dull- to non-luminescent nature supports precipitation from Mn-poor oxygenated waters, likely of an either meteoric or combined marine/shallow burial origin. Micrite is the dominant intra- and inter-particle pore fill and occurs both as a microbioclastic matrix and as precipitated homogenous and/or micropeloidal cement. The rare fringing cements often seen in association with homogenous and/or micropeloidal micrite may be indicative of true early marine (seafloor) cement precipitation and localised hardground development. An interesting feature of the geology of the Chatham Islands is the occurrence of carbonate material within sedimentary dykes. The locations of the dykes are in association with volcanic and volcaniclastic deposits. Similarities between dyke characteristics at Red Bluff on Chatham Island with mainland occurrences from East Coast and Canterbury Basins (North and South Islands, respectively) on mainland New Zealand have been recognised. They show complex structures including sidewall striations, internal flow structures as revealed by grain sorting, and extra-clast inclusions of previous fill lithologies which are characteristic of carbonate injection. This is in contrast to other dykes which are known to be of a passive fill origin. Multiple phases of carbonate sediment injection can be recognised by crosscutting relationships enabling the determination of a parasequence of events. Possible injection mechanisms are most likely associated with sediment overloading or hydrothermal pressurisation associated with emplacement of submarine volcanics. The Chatham Islands provide an exciting example of a geologically unique and complex non-tropical carbonate depositional setting. The production of carbonates is controlled by volcanic and volcaniclastic sediment input with the types of carbonate deposits and water depth variations related to thermal uplift/subsidence in association with global eustatic sealevel and temperature changes associated with development of Southern Ocean water fronts from the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic. Carbonate deposition on the Chatham Islands is considered to relate to a rather variable and small scale oceanic, high energy, cool-water carbonate ramp setting whose geometry was continually evolving/changing as a consequence of periodic volcanic episodes.

O uso de \"pigmento frio\" é uma alternativa para minimizar os efeitos de \"ilhas de calor\" em grandes cidades como São Paulo. Este tipo de pigmento proporciona o desenvolvimento de fórmulas de tinta para aplicação em coberturas com cores escuras, próximo ao preto, apresentando refletância solar (SR) maior. Neste estudo, foi formulado um grupo de tintas na cor cinza claro e outro na cor cinza escuro. O primeiro grupo de tintas foi preparado com adição de pigmento preto convencional, o negro de fumo que possui natureza orgânica e o segundo grupo de tintas foi preparado com adição de \"pigmento frio\", que possui natureza inorgânica. A fração pigmentária de ambos os grupos de tintas foi preparada com auxílio do software \"CoolSim\". A revisão bibliográfica mostra que as tintas preparadas com pigmentos de natureza orgânica apresentam baixa refletância solar enquanto que as tintas preparadas com o uso do \"pigmento frio\" apresentam maior refletância solar. Os resultados de refletância solar de ambos os grupos de tintas confirmam os dados apresentados na revisão da bibliográfica. As fórmulas preparadas com o uso de \"pigmento frio\", mesmo tendo cor escura, resulta em produto mais adequado para a aplicação em superfície de cobertura como telha, devido sua capacidade de absorver menos calor, o que contribui na redução da temperatura do edifício, reduzindo a necessidade de uso de ar condicionado e auxiliando na redução do consumo de energia.
The use of \"cool pigment\" is one of the alternatives to minimize the effects of \"heat islands\" in big cities like São Paulo. This type of pigment provides the development of formulas for painting roofs with dark colors, near black, but showing higher solar reflectance (SR) than conventional pigments. In this study, a group of paint was formulated in light gray color and the other in dark gray color. The first group of paints was prepared with addition of conventional black pigment which is the carbon black that has organic nature. The second group of paints was prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", which has inorganic nature. The pigment fraction of both groups of paints was obtained using the software \"CoolSim\". The literature review shows that finishes obtained with paints prepared with organic nature pigment has lower solar reflectance and finishes obtained with paints prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", with inorganic nature, have a higher solar reflectance. The results of the study show that the solar reflectance of both groups of paint confirms the data obtained in the literature review. The paint formulas prepared with addition of \"cool pigment\", even presenting dark color, resulted in film more adequate for the application in surfaces of roofs and tiles due their capacity to absorb less heat. The use of \"cool pigment\" in formulas allow to obtain paints that can contribute to the reduction of the temperature of the building, by reduction the need to use air conditioning, resulting in lower energy consumption.

Human interference with the Earth’s climate, through the release of greenhouse gasses (GHGs), is estimated to have already increased average statewide temperatures in California by 1.7° Fahrenheit (F), with a further 2.7°F of warming expected by mid-century. The negative impacts of increased temperatures may be especially acute in mid-latitude cities that currently enjoy a mild climate, such as Los Angeles (LA), which are projected to warm to a point that will significantly affect human health and well being. The built environment increases urban temperatures through building materials that readily absorb heat from the sun, a lack of vegetation, a lack of pervious surface area, and anthropogenic heat. Local governments can take action to help their cities adapt to future temperatures through changes to building materials, urban design and infrastructure. This study evaluates six urban design strategies for reducing temperatures and therefore adapting to increased heat in LA: cool roofs, cool pavements, solar panels, tree planting, structural shading and green roofs. The methods used in this analysis include a cost-effectiveness analysis, key stakeholder interviews, and case studies from other cities in the US. Findings indicate that cool roofs are the most cost-effective strategy for urban heat island mitigation, with cool pavements and tree planting also cost-effective. Findings from stakeholder interviews indicate that political feasibility is high for all strategies except structural shading, which was thought to be costly and difficult to implement. However, significant political barriers were also identified for tree planting and green roofs. Findings from four case studies indicate that climate adaptation policies should emphasize co-benefits, include flexible design standards, and provide financial or performance-based incentives for property owners or developers. Specific recommendations for implementing climate adaptation measures are provided for urban planners, policy makers, urban designers and architects in Los Angeles.

This thesis is based on an ethnographic study of the inhabitants of Whiddy Island, and focuses on the change from one form of societal organisation to another on this island. The thesis is not an ethnography proper, but an attempt to link the local perceptions of change and the changes in the islanders' daily lives, to the wider political economy. Throughout the course of the study my original intention of exploring the tension between technology and community was replaced with the wider hypothesis that there is tension between modernity and community. Technology was revealed as both a product and producer of modernity, and modern state capitalist societies as the antonym not the synonym of community. The 40 remaining islanders represent the last of the transient phase in which community disappears and is replaced by society. The changes in the daily lives of the islanders were not total nor revolutionary. Rather the products of modernity - both policies and artefacts, were absorbed into the islanders' daily lives, and once absorbed the products of modernity promoted modernity in the daily lives of those using them. Modernity is thus a circular process, yet it settled on the island in layers. Each layer produced a new set of paradoxes and reformed the old practices and the old ideology to fit the new setting. The settlement of modernity culminated in the replacement of community members with state citizens. By focusing on the interrelationship and dialogue between modernity, the state and the citizen the processes by which modernity settled on this small island are revealed. It settled both as a result of the direct intervention of state policies on education, emigration and employment, and as a result of local decisions to embrace mechanised transport, domestic technologies and the mass media. By accepting the policies and the artefacts of modernity, the islanders were prohibited from resisting their transformation from community members to state citizens. The island citizen, like all citizens to-day, has a direct dialogue with, and relationship to modernity, and an indirect one mediated by the state.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
Urbanization and the changes imposed by man disturb the complex natural system, modifying the elements and characteristics of climate on a local scale. Considering the influence of urbanization as derived from the fact that the local climate and responsible for the generation of an urban environment specifically, this work was to analyze the field thermo-hygrometric and the formation of heat islands and urban cool in Santa Maria RS (Rio Grande do Sul, State of Southern of Brazil), relating these variables geourbans and geoecologycs in the study area. To accomplish this work was used the methodology of the transects, consisting of mobile collections in points pre-established. It was established two transects for data collection of temperature and relative humidity of the atmospheric air: one has the direction more or less in a north/northwest-south/southeast (NNW-SSE), linking Street Sete de Setembro , in Neighborhood Perpétuo Socorro , the end Fernando Ferrari Avenue in Neighborhood Nossa Senhora de Lourdes and the other in the east/northeastwest/southwest (WSW-ENE), linking the Street Major Duarte to get Street Venâncio Aires near the Arroio Cadena at Central portion of the Santa Maria City. The data were collected on days August 14, 2008 and January 06, 2009, the area was under the weather for the South Atlantic Polar Mass in winter time and the Old Polar Mass or modified in the summer, respectively. Were made cotte measures at five different times (9, 12, 15h, 18h and 21h), in order to verify the responses of thermal and humidity from the points pre-established and distributed along the transects, totaling 13 points of measures along the transect 1 (NNWSSE) and 15 in the transect 2 (ENE-WSW). Armed with the data of temperature and humidity, were made cartograms of the field thermo-hygrometric. For this application was used the Software Surfer for Windows 8.0. In the preparation of cartograms of the thermal field were established color scales to represent the values of temperature, so the cool colors were associated with lower temperatures and the warm colors at higher temperatures. Cartograms of hygrometric field values were represented in the cartogram using a variation of blue scale, so the lighter blue was used to represent the values of lower humidity and dark blue for higher values. The results highlight that the hygrometric and thermal fields of the coverage area of the transects, both on the day of collection in the field of Mass Polar Atlantic in winter time and in the field of Old Polar Mass or modified in the summer, need to move apparent daily sun exposure of the slopes and to solar radiation. By analyzing the thermal field of January 06, 2009 in five hours of collection, it became clear the migratory movements of the heat islands of the eastern slope, during the morning, to the slopes facing the north and west quadrant, during periods of midday and afternoon. The weather conditions that occurred on January 06, 2009 (summer), with clear skies, calm winds and a light with high incidence of solar radiation on the surface, favored the formation of heat islands and freshness of magnitude rating, strong and very strong. Was verified the thermal contrast between the center and periphery of the study area.
A urbanização e as transformações impostas pela ação do homem desequilibram o complexo sistema natural, modificando os elementos e as características do clima na escala local. Considerando a influência da urbanização como fato derivador do clima local e responsável pela geração de um clima especificamente urbano, este trabalho, teve por objetivo analisar o campo termohigrométrico, bem como a formação de ilhas de calor e de frescor urbanas em Santa Maria/RS, relacionando-as as variáveis geourbanas e geoecológicas existentes na área de estudo. Para isso utilizou-se a metodologia dos transectos, que consiste em coletas móveis em pontos pré-estabelecidos. Foi estabelecido dois transectos para a coleta dos dados de temperatura e umidade relativa do ar: um no sentido norte/noroeste-sul/sudeste (NNW-SSE), ligando a rua Sete de Setembro, no bairro Perpétuo Socorro, ao final da avenida Fernando Ferrari no bairro Nossa Senhora de Lourdes e o outro no sentido leste/nordeste-oeste/sudoeste (ENE-WSW), ligando a rua Major Duarte ao começo da rua Venâncio Aires próximo, ao Arroio Cadena. Os dados foram coletados nos dias 14 de agosto de 2008 e 06 de janeiro de 2009, sob domínio das condições atmosféricas pela Massa Polar Atlântica no inverno e pela Massa Polar Velha ou modificada no verão, respectivamente. As coletas foram realizadas em cinco horários diferentes (9h, 12h, 15h, 18h e 21h), com o intuito de verificar as respostas térmicas e de umidade dos pontos pré-estabelecidos e distribuídos ao longo dos transectos, num total de 13 pontos ao longo do transecto 1 (NNW-SSE) e de 15 no transecto 2 (ENE-WSW). De posse dos dados de temperatura e umidade do ar, foram confeccionados os cartogramas do campo termo-higrométrico. Para tal foi utilizado o aplicativo Surfer for Windows 8.0. Na elaboração dos cartogramas do campo térmico foram estabelecidas escalas de cores para os valores de temperatura, onde as cores frias foram associadas a temperaturas mais baixas e as cores quentes a temperaturas mais altas. Nos cartogramas do campo higrométrico os valores de umidade foram representados utilizando uma variação da cor azul. Assim, o azul mais claro foi utilizado para representar os valores de umidade mais baixos e, a cor azul escura, para os valores mais altos. Como resultados destaca-se que os campos térmico e higrométrico da área de abrangência dos transectos, tanto no dia de coleta sob domínio da Massa Polar Atlântica, no inverno, quanto no domínio da Massa Polar Velha ou modificada, no verão, estão condicionados ao movimento aparente diário do sol e a exposição das vertentes à radiação solar. Ao analisar o campo térmico do dia 06 de janeiro de 2009, nos cinco horários de coleta, percebe-se o movimento migratório das ilhas de calor da vertente leste, para as vertentes voltadas para o quadrante norte e oeste. As condições de tempo ocorridas no dia 06 de janeiro de 2009 (verão), com céu limpo, ventos calmos a leve e com forte incidência de radiação solar na superfície, favoreceram a formação de ilhas de calor e de frescor de magnitude media, forte e muito forte, bem como o contraste térmico entre o centro e a periferia da área de estudo.

This thesis applies techniques of textual analysis to selected Mangaian historical narratives. By viewing the texts as literary constructions an historian is able to gain a better perspective of the way the narrations were structured and clothed with particular ethnographic and historical textures. The introduction discusses the principal collectors and the ways they represented their work. The first part establishes the bases upon which the Mangaian past was told. Despite the transformations experienced since the arrival of the missions a significant degree of continuity can still be found in the roles of traditional experts, in particular of women, and in the ways traditions are transmitted. The second part explores a selection of Mangaian texts. Chapters four and five delve into the extant versions of a Mangaian origin myth and their categories of the other world—the supernatural. The roles of the ancestral figures and the supernatural beings emphasise the important place occupied by mythological texts in the telling of Mangaia’s past. The physical, cultural and spiritual mapping of Mangaia is established through the conflicts and partial resolutions achieved between the supernatural agencies and the island’s founding ancestor. Chapter six explores the connections between these categories of the otherworld and historically recorded visits to the island. The fearful attitude these visitors provoked and the attempts made by Mangaians to control the encounters reflect the ways Mangaians viewed the world. Chapters seven to twelve examine texts which elucidate the roles performed by the principal actors in Mangaian society. The conversion and prophecy dreams reported by the priestly spiritual ruler emphasise the shamanic dimension of the Mangaian priesthood. The supreme political or temporal rulership is discussed; in particular, the contested nature of the office; the periodic appearance of a subsidiary rulership; and the manner of succession to temporal rule. The narratives emphasise the complementarity envisaged between the spiritual and temporal rulers. Their cooperative duality was understood as ensuring the island’s peace and prosperity. Conversely, the island suffered when these rulers opposed each other. However, the hierarchical appearance of Mangaian society structured around these complementary rulerships was always leavened by crosscutting personal, family, tribal or religious loyalties which acted to reintegrate society after political conflicts. Reading into the many texted past of Mangaia not only emphasises the richness and diversity of its ethnographic record but enables an historian to check the interested nature of particular texts and their narrators. This approach may be applied to any historical enterprise.

This study examines Native-white relations on Vancouver Island, and the creation of the region as an object of imperial interest, between the late eighteenth and mid nineteenth centuries. These processes are investigated using a range of empirical and theoretical materials, and in relation to the British Columbian present. Archaeological, ethnographic and historical evidence is considered alongside ideas about the nature of power, space and representation drawn from the critical literature on European colonialism. The study has a twin argument. First, it is argued that these phases of exploration, trade and imperial dispute should be studied in terms of a broader series of Enlightenment, commercial and geopolitical dynamics. But second, it is claimed that western agendas were not imposed on Vancouver Island in a mechanical fashion. They were warped in regionally specific ways because of the nature of the contact process. Western discourses and practices actively shaped Vancouver Island and were themselves reshaped in the process. Part 1 explores Captain James Cook's encounter with the Native people of Nootka Sound in 1778; the spatial and corporeal dimensions of contact are teased out in order to interrogate the scope and limits of Cook's scientific-humanitarian agenda. Part II assesses the Native-white sea otter trade on Vancouver Island between the 1780s and 1810s. It is argued that traders' assumptions about, and representations of, Native people were influenced by the commercial geography of the trade and by Native agendas. Part III deals with the way the region was refashioned as a prospective imperial space by western politicians, and the implications of this imperial outreach for Native peoples. Vancouver Island is viewed through methodological and archival lenses, and is connected to a broader late eighteenth-century capitalist-imperial world. This study works between Europe and Vancouver Island to illuminate the connections and fissures between knowledge, power and geography.

This thesis contributes to the academic understanding of the role of technology transfer in underpinning sustainable development in developing countries. This contribution has two main components. First, the thesis offers a multidisciplinary review of academic literatures in developing a model of technology transfer from developed to developing countries that achieve sustainable development outcomes. Second, the thesis offers a detailed case study of an on-site wastewater management technology in the Cook Islands. The innovative on-site sewage treatment technology used in this project has been developed by the author over the past twenty years. The project took the form of a 'demonstration' Evapocycle system was installed at the recently completed education centre built by the non-government organisation Youth With a Mission on the island of Rarotonga. The problems of wastewater treatment in the Cook Islands, which are exacerbated by tourist development, are described. It is argued that the Evapocycle system could reduce problems associated with 'conventional' septic tank systems in use on Rarotonga, thus leading to a more sustainable development. The technology transfer model developed by Kedia and Bagat is reviewed and is applied to the chosen example. The thesis concludes that problems experienced in introducing the on-site treatment system to the Cook Islands can be explained by the model.

This thesis explores dance through the lens of performance, globalization, gender and postcolonialism. It also relies on contemporary Pacific scholarship to argue about the centrality of active agency in cultural production. Cook Islands dancing is not simply a reflection past and present gendered cultural politics. Throughout, I argue that the mediational power of expressive practices actively produces the modalities through which regional and local identities engage with broader global processes. Dance, I suggest, is a generative process which occupies the hearts, minds and bodies of many Cook Islanders.

This thesis investigates the prehistoric diet of humans and two of their key commensals on Aitutaki using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. This technique gives us new insight into the diet of these three groups and results are considered in the context of the development of agricultural systems on Aitutaki, as well as in light of the wider context of cultural developments and environmental change in the Cook Islands and Polynesia as a whole. Ultimately, it allows us to more fully understand the complex interactions between humans and the two largest commensals in order to evaluate the utility of these animals as proxies for humans in dietary analyses. The results indicate that the prehistoric human diet on Aitutaki can be characterised as mixed, dominated by terrestrial plants and marine protein with lesser amounts of terrestrial protein. While the amount of protein eaten by the individuals was very similar, they varied in how much marine or terrestrial protein they ate. The pigs had a slightly more terrestrial diet, with a greater emphasis on plant foods. Their protein intake was more variable and terrestrial in nature than the humans’. Dogs had a higher trophic level, more marine-oriented, diet than either humans or pigs. Like the humans, their diet contained more variation in the source of their protein. Overall, however, the diets of all three groups were very similar. While the overall nature of the human, pig and dog diets, and their relationships to one another, remained relatively constant over time, beginning in the 14th century they show a decline in the amount of fish consumed and had a more terrestrial diet overall. This confirms trends seen in the archaeofaunal assemblages, and throws light on the relationship between environmental change and human subsistence practices in East Polynesia. The similarity of the pig and dog diets to human diet, and the fact that the relationship remained constant over time, demonstrates the usefulness of the Aitutaki commensal animals as proxies for humans in stable isotope analysis. However, the specifics of that relationship vary by species and by place. While the individual dietary variability provides us with new ways of looking at dietary change within populations, it also demonstrates the importance of obtaining as large an assemblage for analysis as possible in order to ensure that samples are representative of the population as a whole.

Masters Research - Master of Philosophy (MPhil)
This thesis describes the grammar of the language spoken on the two small atolls of Manihiki and Rakahanga in the Northern Group of the Cook Islands. The language is a Polynesian language belonging to the Eastern Polynesian subgroup and is closely related to neighbouring languages such as Tongarevan and Rarotongan. The work is the first ever reasonably thorough description of this language, and is based on a number of video recordings, collected during a total of approximately 12 months of fieldwork. The fieldwork was split into several different visits to New Zealand, as well as to Rarotonga and Manihiki in the Cook Islands. The recordings were transcribed and translated with the help of native speakers. The grammar is divided into seven chapters: Preliminaries, Phonology, Word Classes, The Noun Phrase, The Verb Complex, Clause Structure and Complex Sentences. From the description, one can see that the Manihiki language is a fairly typical Eastern Polynesian language. It is grammatically very close to Rarotongan and Tahitian, whereas the phonology is virtually identical to that of New Zealand Māori, with exactly the same phoneme inventory. When it comes to word classes, Manihiki exhibits a fluidity between nouns and verbs which is typical of Polynesian languages, and which is probably facilitated by the fact that Manihiki is an almost entirely analytic language, with no inflectional morphology and only three derivational affixes: two causative prefixes and a nominalizing suffix. Manihiki also appears to be a fairly typical Polynesian language when it comes to the use of determiners with noun phrases and preverbal particles with verb complexes. It also contains the presentative preposition ko, cognate forms of which are found in most other Polynesian languages. Further research will be needed in order to determine the exact position of Manihiki within the Eastern Polynesian subgroup.

Tourism is a salient contemporary context for tangled cross-cultural experiences and representations. Holidaying tourists, and those people who deal with tourists in 'host' countries, focus on making the present holiday moment a significant event. But while emphasis appears to be on the present time this relies on recourse to notions of past. For most tourists to the Cook Islands their own societies' pasts are imagined (even fictionalised), romanticised, and reflected in their experiences on holiday of a simpler, more relaxed pace of life. Further connections are made by contemporary tourists to other pasts - those earlier perspectives of other Western travellers, such as explorers and travel writers, who have gazed at and experienced the islands in former times. Tourists seek authenticity both in themselves and in the people and places they visit and for Cook Islanders engaged in the tourism industry there is also a concern with authenticity. Expressions of national and cultural identities are performed to tourists and to themselves. Tourists are encouraged to participate in life in the Cooks while there, emphasising Cook Islanders' capacity for generosity and inclusivity - a statement of cultural authenticity. This is a story of tourists' ('guests') and Cook Islanders' ('hosts') experiences and representations of peoples and places through the tourism industry. It questions the relationship of 'tourism' and culture' in tourism encounters. Rather than assuming that the hosts' culture is necessarily negatively impacted by tourism, it examines the lived experiences of Cook Islanders who work with tourism and how they talk about and perform their own expressions of identity. The ethnography further questions notions of dwelling and movement, considering tourists and Cook Islanders in place and on the move. Being on the move and being in place are examined through narrative points of reflection made by the ethnographer. Broader reflections on how anthropologists practise and how we conceive of our practice ripple out from this ethnographic inquiry.

This dissertation offers a comprehensive model of contemporary nation-state sovereignty. To do so, it examines the mutually constitutive relationship between sovereignty and present-day globalization as well as the role of law and capital in creating, maintaining, and driving that relationship.

The scholarly treatment of nation-state sovereignty has been inadequate for several reasons. Older theories of sovereignty could not have foreseen the unprecedented technological advances that underlie our current system and therefore do not sufficiently explain it. More recent theories of sovereignty, in turn, tend to be too narrowly focused, such that a given model of sovereignty often only applies to that particular condition. Furthermore, the academic literatures on sovereignty and nationalism, while occasionally referencing each other, have failed to recognize that the two phenomena are parts of the same whole and therefore must be more fully integrated.

This dissertation argues that a comprehensive model of contemporary nation-state sovereignty must include two symbiotic elements. The first, referred to here as emotional sovereignty, involves subjective relationships with the state. As such, the substance of this element is unique for each group. The second element is a functional/instrumental element. It addresses ways that the sovereignty serves as an interface-mechanism with other sovereignties, like compatible nozzles attaching and linking variously-sized hoses. It likewise explains how sovereignty functions as a value-maximization mechanism. In short, a sovereignty must control its relationships with others in order to accumulate as much capital as possible in order to protect and perpetuate aspects of the domestic culture that are deemed most valuable. This functional/instrumental element, while used in distinct ways by different groups, is largely identical in form among all states.

From these multiple angles it becomes evident that nation-state sovereignty is not one single power but instead a set of powers, such that each power entails a strategic option that can be negotiated, delegated, mortgaged or surrendered. Nation-state sovereignty is therefore rendered meaningful only in connection with other nation-state sovereignties; in the contemporary situation, this means globalization. Sovereignty is, after all, an ad hoc solution to a particular set of historically and contextually emerging dilemmas; as the dilemmas have continued to change, so have the solutions. And so although people, goods, and ideas have always flowed across borders, whether geographic or cultural, the speed, nature, and extent of all such movement in the contemporary age is unprecedented. Today, all sovereignties - across the globe - are connected in diverse and manifold ways. This dissertation therefore provides a model of globalization that goes beyond the simple movement of people, goods, capital, and ideas to explain the conceptual transformations that have made today's globalization possible; the processes that drive it; and the role of the nation-state, and in particular nation-state sovereignty, as a necessary component of globalization itself.

The dissertation integrates these theories of sovereignty and globalization to show how the connections created by systems of nation-state law serve as the framework for many of the core processes of globalization, while flows of capital within and enabled by that framework fuel those processes. It shows that there are at least three important aspects of this relationship between sovereignty, globalization, law and capital: First, because of the connections of law, capital, and labor, every state is implicated in the production of every good, a phenomenon here referred to as co-production. Together with the co-consumption of those goods, co-production is the driving force behind globalization; as such, one can likewise say that nation-states co-produce globalization itself through the legal regulation of the movement of capital and individuals. Second, nation-states remain the central structural machinery of globalization. Third, globalization is not uniform. To be sure, the effects of globalization have transformed every culture on the planet and capitalism has been the vehicle for doing so. But just as not all cultures are the same, all capitalisms are not the same either. No model of sovereignty and globalization is therefore complete without a mechanism for accounting for differences in culture and capitalism.

The research that is the foundation for this dissertation was undertaken primarily in the South Pacific region, focusing on Cook Islanders in the Cook Islands, New Zealand, and Australia. Methods included participant observation, legal and documentary research, as well as informal and semi-structured interviews.

Dissertation

Jessica Cramp investigated shark sanctuary effectiveness on oceanic sharks, using a case study in the Cook Islands. She found that sharks benefited from the Sanctuary, but benefits varied based on sharks' movement ecology and release condition. Additionally, an adapted systematic conservation planning approach would close loopholes in shark conservation policy.

碩士
中興大學
景觀與遊憩碩士學位學程
103
With the rapid development of society, and the booming urban systems nowadays, original natural surface is being replaced by artificial surfacing gradually. The temperature is losing balance in urban areas, and temperature constantly rising end up with higher temperature in the city outskirts; which leads to Heat Island Effect in cities. Therefore, how to alleviate the problem of Heat Island Effect caused by urbanization is getting more important. More and more researches on the effect of Cool Island Effect appeared, but most of the studies for Cool Island Effect focus on green spaces, and those on the water are mostly ribbon of river; However, the study focused on planar of waters is relatively rare, so my study will focus on the waters of the planar for the object. With the swift development of Taiwan''s economy, the Heat Island Effect not only happened in Taipei area, but also in the nearby city, Taoyuan. Therefore, Heat Island Effect problem should not be ignored. With the natural conditions and the background of demanding ancestors Taoyuan areas, ponds become the most representative of the landscape in Taoyuan City. Therefore, this study will focus on the planar of pond in Taoyuan City as the study objects of cool island effect. With the progress in information and technology of space, Satellite Telemetry has the advantages of high spectral, large range, simultaneous record and the rapid acquisition data. Therefore, this study will refer to the remote sensing images of 2002 and 2011 of the Landsat-7 ETM +, with the calculation of the surface temperature and ground station data, and then produce the surface temperature map of Taoyuan City; On the other hand, take the advantage of the land use classification, this research divided land of Taoyuan city in five categories which is ponds, water, woodland, agricultural land and building. The spatial overlay analysis is to explore the relationship of Cool Island Effect between ponds in Taoyuan against the surrounding environment, and the data in ponds Cool Island Effect as well. The results showed that Cool Island Effect would affect 300 meters from ponds, and the environment location and the area of ponds will affect its Cool Island Effect. Pond area to the temperature showes negative correlation. However, the area of influence of the Cool Island Effect has a threshold, once it exceeds the threshold, the impact will slow down. the best area is about 2-5 hectares, it varies in different locations. The Cold Island Effect for ponds to cool down in the range of 1 to 2.5℃. But with the different density of buildings would make different cool data. Therefore, this study will collect Cool Island Effect data from ponds to Cool Island Effect table, providing researches, space planning or design in the future.

Atualmente, a mitigação da ilha urbana de calor (IUC) é uma das grandes para a melhoria das condições de habitabilidade da população urbana. No presente trabalho pretendeu-se a determinação do potencial de arrefecimento dos espaços verdes em Lisboa, quantificando o volume de vegetação necessário para a redução de 1ºC na temperatura do ar. Para tal, foram selecionadas algumas áreas amostra: um jardim de média dimensão (Jardim da Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian), um jardim de pequena dimensão (Jardim Fernando Pessa) e duas ruas, uma com vegetação (Avenida Defensores de Chaves) e outra sem vegetação (Rua Actor Isidoro). Em todos os espaços foram recolhidos dados climáticos (instalação de redes meteorológicas urbanas e medições itinerantes) e, posteriormente, interpolaram-se as temperaturas no interior e no exterior de um jardim, de modo a caraterizar o comportamento térmico destes espaços verdes e a sua influência na área construída envolvente. Ao mesmo tempo, estimou-se a biomassa da cidade de Lisboa, a partir de modelos de deteção remota que recorreram ao índice de vegetação NDVI. Com o volume de massa verde, estimou-se a densidade de vegetação que, juntamente com a interpolação das temperaturas, permitiu a construção de um modelo de regressão linear simples de estimação do potencial de arrefecimento dos espaços verdes. Concluiu-se que todos os espaços verdes estudados conseguiram, em algum momento, arrefecer o ambiente térmico envolvente. No entanto, a intensidade das ilhas de frescura (PCI – Park Cool Island) e as distâncias máximas de arrefecimento registaram grande variabilidade espacial e temporal. No Jardim da Gulbenkian registou-se uma intensidade média da PCI de 2,2ºC, em dias com nebulosidade moderada a forte e uma grande variabilidade em termos de velocidade média do vento. O Jardim Fernando Pessa esteve quase sempre mais quente que a sua área envolvente. Os fatores que poderão explicar estas diferenças prendem-se com a dimensão dos espaços verdes e a densidade e o tipo de vegetação presente, tendo-se constatado que o efeito de arrefecimento de jardins compostos maioritariamente por espécies herbáceas como a relva é muito reduzido ou nulo. Quanto às ruas analisadas, concluiu-se que a rua arborizada esteve, em média, 1ºC mais fresca que a rua sem vegetação, tendo as diferenças máximas atingido 3,7ºC. A partir do modelo de regressão linear simples (temperatura do ar vs densidade da vegetação), concluiu-se que para a redução de 0,02ºC na diferença da temperatura entre um ponto de medição e um ponto fixo é necessário um incremento na vegetação de 1m2 (no plano). Em suma, a metodologia utilizada neste estudo é um ponto de partida para a estimação do potencial de arrefecimento de toda a massa verde da cidade de Lisboa, sendo necessário prosseguir esta investigação estudando um maior número de jardins de Lisboa.
Nowadays, urban heat island’s mitigation is an important goal to improve health and comfort conditions of urban population. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the cooling potential of Lisbon’s green spaces, quantifying the volume of vegetation needed to reduce 1ºC in air temperature. Therefore, several green spaces were chosen as samples: a medium size green space (Jardim da Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian), a small size green space (Jardim Fernando Pessa) and two streets, one with vegetation (Avenida Defensores de Chaves) and one without vegetation (Rua Actor Isidoro). In all green spaces climatic data were collected (installation of urban meteorological stations and mobile measurements in predefined transects) and air temperature was interpolated in Jardim da Gulbenkian to characterize the thermal behavior of green spaces and its influence in the surrounding building area. Furthermore, the city’s biomass was estimated through several remote sensing models using NDVI. From this, the density of vegetation in Jardim da Gulbenkian was calculated. This output and the interpolated temperatures were used to develop a linear regression model to estimate the influence of vegetation on air temperature and the cooling potential of green spaces in the city. The main results indicate that all green spaces analyzed, at some moment, reduced air temperatures in their surroundings. However, the intensity of park cool islands (PCI) registered high temporal and spatial variability. In Jardim da Gulbenkian, the medium PCI recorded was 2,2ºC in days with moderate to high nebulosity and high variability of winds. Jardim Fernando garden was often hotter than surroundings. These differences may be explained by the dimension of green spaces and the type and area occupied by vegetation, since the cooling effect of green spaces covered mostly by grass is often small or absent. Regarding the two streets analyzed, Avenida Defensores de Chaves was, in average, 1ºC cooler than Rua Actor Isidoro, and maximum differences reached 3,7ºC. Considering the linear regression model built with air temperature and density of vegetation (predictive variable), it was concluded that, in order to reduce 0,02ºC in difference of air temperature between one measure point and a fixed station the area occupied by vegetation must be increased in 1m2 (planar measure). The methodology applied in this study may be considered as a base to estimate the cooling potential of all green spaces in Lisbon. Further research with a great number of green spaces is needed in the future in order to better quantify this effect.

Tongan kingship has roots in an ancient system of Tu‘i (paramount ruler) that stretches back over a thousand years. The present king, Tupou VI, is the twenty-fourth Tu‘i Kanokupolu and the sixth monarch of the Tupou dynasty. What has enabled these institutions to survive so long is a range of accepted social arrangements and relationships that make up an intricate kinship system that underlies the very fabric of Tongan society. The rise of democracy, while an important modern development in Tonga’s recent political history, has not significantly affected this. Even Christianity, with its transformational impact on Tonga in the nineteenth century and beyond, was not able to shift Tonga’s deeply kinship-oriented social hierarchy. The image often portrayed in the Western media is that Tonga is a small (read insignificant), traditional (read out-dated) Polynesian society ruled firmly by a King and his noblemen; consequently this view is one that is shared by many in Australia and New Zealand. My thesis will show that such a view is simplistic and misses a key point about the centrality of kinship in Tonga, as in many parts of Oceania. In Tonga today, as it has been for centuries, kinship plays the essential role in determining how society is governed. While the King has a prominent role as the constitutional Head of State, to Tongans his role as Tu‘i is more important because it connects him as kin to each and every Tongan person, wherever they are in the world. The role and place of the King is only possible because of the existence and continuity of a complex range of (reciprocal) practises that make up the Tongan kinship system. This study builds on research on Tongan transnationalism, governance, history, and culture, and draws on material gathered in my fieldwork in Tonga and amongst Tongans in the diaspora, and in over 50 interviews I undertook in Tonga, the United States, Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand. My research, which has a particular focus on King George Tupou V, demonstrates that the king is important to Tongans, but primarily as a part of a broader kinship system which positions him in relation to others. As an individual the king is expected to embody a range of qualities, which this study outlines as layers of kingship. But going one step further it will show that the king is a representation of what it means to be Tongan and his role is but one of many layers of kinship. The core argument developed in this thesis is that Tonga is not governed by kingship, but by kinship.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
教育學系
105
The difficulties of education on remote islands in Taiwan are troublesome, such as low teaching proficiency, the lack of learning resource, and students’ low learning motivation. To improve the situation, this study is aimed to discuss the application process of Reciprocal Teaching. It also investigated on the changing of students’ learning way after using on the on-line learning website, Cool English. The probability of students’ learning performance improvement is explored in this study. The approach of this study was action research. The participants of this study were 9 students on the ninth grade of junior high school on the remote island in Penghu. During three months, this study was operated in English classes and remedial teaching time. The data collection included reading comprehension test scores, students’ worksheet portfolios, teaching observation, interview records, learning motivation questionnaire. The results of the study show that： 1. There is practical value in using Cool English as assistance of English teaching and students’ autonomous learning. 2. Reciprocal Teaching and Cool English Learning Platform promote the English learning attitude and motivation of the remote island students. 3. Reciprocal Teaching and Cool English Learning Platform improve the English learning outcome of the remote island students.

The city of Melbourne in southeast Australia experiences an Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, which is exacerbated during heatwaves, and the latter are becoming more frequent, intense and longer in southeast Australia. In addition, Melbourne is the fastest growing city in Australia. Therefore, it is urgent to understand the dynamics of UHI and impacts of future urban expansion on the UHI during heatwaves. Based on these issues, there is a crucial need to investigate the effectiveness of potential mitigation strategies to minimize UHI effects during heatwaves. The overarching aim of the thesis is to investigate the impacts of future urban expansion on the UHI during heatwave events in Melbourne, and examine the effectiveness of different Green Infrastructure (GI) scenarios such as green/cool roofs, mixed forest (MF), mixed forest and grassland (MFAG), and mixed shrublands and grasslands (MSAG) in mitigating UHI effects. The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with the Single Layer Urban canopy Model (SLUCM) was used in simulating the UHI and heatwaves. Since the WRF model is known to be sensitivity to the choice of physical parameterisation options, an initial sensitivity analysis of the model was conducted and the best-possible WRF configuration to simulate the UHI during heatwaves in Melbourne was determined, among a 27-member physics ensemble. This configuration was used throughout the rest of the thesis. Urban expansion increased near surface UHI by 0.75 to 2.80 °C during the night but no substantial impacts during the day. Urban surfaces absorbed more solar heat during the day as compared to vegetated surfaces, and the absorbed heat was released slowly from evening to early morning. The storage heat in urban surfaces was the key driver in increasing UHI during the night. Urban expansion did not substantially affect human health (HTC) comfort in existing and expanded urban areas. Green roofs showed good performance in reducing roof surface UHI (1 to 3.8 °C) and near surface UHI (0.3 to 1.1 °C) during the day but not during the night, while cool roofs showed higher reductions at the roof surface UHI (2.2 to 5.2 °C) and near surface UHI (0.5 to 1.6 °C) during the day. Green roofs increased evapotranspiration and provided shading, and consequently, increased Latent Heat (LH) and substantially decreased storage heat and sensible heat, and as a result, reduced the UHI. Cool roofs reflected a major portion of incoming solar radiation due to higher albedo, and reduced the sensible heat flux and storage heat, and these were the key drivers in reducing UHI during the day. In addition, both green and cool roofs showed good potential in improving HTC from extreme to very strong during the day. Other GI scenarios such as MF, MFAG and MSAG were effective in reducing UHI effects and improving HTC during the night but no substantial reductions were occurred during the day. By increasing GI fractions from 20 to 50 %, the UHI was reduced by 0.6 to 3.4 °C for MF, 0.4 to 3.0 °C for MSAG and 0.6 to 3.7 °C for MFAG. The night time cooling was driven by reductions in storage heat as 20 to 50 % urban areas were replaced by GI, which would have led to even less radiation reaching the ground surface during the day due to their higher LAI and shade factor, and leading to lower storage heat. As the green and cool roofs showed potential in reducing UHI effects during the day while urban vegetated patches showed effectiveness during the night, therefore, a combination of green/cool roofs and urban vegetated patches could be an optimal mitigation strategy in reducing UHI effects and improving HTC during both day and night.

This thesis argues that the ‘rule of law’ was not followed in colonial and post-federation Australia in relation to a fundamental principle of the common law. According to the rule in Calvin’s Case (1608), no person born as a ‘subject’ in any part of the King’s dominions could be an ‘alien’. This was the legal position in Australia from the reception of English law until well after federation. In colonial and post-federation Australia the racial meaning of ‘alien’ was consistently used in political and legal contexts instead of its proper legal meaning. In legislation and parliamentary debates, cases and prosecutions, inter-colonial conferences and conventions it was employed to refer not merely to those who were ‘aliens’ under the common law but also to people regarded as ‘aliens’ in the broader or racial sense of the word, especially those of non-European background. Chinese and Indian settlers, Pacific islanders and even indigenous Australians were treated as ‘aliens’ in Australia even if under British law they were actually ‘subjects’ of the Crown and not ‘aliens’ at all in the accepted legal sense. In the 1820s and 1830s the New South Wales Supreme Court thought it inconceivable that ‘barbarous’ indigenous inhabitants could ‘owe fealty’ or allegiance to the British Crown, considering their legal position analogous to that of ‘foreigners’ or ‘strangers’. In debates on exclusionary legislation in the 1870s and 1880s, parliamentarians in the Australian colonies portrayed all Chinese settlers as ‘aliens’, despite acknowledging that many came from Hong Kong, the Straits Settlements or other British possessions. Immigrants from British India were generally treated the same way. Delegates to Australia’s constitutional conventions in the 1890s, including prominent legal figures, repeated this mistake. And in the 1900s Pacific islanders born in Australia as British subjects were deported as ‘aliens’ with the approval of the Australian High Court. The misuse of ‘alien’ in this case contributed to a defective judgment still cited today in support of the Commonwealth’s claims to extensive exclusionary power. Between federation and the Second World War, Queensland’s dictation test legislation and industrial awards regulating various occupations provide many examples of the misuse and manipulation of the term ‘alien’ in a legal context. In prosecutions under these laws the word was used as a weapon against non-Europeans whether they were ‘aliens’ under the law or not. Commentators both in the early years of federation and in more recent times have failed to identify the misuse of ‘alien’– and have made the same error themselves. This mistake is critical because of the continued force of the term in Australian law. The Commonwealth’s sweeping power to define who shall be citizens of Australia and to exclude, detain indefinitely without trial and deport ‘aliens’ is still justified by reference to colonial and post-federation cases and constitutional convention debates where ‘alien’ was incorrectly used in its racial sense contrary to the rule of law.