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Journal articles on the topic 'Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954)'

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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Tanja, Gerard J. "Recent Developments Concerning the Law for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict." Leiden Journal of International Law 7, no. 1 (1994): 115–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0922156500002855.

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On May 14, 1954 the Inter-governmental Conference on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict which convened in The Hague, managed to adopt the text of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954 Hague Convention). Apart from the Convention as such, the Regulations for the Execution of the Convention, a Protocol directed towards the prevention of the exportation of cultural property from occupied territories during armed conflicts, and three Resolutions were adopted.

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2

Desch, Thomas. "The Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict." Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 2 (December 1999): 63–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1389135900000374.

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On 26 March 1999, the Diplomatic Conference on the Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (hereinafter, 1954 Convention), held in The Hague from 15 to 26 March 1999, adopted a Second Protocol to that Convention. The reasons leading to the elaboration and adoption of the Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (hereinafter, Second Protocol) are manifold.Firstly, armed conflicts that have taken place since the entry into force of the 1954 Convention, such as in Cambodia, the Middle East or the former Yugoslavia, have revealed its deficiencies. In particular, the Convention lacked full application, as most of the armed conflicts have been of a non-international character; furthermore, it lacked proper implementation, as the system of execution of the Convention, which is based on a functioning Protecting Power-and Commissioner General-system, proved to be unworkable in practice; and, finally, it lacked adequate provisions to cope with the extensive and systematic destruction of cultural property during armed conflict, as it contains no mandatory criminal sanctions regime.

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3

Hladik, Jan. "The Review Process of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its Impact on International Humanitarian Law." Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 1 (December 1998): 313–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1389135900000180.

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The end of the Cold War and the disappearance of bipolarity have resulted in a recrudescence of a number of armed conflicts in the world, in particular in the ex-Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union. Such conflicts have demonstrated a blatant disregard for the law of armed conflicts and a loss of respect for human lives and cultural heritage. They have also demonstrated deficiencies in the implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict — the only comprehensive international agreement aimed specifically at protecting movable and immovable cultural heritage in the event of armed conflict.

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4

Hladík, Jan. "Kevin Chamberlain, War and Cultural Heritage. Pp. 333. Leicester: Institute of Art and Law, 2004." International Journal of Cultural Property 12, no. 2 (May 2005): 281–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739105000160.

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When I was asked by Dr. O'Keefe, Book Editor of the International Journal of Cultural Property, to review “War and Cultural Heritage” by Kevin Chamberlain I immediately agreed because I wished to see the first scholarly article-by-article commentary on the 1999 Second Protocol (“the Second Protocol”) to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (“the Convention”) as well as another commentary on the Convention and the 1954 First Protocol.

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5

Merryman, John Henry. "Two Ways of Thinking about Cultural Property." American Journal of International Law 80, no. 4 (October 1986): 831–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2202065.

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One way of thinking about cultural property—i.e., objects of artistic, archaeological, ethnological or historical interest—is as components of a common human culture, whatever their places of origin or present location, independent of property rights or national jurisdiction. That is the attitude embodied in the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of May 14, 1954 (hereinafter “Hague 1954”), which culminates a development in the international law of war that began in the mid-19th century.

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6

Gasser, Hans-Peter. "Universal acceptance of international humanitarian law — Promotional activities of the ICRC." International Review of the Red Cross 34, no. 302 (October 1994): 450–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400078451.

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In its Final Declaration of 1 September 1993, the International Conference for the Protection of War Victims inter alia urged all States to make every effort to:“Consider or reconsider, in order to enhance the universal character of international humanitarian law, becoming party or confirming their succession, where appropriate, to the relevant treaties concluded since the adoption of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, in particular:—the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Protocol I);—the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts of 8 June 1977 (Protocol II);—the 1980 Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons and its three Protocols;—The 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict”.

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7

Mastandrea Bonaviri, Gianluigi. "Cinema as (Tangible and Intangible) Cultural Heritage." McGill GLSA Research Series 2, no. 1 (October 25, 2022): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.26443/glsars.v2i1.200.

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This research paper will put forward innovative solutions to strengthen the protection of cinema during armed conflicts, in particular by contending that cinema could be qualified as cultural heritage, thereby falling under the protection of the relevant international Conventions. A special testimony made by artist Sergio Iovino will be first proposed, with a view to highlighting the importance to safeguard cinema and – broadly speaking – every kind of art in wartime. Moving from the current armed conflict in Ukraine, the paper will underline the need for a reassessment of the relevant international regulations. In particular, after having secured a comprehensive definition of cinema, still lacking in international law, it will propose an evolutionary interpretation of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003) and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). The paper will then analyze the legal relations between International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and filmmaking, which remain nebulous. The 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict never refers to cinema, but simply mentions “objects of artistic interest” (art. 1), and already such a definition fails to accommodate cinema’s mongrel nature and complex production process. An adaption of IHL, starting from the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols, will be therefore put forward in order to ensure that the art of filmmaking can enjoy legal protection in all phases of an armed conflict.

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8

Forrest, Craig. "A New International Regime for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 3 (July 2002): 511–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.3.511.

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In November 2001, a new weapon was added to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation's2arsenal used to protect and preserve the world's cultural heritage, in the form of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.3This Convention, while not yet in force, will complement UNESCO's three other heritage conventions, the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Heritage in the Event of Armed Conflict,4the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1971)5and the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.6

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9

Blake, Janet. "On Defining the Cultural Heritage." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 49, no. 1 (January 2000): 61–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002058930006396x.

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Examples can be found from ancient times of concern for the protection of cultural artefacts and early legislation to protect monuments and works of art first appeared in Europe in the 15th century. Cultural heritage was first addressed in international law in 1907 and a body of international treaties and texts for its protection has been developed by UNESCO and other intergovernmental organisations since the 1950's. The 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of UNESCO (henceforth the “Hague Convention”) is the earliest of these modern international texts and was developed in great part in response to the destruction and looting of monuments and works of art during the Second World War. It grew out of a feeling that action to prevent their deterioration or destruction was one responsibility of the emerging international world order and an element in reconciliation and the prevention of future conflicts. International law relating to the protection of cultural heritage thus began with comparatively narrow objectives, the protection of cultural property in time of war.

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10

Hladik, Jan. "The Control System Under the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 and its Second Protocol." Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law 4 (December 2001): 419–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1389135900000933.

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This article examines the control system under the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 (the Convention) and its Second Protocol (the Protocol). It is divided into three parts. Part 1 introduces the control system and provides some examples of its implementation; Part 2 focuses on the evaluation of the control system during a recent review of the Convention; and Part 3 compares the control system under the Convention with that under the Second Protocol to the Convention.

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11

Stryjkowska, Sylwia. "Wpływ II wojny światowej na poszukiwanie rozwiązań prawnych w zakresie ochrony dóbr kultury." Przegląd Archiwalno-Historyczny 7 (2020): 105–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/2391-890xpah.20.005.14639.

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Artykuł ukazuje zmiany, jakie nastąpiły w systemie prawnej ochrony dóbr kultury po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. Konflikt ten przyczynił się do bezprecedensowych strat w zasobach kulturowych, by następnie stać się punktem wyjścia do prac nad narzędziami prawnej ochrony dziedzictwa kulturalnego. Ukazując proces kształtowania się rozwiązań prawnych w tym zakresie, szczególną uwagę zwrócono na Konwencję w sprawie ochrony dóbr kultury w razie konfliktu zbrojnego podpisaną w 1954 r. w Hadze, która stanowiła pierwszy wymierny przejaw intensyfikacji współpracy międzynarodowej, jaka po II wojnie światowej nastąpiła w obszarze ochrony dóbr kultury. Uwagę poświęcono nadto metodom reparacyjnym służącym powetowaniu doznanych w konflikcie strat kulturalnych. The impact of the Second World War on the process of seeking legal solutions in the field of cultural property protection The article demonstrates changes chich occurred in the system of legal protection of cultural property after the Second World War. This conflict caused unprecedented cultural losses, and became the starting point for work on solutions aiming at legal protection of cultural heritage. The importance of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is particularly highlighted. The convention was the first concrete evidence of intensified international cooperation that occurred after the Second World War in the area of cultural property protection. The article also presents approaches to reparations for cultural losses sustained during the conflict.

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12

Brodie, Neil. "Syria and its Regional Neighbors: A Case of Cultural Property Protection Policy Failure?" International Journal of Cultural Property 22, no. 2-3 (August 2015): 317–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739115000144.

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Abstract:Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around standards and practices enshrined within the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (including its First and Second Protocols) and the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Policy emphasis is on thein situprotection of cultural sites and the recovery and return of stolen or looted cultural objects. But policy initiatives have very obviously failed to stop the plunder and illegal trade of cultural objects in Syria, as they have failed before for neighboring countries. This paper describes why policy initiatives aimed at site protection and object recovery have failed and how policy might be improved by a market reduction approach aimed at subduing demand.

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13

Hladík, Jan. "The 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the notion of military necessity." International Review of the Red Cross 81, no. 835 (September 1999): 621–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500059824.

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La Convention de La Haye 1954 permet une dérogation à l'obligation de respecter un bien culturel si une nécessité militaire l'exige. Si l'objet est sous protection spéciale, les conditions permettant une dérogation sont plus strides. La notion de « nécessité militaire » et la signification à y donner ont toujours suscité la controverse des experts en la matière. Dans son article, l'auteur retrace l'histoire de cette disposition, à partir des premiers projets jusqu'a l'adoption de la Convention de 1954. Il examine ensuite différentes propositions qui tentent de définir la notion de « nécessité militaire » d'une manière plus précise. Le Deuxième Protocole additionnel à la Convention de 1954, adopté le 26 mars 1999par une conférence diplomatique à La Haye, inclut de nouveaux textes qui représentent un pas en avant dans la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé.

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14

Colwell–Chanthaphonh, Chip, and John Piper. "War and Cultural Property: The 1954 Hague Convention and the Status of U.S. Ratification." International Journal of Cultural Property 10, no. 2 (January 2001): 217–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739101771317.

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In May of 1954, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (Hague Convention) was adopted in an attempt to curb the destruction of movable and immovable cultural property during war. Recent conflicts, such as the continuing war in the Balkans, remind us that the Hague Convention is as relevant today as it was fifty years ago. Although this Convention is the most comprehensive and internationally recognized treaty to protect cultural property in time of war, the United States remains one of the few signatories that has yet to ratify it. In January 1999, former President William J. Clinton forwarded the Hague Convention to the Senate with the recommendation that it ratify the Convention and part of Protocol I. Although this presented perhaps the first real opportunity in nearly half a century for the United States to join one hundred countries and ratify the Hague Convention, its fate remains uncertain. Generally oriented towards the United States' policy and practice, this article broadly discusses the Hague Convention, its history, its weaknesses and strengths, and the current status of U.S. ratification.

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15

Fristikawati, Yanti. "Perlindungan Bangunan Cagar Budaya Saat Konflik Bersenjata Dalam Perspektif Hukum Internasional." Justicia Sains: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum 5, no. 2 (August 25, 2021): 149–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.24967/jcs.v5i2.1283.

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Bangunan cagar budaya seperti candi, katedral, istana, dan bangunan bersejarah lainnya merupakan bangunan yang dilindungi dan tidak boleh dirusak atau dihancurkan. Namun pada saat konflik bersenjata di suatu negara baik konflik internal maupun internasional seringkali tidak memperhatikan perlindungan terhadap bangunan cagar budaya yang seharusnya dilindungi.Secara internasional perlindungan bangunan cagar budaya terdapat dalam The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, tahun 1954 dan Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Herritage tahun 1972 dimana dalam aturan tersebut negara harus melindungi bangunan cagar budaya. Tulisan ini akan membahas tentang bagaimana perlindungan bangunan cagar budaya saat terjadi konflik bersenjata di suatau negara, siapa yang berkewajiban untuk melindungi bangunan cagar budaya saat terjadi perang atau konflik bersenjata.

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16

Hladik, Jan. "Reporting system under the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict." Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge/International Review of the Red Cross 82, no. 840 (December 2000): 1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500105449.

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17

Bazov, Oleksandr. "International legal foundations of responsibility for international crimes against cultural heritage in conditions of armed conflicts." Legal Ukraine, no. 8 (October 2, 2020): 67–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.37749/2308-9636-2020-8(212)-8.

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The article is devoted to the analysis of issues of international legal provision of responsibility for international crimes in the field of protection of cultural values. The main international legal acts and case law in this area are analyzed. Proposals for improving international and domestic legal acts are provided. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of a free human person free from fear and need can only be realized if conditions are created in which everyone can enjoy their economic, social, cultural and political rights. Understanding the systemic nature of these rights implies the creation of appropriate conditions for their implementation at both national and international levels, including in the field of judicial protection. As the realization of economic, social, political and cultural rights is complex, systemic, the issues of preservation and protection of cultural values have recently become especially important, as it applies not only to the state in which they are located, but also to all peoples of the world. Thus, the preservation and protection of cultural heritage sites, especially in armed conflicts, is a matter not only of an individual state, but of the entire international community. As you know, issues of protection of cultural values are constantly in the field of view of the international community. In particular, these issues were reflected in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, especially in the Hague Regulations of 1907. The most important international legal act on the preservation and treatment of cultural heritage sites in armed conflict is the Hague Convention of 14 May 1954 on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its Additional Protocols of 1954 and 1999, respectively, which is perceived as a universally recognized universal set of norms in the field of protection of cultural values. Key words: international criminal court, cultural values, cultural heritage, international crimes.

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18

Poulos, Anthi Helleni. "The 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict: An Historic Analysis." International Journal of Legal Information 28, no. 1 (2000): 1–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0731126500008842.

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19

HIRAGA, Amana, and Hidetoshi SAITO. "JAPAN'S ACTIVITIES FOR RATIFICATION OF “THE CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT OF ARMED CONFLICT (1954)”." Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 73, no. 628 (2008): 1409–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.73.1409.

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20

Vladymyr, Olha. "Castles and other objects of cultural heritage during the war: challenges and threats." Socio-Economic Problems and the State 26, no. 1 (2022): 23–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.33108/sepd2022.01.023.

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The role of castles and other objects of architectural and cultural heritage of Ukraine in the formation of national identity of citizens are reveals in the article. Castles and other cultural heritage sites are considered as places of national memory, as evidence of historical events and stages of state formation of our country, as architectural and cultural sites that can reproduce and analyze artistic and stylistic trends in different eras of state and cultural formation of our people as well. Trends of castle buildings use in different periods of formation of our state, including during the war, are studied. The existence of castles and palaces during the war was found to be subject to various risks. First, buildings as an architectural heritage can be destroyed by bombing or other hostilities. Secondly, the use of castle and palace buildings for other purposes, to hold various non-cultural events in their premises, has a very detrimental effect on the future of their existence. Third, museum exhibits and other objects of movable cultural heritage are under the threat of looting, theft and deportation to the territory of the occupier. The article also considers other problems faced by castles and other cultural heritage sites of Ukraine. These are, first of all, insufficient attention to the preservation of ancient architectural monuments from destruction, lack of sufficient funding for conservation and restoration work, insufficient number of restorers of the appropriate qualification level. The article examines the amount of damage caused by the russian occupiers to the cultural heritage sites of Ukraine since the full-scale invasion of our lands by russian troops. The article reviews the main documents governing the protection of cultural property in the event of an armed conflict in Ukraine. The main actions under Article 3 of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (May 14, 1954) are considered to be taken to protect cultural property from the effects of armed conflict on military attack on our lands. The article substantiates the need to protect castles and other cultural heritage sites of Ukraine not only from war threats and crimes, but also in peacetime.

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21

Hladik, Jan. "Marking of cultural property with the distinctive emblem of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict." Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge/International Review of the Red Cross 86, no. 854 (June 2004): 379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500180873.

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22

Roman, Erez. "The Journey of Cultural Heritage Protection as a Common Goal for Human Kind: Rosenberg to Al-Mahdi." Groningen Journal of International Law 7, no. 1 (August 26, 2019): 112–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/5d5141dfbdcbf.

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This paper intends to examine and analyse the role, if any, played by motive and intent in the legal qualification and prosecution of cultural heritage destruction. The ongoing power struggles in the Near-East and the Northern Africa regions have had devastating effects on the people living in the region as well as on cultural heritage sites. Nevertheless, such conflict-related destruction of cultural heritage is not new, as exemplified by the persecution of Jews prior to the Second World War. Different legal instruments such as the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the United Nations Security Council Resolution 2347 were adopted to protect cultural heritage barring importance for all of humankind. By comparing these instruments and assessing different cases, I will study the evolving role of these factors in the legal qualification and prosecution of cultural heritage destruction. As such acts continue to take place in countries such as Syria and Afghanistan and cause the destruction of a millennium’s worth of cultural memorabilia, a better understanding of the reasons behind such occurrences is key to effective prosecution.

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23

Hladík, Jan. "Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 1954." International Journal of Cultural Property 5, no. 2 (July 1996): 339–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739196000124.

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24

Hladík, Jan. "Information on the Implementation of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague) 1954–1995 Reports." International Journal of Cultural Property 6, no. 2 (July 1997): 417–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739197000477.

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25

Einhorn, Talia. "Restitution of Archaeological Artifacts: The Arab-Israeli Aspects." International Journal of Cultural Property 5, no. 1 (January 1996): 133–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739196000252.

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SummarySince the second half of the last century, public international law has been developing rules regulating the restitution of cultural objects removed from occupied territories during armed conflict. Today it is generally recognized that customary international law forbids pillage. The Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict further mandates that artifacts removed from an occupied territory must be returned to the competent authorities of that territory at the close of hostilities. The Arab-Israeli case highlights the problematic side of this solution. Following the Six Day War in 1967, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza strip and the territory known as the “West Bank” came under Israeli control. Israeli archaeologists carried out numerous excavations, and discovered artifacts of special importance to Jewish cultural heritage. It is regrettable that, as a result of the peace treaty with Egypt, these artifacts can no longer be exhibited and appreciated at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, but had to be delivered to Egypt, where they now face an uncertain future. A similar fate may befall the artifacts excavated in the Golan Heights. The Palestinian claim for restitution cannot be based on the Protocol. The Problem is nevertheless the same in all cases; if the artifacts are to be preserved, properly appreciated and made available for purposes of study and research, it may be more appropriate to distribute them among the states by way of compromise and agreement, that will seek to enhance their cultural significance, rather than use the arbitrary sole criterion of the place of discovery.

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xxx. "Document. Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict The Hague (March 26, 1999)." International Journal of Cultural Property 8, no. 2 (January 1999): 530–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739199770840.

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27

HIRAGA, Amana, and Hidetoshi SAITO. "PROCESS OF ADOPTION OF "THE CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT OF ARMED CONFLICT (1954)" AND PARTICIPATION OF JAPAN : Protection of the cultural properties in the international society and Japan (Part 1)." Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 70, no. 588 (2005): 195–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.70.195_1.

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28

HIRAGA, Amana, and Hidetoshi SAITO. "JAPAN'S ROLE OF THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL DISCUSSION ON ADOPTION OF "THE CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT OF ARMED CONFLICT (1954)" : Protection of the cultural properties in the international society and Japan (Part 2)." Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 71, no. 608 (2006): 211–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.71.211_5.

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29

Matyk, S. "Case note. The restitution of cultural objects and the question of giving direct effect to the protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954." International Journal of Cultural Property 9, no. 2 (January 2000): 341–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739100771104.

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30

Prott, LV, and J. Hladík. "Conference report. The Fourth Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 1954, Paris, France (November 18, 1999)." International Journal of Cultural Property 9, no. 1 (January 2000): 172–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739100771013.

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31

Schipper, Friedrich T., and Erich Frank. "A Concise Legal History of the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and a Comparative Analysis of the 1935 Roerich Pact and the 1954 Hague Convention in the Context of the Law of War." Archaeologies 9, no. 1 (April 2013): 13–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11759-013-9230-7.

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32

Putra, Akbar Kurnia, Bernard Sipahutar, Vrandza Iswenanda, and Sulhi Muhammad Daud. "Legal Protection of Cultural Objects in the Armed Conﬂict." Jambe Law Journal 2, no. 1 (November 3, 2019): 79–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.22437/jlj.2.1.79-97.

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This article aims to overview how the International Humanitarian Law regulates the protection of cultural heritages at the event of armed conﬂict. Applying a normative legal method, this article coclude that the protection for the cultural objects during an armed conﬂict is regulated in the Hague Convention IV of 1907, the Geneva Conventions IV of 1949, the Hague Convention of 1954, and the Second Protocols to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conﬂict 1999. The Hague Convention of 1954 mentions about safeguarding of the cultural property from any harm as a result of armed conﬂicts and about respect for the cultural objects. Each nation is responsible to avoid, prevent, and forbid any harfmul acts against cultural property. However, no stipulation is mentioned on how the victims whose cultural objects are destroyed could sue for any destructions. Therefore it is recommended that a special International Body be formed to supervise any harmful activities toward the cultural objects. Such a body might be more than just an International Court of Justice whose function is to settle any objections, sues, or claims from parties whose cultural objecs have been destroyed during armed conﬂicts.

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Henckaerts, Jean-Marie. "New rules for the protection of cultural property in armed conflict." International Review of the Red Cross 81, no. 835 (September 1999): 593–620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1560775500059812.

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Le Deuxième Protocole à la Convention de La Haye de 1954 pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé a été adopté le 26 mars 1999, à l'issue de deux semaines de négotiations, par une Conférence diplomatique qui s'est tenue à La Haye. L'auteur a suivi, pour le CICR (qui avait le statut d'observateur à la Conférence diplomatique) les débats relatifs à ce Deuxième Protocole ainsi que son adoption. Le présent article a pour but de mettre en évidence les principaux développements juridiques contenus dans le Deuxième Protocole. Il fait mention, en outre, de certains points d'accord qui ont été reconnus à la Conférence diplomatique mais qui ne sont pas apparus en tant que tels dans le texte même du Protocole, ni dans l'Acte final de la Conférence.

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Sujadmiko, Bayu, Desia Rakhma Banjarani, Rudi Natamiharja, and Desy Churul Aini. "Does International Criminal Court have Jurisdiction over the Destruction of Cultural Property by the Islamic State of Irac and Syria?" Jurnal Magister Hukum Udayana (Udayana Master Law Journal) 10, no. 2 (July 30, 2021): 200. http://dx.doi.org/10.24843/jmhu.2021.v10.i02.p01.

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The cultural property becomes objects of destruction in armed conflicts, such as Syria and Iraq, which were carried out by ISIS squads (Islamic State of Iraq and Syria). For ISIS’s actions, the ICC should judge ISIS. However, new problems will arise regarding the jurisdiction of the ICC to judge ISIS. Based on the explanation of this background, the question will arise: How are humanitarian law regulations related to protecting cultural property during armed conflict? And what is the regulation of the ICC’s jurisdiction over the protection of cultural property in armed conflict by ISIS? The research in this article is normative legal research with the statue approach. According to humanitarian law, the research results show that the regulations relating to the protection of cultural property during armed conflict are contained in the 1954 Hague Convention, Additional Protocol I and Additional Protocol II of the Geneva Conventions of 1977. The destruction of cultural property carried out by ISIS is included in war crimes, one of the Rome Statute material jurisdictions. In this case, the Rome Statute applied by the ICC has juridical power to uphold justice and punish, including war crimes committed by ISIS. For the destruction of various cultural property in Iraq and Syria, ISIS can be judge by the ICC through a referral by the UN Security Council based on the provisions stipulated in the 1998 Rome Statute.

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Grzebielucha, Jacek. "Role of Polish Armed Forces and Crisis Management System in Cultural Property Protection – review and analysis." Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces 204, no. 2 (June 15, 2022): 256–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.8977.

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Deterring a crisis or war requires the commitment of large forces and resources that may include armed forces, security services or other non-military defense elements. The entire crisis management system is organized by the public administration. A crisis and the threat of war necessitate the implementation of a wide range of tasks aimed at securing life, health and property. Cultural property is a special category of property protected under the Polish legal system. The Republic of Poland undertook to protect it upon accession to the Hague Convention of 1954 on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Time of an Armed Conflict. This international agreement, along with the Polish experiences of the Second World War, laid the foundations for building an efficiently functioning system for the protection of cultural property during an armed conflict. Recent years have brought an increase in global interest in this area. Asymmetric threats against cultural heritage objects forced the involvement of military entities in developing security mechanisms. The author will provide an overview of national institutions tasked with the protection of cultural property in times of peace, assess the quality of these institutions as well as propose de lege ferenda postulates that could improve their functioning.

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Ryška, Ivan. "Military Necessity and Cultural Heritage Protection in Laws of War: Historical Overview." International and Comparative Law Review 21, no. 2 (December 1, 2021): 187–211. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/iclr-2021-0018.

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Summary The article examines the development of the concept of military necessity in relation to cultural property. Starting from 18th century and Emmerich de Vattel it continues to codifications of International Humanitarian Law in 19th century and finally focuses on 1954 Hague Convention and its 1999 Second Protocol. The article underlines the most significant trends in the development and aims to illustrate increasing respect for cultural property during the conflict. In its final section it presents more current issues related to cultural property protection and armed conflict: inclusion of human rights protection and matter of dual-use objects. Both questions are introduced in decision of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Prlić et al. case that investigates destruction of Stari Most in Mostar. The decision shows that some new elements have to be considered in assessment of military necessity related to cultural property.

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FILIPČIČ, ROK. "KULTURNA DEDIŠČINA IN NJENO VAROVANJE V ČASU OBOROŽENIH SPOPADOV." POSAMEZNIK, DRŽAVA, VARNOST/ INDIVIDUAL, STATE, SECURITY, VOLUME 2021/ISSUE 23/4 (November 30, 2021): 73–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.33179/bsv.99.svi.11.cmc.23.4.4.

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Povzetek Kulturna dediščina oziroma kulturne dobrine so izraz zgodovinske tradicije nekega naroda. V zgodovini vojskovanja je bila kulturna dediščina pogosto uničena, poškodovana in izropana. Prispevek predstavlja zgodovinski razvoj mednarodnopravne zaščite kulturnih dobrin, obveznosti, ki jih imajo visoke pogodbenice Konvencije o varstvu kulturnih dobrin v primeru oboroženega spopada, nekatera najpomembnejša pravila glede varovanja kulturnih dobrin med oboroženimi spopadi, slovensko delovanje na obravnavanem področju ter pozitivne in negativne posledice (ne)varovanja kulturnih dobrin. Ključne besede Varovanje kulturnih dobrin, oboroženi spopadi, Haaška konvencija. Abstract Cultural heritage and cultural property are an expression of the historical tradition of a certain nation. Throughout the history of warfare, cultural heritage has often been destroyed, damaged and looted. The article presents the historical development of international legal protection of cultural property, the obligations of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, some of the most important rules regarding the protection of cultural property in armed conflicts, Slovenian activities in this field, and the positive and negative consequences of the (non-) protection of cultural property.

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Akintayo, John Oluwole A. "Regional Workshop on the UNESCO Conventions Protecting Cultural Property: Abuja, Nigeria, November 3–5 2003." International Journal of Cultural Property 12, no. 4 (November 2005): 483–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739105050344.

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The closing years of the twentieth century and the early years of twenty-first century witnessed remarkable developments in the international attempts to protect the world's cultural heritage. For instance, in 1999 the Second Protocol to the Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict was adopted. In 2001, the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted whilst 2003 witnessed the adoption of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. The United Nations declared 2002, as the UN Year for Cultural Heritage and appointed UNESCO as its Cultural Agent. There is no gainsaying that the UNESCO was faithfully committed to this mandate and discharged its responsibilities satisfactorily. However, the acknowledgment of the fact that lack of information and inadequate appreciation of the UNESCO Conventions on the protection of cultural property remained a formidable obstacle to the realisation of the aspiration of the UN and UNESCO informed the 2003 Abuja Workshop convened primarily to promote the UNESCO Conventions protecting Cultural Property. What follows is report on the 2003 Abuja Workshop.

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TAKAHASHI, Akatsuki. "STUDY ON THE ELABORATION OF THE OPERATIONAL GUIDELINES OF THE 2ND PROTOCOL TO THE CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT OF ARMED CONFLICT." Journal of Architecture and Planning (Transactions of AIJ) 75, no. 653 (2010): 1787–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3130/aija.75.1787.

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Hladík, J. "Document. Diplomatic conference on the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict, The Hague, Netherlands (March 15-26, 1999)." International Journal of Cultural Property 8, no. 2 (January 1999): 526–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739199770839.

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O’Keefe, Roger. "Review ofJoris D. Kila. Heritage under Siege. Military Implementation of Cultural Property Protection Following the 1954 Hague Convention. Volume 1 of Heritage and Identity: Issues in Cultural Heritage Protection. Leiden: Brill, 2012. 318 + xxiv pp. ISSN 2211-7369, ISBN 978-90-04-21568-9 (hardback), ISBN 978-90-04-22853-5 (e-book). - Review ofJadranka Petrović, The Old Bridge of Mostar and Increasing Respect for Cultural Property in Armed Conflict. Volume 40 of the International Humanitarian Law Series. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2013. 354 + xviii pp. ISSN 1389-6776, ISBN 978-90-04-21028-8 (hardback), ISBN 978-90-04-23554-0 (e-book)." International Journal of Cultural Property 21, no. 1 (February 2014): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739113000337.

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Henckaerts, Jean-Marie. "Jiří Toman, La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, Paris, Éditions Unesco, 1994, 490 pages - Jiří Toman, The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, Dartmouth Publishing Company, Aldershot/Unesco Publishing, Paris, 1996, 525 pages - Emmanuelle Stavraki, La Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, Athènes, Éditions Ant. N. Sakkoulas, 1996, 306 pages - Jean A. Konopka (éd.), La Protection des biens culturels en temps de guerre et de paix d'après les conventions internationales (multilatérales), Genève, Imprimeries de Versoix, 1997, 163 pages." Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge 80, no. 831 (September 1998): 606–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0035336100056161.

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Henckaerts, Jean-Marie. "Jiří Toman, La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, Paris, Éditions Unesco, 1994, 490 pages - Jiří Toman, The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, Dartmouth Publishing Company, Aldershot / Unesco Publishing, Paris, 1996, 525 pages - Emmanuelle Stavraki, La Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, Athènes, Éditions Ant. N. Sakkoulas, 1996, 306 pages - Jean A. Konopka (ed.), La Protection des biens culturels en temps de guerre et de paix d'après les conventions internationales (multilatérales), Genève, Imprimeries de Versoix, 1997, 163 pages." International Review of the Red Cross 38, no. 324 (September 1998): 564–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400091385.

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Henckaerts, Jean-Marie. "Jiří Toman, La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, París, Edición de la UNESCO, 1994, 490 páginas. - Jiří Toman, The Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, Dartmouth Publishing Company, Aldershot / Unesco Publishing, París, 1996, 525 páginas. - Emmanuel Stavraki, La Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, Atenas, Ediciones Ant. N. Sakkoulas, 1996, 306 páginas. - Jean A. Konopska (ed.) La Protection des biens culturels en temps de guerre et de paix d'après les conventions internationales (multilatérales), Ginebra, Imprimeries de Versoix, 1997, 163 páginas." Revista Internacional de la Cruz Roja 23, no. 147 (September 1998): 609–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0250569x00025358.

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Hladík, Jan. "How the Guidelines for the Implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 contribute to better protection of cultural property." International Review of the Red Cross, June 29, 2022, 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s181638312200042x.

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Abstract This article analyzes the contribution of the Guidelines for the Implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (the Guidelines) to better protection of cultural property in peacetime and in times of armed conflict. The first part of the article introduces the Guidelines within the context of the implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1999 Second Protocol) and the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, and provides examples of UNESCO's other standard-setting instruments such as the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural or Natural Heritage, the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, as well as bodies providing for guidelines for these instruments. The second part underscores the most important advances of the Guidelines in the implementation of the 1999 Second Protocol. The third part focuses on the contribution of the Guidelines as subsequent practice in the application of the 1999 Second Protocol establishing the agreement of the parties regarding its interpretation in the framework of Article 31(3)(b) of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Finally, the fourth part concludes by highlighting the main advantages of the Guidelines in providing better protection for cultural property.

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Sergeev, Danil. "International Criminalization of Offences Relating to Cultural Property." Rossijskoe Pravo. Obrazovanie, Praktika, Nauka, 2019, 18–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.34076/2410-2709-2019-3-18-24.

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The article evaluates current conditions of international criminalization of offences relating to cultural property and makes a brief historical review of developing international protection of cultural property and elaborating a corresponding notion. Having analyzed the international instruments, the author concludes that offences relating to cultural property may include deliberate seizure, appropriation, demolition as well as any other forms of destruction or damage to objects and items protected under the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict committed during international and non-international armed conflicts. These offences do not include such possible acts toward universal cultural values committed either beyond any armed conflict or without direct connection with it. Taking the examples of destruction of Buddhas of Bamiyan, Nimrud, Palmyra, and mausoleums of Timbuktu, the author states that international criminalization of offences relating to cultural property is insufficient, because it does not encompass such cases when objects or items of cultural value are damaged or destroyed under the control of national administrations or with their knowledge.

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Alcala, Ronald. "Cultural evolution: Protecting “digital cultural property” in armed conflict." International Review of the Red Cross, March 4, 2022, 1–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s181638312200008x.

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Abstract As an emerging and largely unfamiliar form of cultural heritage, digital cultural property remains something of an enigma. Under the law of armed conflict, States are bound to protect cultural property from harm, yet the rules applicable to traditional cultural property do not transfer neatly to digital works. It is unclear, for example, how the twin obligations to safeguard and respect cultural property, as outlined in the 1954 Hague Cultural Property Convention, should apply to digital creations – or even what digital material appropriately qualifies as cultural property. Can only new digital creations, otherwise known as “born-digital” material, be cultural property? What about high-quality copies of existing works, such as an extremely high-resolution image of the Mona Lisa? Does it matter whether a digital work has been reproduced in large quantities? Given the ubiquity of digital media and the growing popularity of digital art and other works, protecting digital cultural property in the event of armed conflict will require States to consider and resolve as-yet undecided questions concerning the nature of digital creations and the reasons why certain works should be preserved.

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Corzo, Miguel Angel. "The Hague Convention of 1954: History, Significance and Compliances." MRS Proceedings 267 (1992). http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/proc-267-5.

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ABSTRACTThe UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, signed at the Hague in 1954, is a document that reflects 20th century thinking on the means to safeguard the world's cultural heritage. It is our task to transform it into one that anticipates the challenges of the 21st century. First, then, we should pay homage to those individuals who had the spirit and the resolve to formulate the Convention and its Protocol. Second, we should admit that the Convention's effectiveness has been minimized in the past, largely due to a Euclidean conceptualization of the problem when in fact during war the axioms become spontaneously non-Euclidean, non-linear and highly chaotic. Clearly there is a need to reevaluate its premises in fresh ways, and to strengthen it in the context of the New Age that shall define the future.

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"Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict." International Legal Materials 38, no. 4 (July 1999): 769–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020782900020258.

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Sitanggang, Dyan. "PENGRUSAKAN TEMPAT BERSEJARAH DALAM PERANG ANTARNEGARA SEBAGAI PELANGGARAN HUKUM HUMANITER INTERNASIONAL." LEX ET SOCIETATIS 1, no. 2 (May 10, 2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.35796/les.v1i2.1745.

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Cultural property, in this present case: historical object, is protected and respected as world’s asset with great value in international law especially international humanitarian law through its various institutions and instruments. The historical object with great importance to humanity has to be protected at all times and deserves international protection. However, some people oftentimes forget its obligation and intentionally destroy such objects, even though they are well aware that States and people have the obligation to protect, respect and safeguard those objects. Hague Convention 1954 boldly states that the destruction of such objects is a violation of customs of law and international humanitarian law. Keywords: Destruction, cultural property, historical object, armed conflict, international humanitarian law

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