Journal articles: 'Controlled atmosphere calorimeter cone'

1

Leonard, J. E., P. A. Bowditch, and V. P. Dowling. "Development of a controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire and Materials 24, no. 3 (2000): 143–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1099-1018(200005/06)24:3<143::aid-fam728>3.0.co;2-l.

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Babrauskas, Vytenis, William H. Twilley, Marc Janssens, and Shyuitsu Yusa. "A cone calorimeter for controlled-atmosphere studies." Fire and Materials 16, no. 1 (January 1992): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.810160106.

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Hshieh, Fu-Yu, and Robert R. Buch. "Controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter studies of silicones." Fire and Materials 21, no. 6 (November 1997): 265–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-1018(199711/12)21:6<265::aid-fam620>3.0.co;2-u.

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Guillaume, Eric, Damien Michel Marquis, and Carine Chivas. "Experience plan for controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter by Doehlert method." Fire and Materials 37, no. 2 (January 31, 2012): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.2114.

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Marquis, D., E. Guillaume, and A. Camillo. "Effects of oxygen availability on the combustion behaviour of materials in a controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire Safety Science 11 (2014): 138–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/iafss.fss.11-138.

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Werrel, Martin, Jan H. Deubel, Simone Krüger, Anja Hofmann, and Ulrich Krause. "The calculation of the heat release rate by oxygen consumption in a controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire and Materials 38, no. 2 (January 3, 2013): 204–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.2175.

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Beji, Tarek, Olivier Helson, Thomas Rogaume, and Jocelyn Luche. "Experimental and numerical study on the evaporation rates of liquid fuels using a controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire Safety Journal 121 (May 2021): 103317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2021.103317.

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Hshieh, Fu-Yu, and Harold D. Beeson. "Note: measuring the effective heats of combustion of transformer-insulating fluids using a controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire and Materials 26, no. 1 (January 2002): 47–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.778.

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Hermouet, Fabien, Thomas Rogaume, Eric Guillaume, Franck Richard, Damien Marquis, and Xavier Ponticq. "Experimental characterization of the reaction-to-fire of an Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) material using controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire Safety Journal 121 (May 2021): 103291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2021.103291.

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Chaudhari, Dushyant M., Stanislav I. Stoliarov, Mark W. Beach, and Kali A. Suryadevara. "Polyisocyanurate Foam Pyrolysis and Flame Spread Modeling." Applied Sciences 11, no. 8 (April 13, 2021): 3463. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11083463.

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Polyisocyanurate (PIR) foam is a robust thermal insulation material utilized widely in the modern construction. In this work, the flammability of one representative example of this material was studied systematically using experiments and modeling. The thermal decomposition of this material was analyzed through thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and microscale combustion calorimetry. The thermal transport properties of the pyrolyzing foam were evaluated using Controlled Atmosphere Pyrolysis Apparatus II experiments. Cone calorimetry tests were also carried out on the foam samples to quantify the contribution of the blowing agent (contained within the foam) to its flammability, which was found to be significant. A complete pyrolysis property set was developed and was shown to accurately predict the results of all aforementioned measurements. The foam was also subjected to full-scale flame spread tests, similar to the Single Burning Item test. A previously developed modeling approach based on a coupling between detailed pyrolysis simulations and a spatially-resolved relationship between the total heat release rate and heat feedback from the flame, derived from the experiments on a different material in the same experimental setup, was found to successfully predict the evolution of the heat release rate measured in the full-scale tests on the PIR foam.

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Sonnier, Rodolphe, Loïc Dumazert, Mathieu Vangrevelynghe, Clément Brendlé, and Laurent Ferry. "Intrinsic Smoke Properties and Prediction of Smoke Production in National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Smoke Chamber." Fire 6, no. 3 (March 10, 2023): 109. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fire6030109.

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Smoke production in a smoke chamber is characterized by the accumulation of smoke and the continuous consumption of oxygen leading to a vitiated atmosphere. However, a method is proposed to predict the smoke evolution in a smoke chamber at 25 kW/m2 by using material properties calculated from a cone calorimeter, as already shown in a previous article. These properties represent the ability of a material to produce smoke at a specific mass loss rate. The influence of a flame retardant on these properties can be used as a quantitative measurement of its action on smoke production. These properties can be calculated at another heat flux than 25 kW/m2. The knowledge of the curve “mass loss rate = f(time)” in a smoke chamber is still required, but this curve is close to that measured in a cone calorimeter at the same heat flux. The results prove that the smoke production in a smoke chamber and cone calorimeter is qualitatively similar, i.e., the decrease of oxygen content in a smoke chamber has no influence on smoke (at least as long as optical density does not exceed 800).

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Rantuch, Peter, Jozef Martinka, and Aleš Ház. "The Evaluation of Torrefied Wood Using a Cone Calorimeter." Polymers 13, no. 11 (May 27, 2021): 1748. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13111748.

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This study focuses on the energy potential and combustion process of torrefied wood. Samples were prepared through the torrefaction of five types of wood: Ash, beech, oak, pine and spruce. These were heated for 2 h at a temperature of 300 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. Torrefied wood was prepared from wood samples with dimensions of 100 × 100 × 20 mm3. These dimensions have enabled investigation of torrefied wood combustion in compact form. The effect of the external heat flux on the combustion of the samples was measured using a cone calorimeter. The observed parameters, include initiation times, heat release rate and combustion efficiency. The results show that increasing the external heat flux decreases the evenness of combustion of torrefied wood. At the same time, it increases the combustion efficiency, which reached an average value of approximately 72% at 20 kW m−2, 81% at 30 kW m−2 and 90% at 40 kW m−2. The calculated values of critical heat flux of the individual samples ranged from 4.67 kW m−2 to 15.2 kW m−2, the thermal response parameter ranged from 134 kW s0.5 m−2 to 297 kW s0.5 m−2 and calculated ignition temperature ranged from 277 °C to 452 °C. Obtained results are useful both for energy production field and for fire safety risk assessment of stored torrefied wood.

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Godfrey, Thomas, Margaret Auerbach, Gary Proulx, Pearl Yip, and Michael Grady. "Modeling Exposures of a Nylon-Cotton Fabric to High Radiant Heat Flux." Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 11, no. 3 (September 2016): 155892501601100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/155892501601100308.

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American soldiers and marines involved in the recent conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan have suffered increased incidence of burn injury, often as a direct result of exposure to improvised explosive devices. In this work, a one dimensional numerical pyrolysis model for transient heat conduction, incorporating material transformations described by chemical kinetics, is used to investigate the response of the standard 230 g/m2 Army Combat Uniform (ACU) fabric to high radiant heat fluxes in short duration thermal protection tests and long duration cone calorimeter tests. Thermal protection tests are performed using a Thermal Barrier Test Apparatus–an automated device, incorporating a closed-loop controlled IR radiant heat source, automated water cooled shutter, a fabric sample holder, an adjustable stage with a water cooled Schmidt-Boelter heat flux gauge and a PC based data acquisition system. Cone calorimeter tests are performed on fabric specimens at an exposure heat flux of 25 kW/m2. In thermal protection tests involving exposures of 90 kW/m2 for five seconds and 77 kW/m2 for four seconds, modeling indicated that desorption and evaporation of moisture content has an important effect, but melting of the nylon component and material decomposition had insignificant effects on the heat flux transmitted through the fabric back face. Modeling results for cone testing exhibited good agreement for time to ignition and duration of flaming combustion.

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Zhang, J., T. J. Shields, and G. W. H. Silcock. "Fire Hazard Assessment of Polypropylene Wall Linings Subjected to Small Ignition Sources." Journal of Fire Sciences 14, no. 1 (January 1996): 67–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073490419601400104.

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The fire hazards associated with polypropylene wall linings sub jected to small ignition sources, were evaluated using large scale experiments and cone calorimetry. A series of seven ignition sources with increasing sever ity as recommended in BS 5852 were used in the tests. The results obtained in dicate that ignition of the polypropylene linings is likely when exposed to igni tion sources 5 to 7 as defined in BS 5852. It was observed that the melting behaviour of the polypropylene wall linings significantly affected the burning behaviour. A pool fire, consisting of melted polymer, formed at the base of the wall which then controlled the fire growth processes. The rate of flame spread on the lining surface which depended on the growth of the pool fire was slow because the thin polymer sheet could only supply a limited amount of melted polymer to the pool. The estimated heat release rates from the pool fire were close to the values measured in the cone calorimeter at the heat flux level of 25 kW m-2.

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Jiang, Jiawei, Siqi Huo, Yi Zheng, Chengyun Yang, Hongqiang Yan, Shiya Ran, and Zhengping Fang. "A Novel Synergistic Flame Retardant of Hexaphenoxycyclotriphosphazene for Epoxy Resin." Polymers 13, no. 21 (October 23, 2021): 3648. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13213648.

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Hexaphenoxycyclotriphosphazene (HPCP) is a common flame retardant for epoxy resin (EP). To improve the thermostability and fire safety of HPCP-containing EP, we combined UiO66-NH2 (a kind of metal-organic frame, MOF) with halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) by hydrothermal reaction to create a novel synergistic flame retardant (H-U) of HPCP for EP. For the EP containing HPCP and H-U, the initial decomposition temperature (T5%) and the temperature of maximum decomposition rate (Tmax) increased by 11 and 17 °C under nitrogen atmosphere compared with those of the EP containing only HPCP. Meanwhile, the EP containing HPCP and H-U exhibited better tensile and flexural properties due to the addition of rigid nanoparticles. Notably, the EP containing HPCP and H-U reached a V-0 rating in UL-94 test and a limited oxygen index (LOI) of 35.2%. However, with the introduction of H-U, the flame retardant performances of EP composites were weakened in the cone calorimeter test, which was probably due to the decreased height of intumescent residual char.

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Niemczyk, Arkadiusz, Katarzyna Dziubek, Beata Sacher-Majewska, Krystyna Czaja, Justyna Czech-Polak, Rafał Oliwa, Joanna Lenża, and Mariusz Szołyga. "Thermal Stability and Flame Retardancy of Polypropylene Composites Containing Siloxane-Silsesquioxane Resins." Polymers 10, no. 9 (September 13, 2018): 1019. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym10091019.

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A novel group of silsesquioxane derivatives, which are siloxane-silsesquioxane resins (S4SQ), was for the first time examined as possible flame retardants in polypropylene (PP) materials. Thermal stability of the PP/S4SQ composites compared to the S4SQ resins and neat PP was estimated using thermogravimetric (TG) analysis under nitrogen and in air atmosphere. The effects of the non-functionalized and n-alkyl-functionalized siloxane-silsesquioxane resins on thermostability and flame retardancy of PP materials were also evaluated by thermogravimetry-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (TG-FTIR) and by cone calorimeter tests. The results revealed that the functionalized S4SQ resins may form a continuous ceramic layer on the material surface during its combustion, which improves both thermal stability and flame retardancy of the PP materials. This beneficial effect was observed especially when small amounts of the S4SQ fillers were applied. The performed analyses allowed us to propose a possible mechanism for the degradation of the siloxane-silsesquioxane resins, as well as to explain their possible role during the combustion of the PP/S4SQ composites.

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TranVan, Luan, Vincent Legrand, Pascal Casari, Revathy Sankaran, Pau Loke Show, Aydin Berenjian, and Chyi-How Lay. "Hygro-Thermo-Mechanical Responses of Balsa Wood Core Sandwich Composite Beam Exposed to Fire." Processes 8, no. 1 (January 13, 2020): 103. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8010103.

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In this study, the hygro–thermo–mechanical responses of balsa core sandwich structured composite was investigated by using experimental, analytical and numerical results. These investigations were performed on two types of specimen conditions: dry and moisture saturation sandwich composite specimens that are composed of E-glass/polyester skins bonded to a balsa core. The wet specimens were immersed in distilled water at 40 °C until saturated with water. The both dry and wet sandwich composite specimens were heated by fire. The mass loss kinetic and the mechanical properties were investigated by using a cone calorimeter following the ISO 5660 standard and three-point bending mechanical test device. Experimental data show that the permeability and fire resistance of the sandwich structure are controlled by two composite skins. Obtained results allow us to understand the Hygro–Thermo–Mechanical Responses of the sandwich structured composite under application conditions.

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Barabad, Mona, Wonseok Jung, Michael Versoza, Minjeong Kim, Sangwon Ko, Duckshin Park, and Kiyoung Lee. "Emission Characteristics of Particulate Matter, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Trace Elements from the Combustion of Coals in Mongolia." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 8 (August 9, 2018): 1706. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081706.

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This study characterized emissions of particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, and anions from Mongolian bituminous coals in a controlled heating experiment. Three coal samples from Alag Tolgoi (coal 1), Baganuur (coal 2), and Nalaikh (coal 3) were combusted at a constant heat flux of 50 kW/m2 using a dual-cone calorimeter. The coal samples were commonly used in ger district of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. PM10 emission factors were 1122.9 ± 526.2, 958.1 ± 584.0, and 472.0 ± 57.1 mg/kg for coal samples 1, 2, and 3, respectively. PM with a diameter of 0.35–0.45 µm was dominant and accounted for 41, 34, and 48% of the total PM for coal samples 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The emissions of PM and VOC from coals commonly used in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia were significant enough to cause extremely high levels of indoor and outdoor air pollution.

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Rybiński, Przemysław, Bartłomiej Syrek, Dariusz Bradło, Witold Żukowski, Rafał Anyszka, and Mateusz Imiela. "Influence of cenospheric fillers on the thermal properties, ceramisation and flammability of nitrile rubber composites." Journal of Composite Materials 52, no. 20 (February 9, 2018): 2815–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021998318754996.

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In this paper, the influence of cenospheric fillers of different particle sizes on the thermal properties and flammability of butadiene-acrylonitrile rubber is presented. A part of fly ash cenospheres was coated with an iron and iron (III) oxide layer. A series of examinations were conducted, these took the forms of: thermal analysis; oxygen index analysis; cone calorimeter measurements; SEM; AFM. These examinations enabled the explanation of iron-based combustion inhibition processes in terms of catalysis of char formation and elastomer cross-linking. Cenospheres itself without additional coatings or fillers provide high surface for polymer chain adsorption, and hence degradation of composite is reduced. Additionally, the results of the investigation on the effectiveness of cenospheric filler usage for ceramisation are discussed. It is proven that the durable ceramic structure is formed owing to the addition of cenospheres in the presence of an inorganic flux. Thus, replacement of silica by lightweight cenospheres is possible. Cenospheres with an iron coating and in the presence of wollastonite and an inorganic flux allow obtaining the NBR composites which are non-flammable in the air atmosphere; furthermore, the ceramic layer formed during the composite combustion has advantageous mechanical properties.

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Li, Gang, Fang Qu, Zhi Wang, Xuhai Xiong, and Yanying Xu. "Experimental Study of Thermal and Fire Reaction Properties of Glass Fiber/Bismaleimide Composites for Aeronautic Application." Polymers 15, no. 10 (May 11, 2023): 2275. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym15102275.

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Thermal behavior and fire reaction properties of aerial glass fiber (GF)/bismaleimide (BMI) composites were tested using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), thermogravimetric coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TG-FTIR), cone calorimeter, limiting oxygen index, and smoke density chamber. The results showed that the pyrolysis process was one stage in a nitrogen atmosphere with the prominent volatile components of CO2, H2O, CH4, NOx, and SO2. The release of heat and smoke increased with the increase in heat flux, while the time required to reach hazardous conditions decreased. The limiting oxygen index decreased monotonically from 47.8% to 39.0% with increasing experimental temperature. The maximum specific optical density within 20 min in the non-flaming mode was greater than that in the flaming mode. According to the four kinds of fire hazard assessment indicators, the greater the heat flux, the higher the fire hazard, for the contribution of more decomposed components. The calculations of two indices confirmed that the smoke release in the early stage of fire was more negative under flaming mode. This work can provide a comprehensive understanding of the thermal and fire characteristics of GF/BMI composites used for aircraft.

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Dowbysz, Adriana, Bożena Kukfisz, Dorota Siuta, Mariola Samsonowicz, Andrzej Maranda, Wojciech Kiciński, and Wojciech Wróblewski. "Analysis of the Flammability and the Mechanical and Electrostatic Discharge Properties of Selected Personal Protective Equipment Used in Oxygen-Enriched Atmosphere in a State of Epidemic Emergency." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 18 (September 12, 2022): 11453. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811453.

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Numerous fires occurring in hospitals during the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the dangers of the existence of an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. At oxygen concentrations higher than 21%, fires spread faster and more vigorously; thus, the safety of healthcare workers and patients is significantly reduced. Personal protective equipment (PPE) made mainly from plastics is combustible and directly affects their safety. The aim of this study was to assess its fire safety in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. The thermodynamic properties, fire, and burning behavior of the selected PPE were studied, as well as its mechanical and electrostatic discharge properties. Cotton and disposable aprons were classified as combustible according to their LOI values of 17.17% and 17.39%, respectively. Conall Health A (23.37%) and B/C (23.51%) aprons and the Prion Guard suit (24.51%) were classified as self-extinguishing. The cone calorimeter test revealed that the cotton apron ignites the fastest (at 10 s), while for the polypropylene PPE, flaming combustion starts between 42 and 60 s. The highest peak heat release rates were observed for the disposable apron (62.70 kW/m2), Prion Guard suit (61.57 kW/m2), and the cotton apron (62.81 kW/m2). The mean CO yields were the lowest for these PPEs. Although the Conall Health A and B/C aprons exhibited lower pHRR values, their toxic CO yield values were the highest. The most durable fabrics of the highest maximum tensile strength were the cotton apron (592.1 N) and the Prion Guard suit (274.5 N), which also exhibited the lowest electrification capability. Both fabrics showed the best abrasion resistance of 40,000 and 38,000 cycles, respectively. The abrasion values of other fabrics were significantly lower. The research revealed that the usage of PPE made from polypropylene in an oxygen-enriched atmosphere may pose a fire risk.

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Przeliorz, Roman, and Andrzej Kiełbus. "Influence of Heating and Cooling Rate on Phase Transformations Temperatures in EV31A Magnesium Alloy." Solid State Phenomena 229 (April 2015): 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.229.89.

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Following article summarizes results of the researches concerning influence of heating and cooling rate on the phase transformations temperatures in EV31A magnesium alloy. Particular attention has been paid to calibration aspects of the temperature measurement as well as cooling and heating rates in protective atmosphere. The researches were conducted on Multi HTC calorimeter, provided by Setaram company. The samples were heated up to liquidus temperature with controlled rates of: 2.5°C/min, 5°C/min, 10°C/min, 15°C/min and 20°C/min. Just after melting, the specimens were cooled with the same rates. Equilibrium temperatures of phase transformations were calculated by extrapolation to zero heating/cooling rate. Considerable difference between melting point (during heating) and solidification temperature (during cooling) were noticed on cooling/heating curves. The alloy specific heat has also been calculated.

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Blank, Robert R., Robert H. White, and Lewis H. Ziska. "Combustion properties of Bromus tectorum L.: influence of ecotype and growth under four CO2 concentrations." International Journal of Wildland Fire 15, no. 2 (2006): 227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf05055.

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We grew from seed the exotic invasive annual grass Bromus tectorum L., collected from three elevation ecotypes in northern Nevada, USA. Plants were exposed to four CO2 atmosphere concentrations: 270, 320, 370, and 420 μmol mol–1. After harvest on day 87, above-ground tissue was milled, conditioned to 30% relative humidity, and combustion properties were measured using a cone calorimeter. Plants exposed to 270 μmol mol–1 CO2 had significantly less total heat released than plants exposed to higher CO2 concentrations. Total heat released was least for the low-elevation ecotype, statistically similar for the mid-elevation ecotype, and significantly increased for the high-elevation ecotype. Plant attributes that significantly correlated with heat release included tissue concentrations of lignin, glucan, xylan, potassium, calcium, and manganese. The data suggest that a decline in tissue concentrations of lignin, xylan, and mineral constituents, as CO2 concentration increases from 270 μmol mol–1 to higher levels, affects the combustion process. We suspect that as tissue concentrations of lignin and inorganics decline, char formation decreases, thereby allowing more complete combustion. Changes in combustion parameters of B. tectorum induced by different CO2 concentrations and elevation ecotype may be a strong consideration to understanding fire behaviors of the past, present, and future.

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Yuan, Wenjie, Fenghua Chen, Shan Li, Youpei Du, Zhenhua Luo, Yanan Sun, Hao Li, and Tong Zhao. "Synthesis of Silicon Hybrid Phenolic Resins with High Si-Content and Nanoscale Phase Separation Structure." Processes 8, no. 9 (September 10, 2020): 1129. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8091129.

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In this paper, a set of silicon hybrid phenolic resins (SPF) with high Si-content were prepared by mixing phenolic resins with self-synthesized silicon resins. In order to obtain the nanoscale phase structure, condensation degree and the amount of Si-OH groups in silicon resins were controlled by the amount of inhibitor ethanol in the hydrolytic condensation polymerization of siloxane. Increasing the amount of ethanol resulted in more silanol groups and a lower degree of condensation for silicon resins, which then led to more formation of Si-O-Ph bonds in hybrid resin and improved compatibility between silicon resin and phenolic resin. When 400% ethanol by weight of siloxane was used in the sample SPF-4, nanoscale phase separation resulted. The residual weight of the cured SPF-4 at 1000 °C (R1000) significantly increased compared to pure phenolic resins. The result of the oxyacetylene flame ablation and the Cone Calorimeter test confirmed the improved ablative property and flammability after the modification. The performance improvement of the cured SPF-4 was attributed to the nanoscale phase structure and high silicon content, which promoted the formation of dense silica protective layers during pyrolysis.

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Quach, Thi Hai Yen, Abdelkibir Benelfellah, Benjamin Batiot, Damien Halm, Thomas Rogaume, Jocelyn Luche, and Denis Bertheau. "Determination of the tensile residual properties of a wound carbon/epoxy composite first exposed to fire." Journal of Composite Materials 51, no. 1 (July 28, 2016): 17–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0021998316637419.

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The use of carbon fiber/epoxy matrix composite is widely developed to store hydrogen at high pressure because of its low weight and its good specific mechanical properties. In order to secure this type of storage, it is necessary to tackle the thermal degradation and the influence of a fire or a heating source on the residual mechanical behavior of such materials. In the present study, carbon/epoxy composite samples with different fiber orientations are considered. The thermal aggression (representative of a fire) is performed by using a cone calorimeter apparatus (ISO 5660). The fire exposure is stopped at different time in order to study the influence of the thermal energy (different heat fluxes and exposure durations) on the residual mechanical tensile properties. The results obtained show that the residue thickness (char) of the samples is proportional to the incident energy. Strength and stiffness reduction can be observed even without ignition (i.e ., without combustion flame) when the mechanical properties are controlled only by the resin (fiber perpendicular to the loading axis). When the fibers are mechanically loaded (quasi-isotropic samples or ± 45° samples), a very little strength decrease is observed before ignition and accelerated after ignition. A proportional relationship between the ultimate stress of the exposed sample and the non-charred thickness is also observed.

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Zhang, Mengmeng, Yamin Cheng, Zhiwei Li, Xiaohong Li, Laigui Yu, and Zhijun Zhang. "Biomass Chitosan-Induced Fe3O4 Functionalized Halloysite Nanotube Composites: Preparation, Characterization and Flame-Retardant Performance." Nano 14, no. 12 (December 2019): 1950154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793292019501546.

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An inorganic–organic nanohybrid flame retardant, HNT@CS@Fe3O4, is prepared by Halloysite nanotubes (HNT) as nanotemplate, chitosan (CS) as char-forming agent and ferroferric oxide (Fe3O[Formula: see text] playing in a catalytic role, aiming to endow enhanced flame-retardant performance of its nanohybrid. Results show that HNT@CS@Fe3O4 nanohybrids have a corn-like structure and can significantly improve the flame retardancy and thermal stability of epoxy resin (EP). Especially, the initial thermal degradation temperature of EP/HNT@CS@Fe3O4 is significantly improved by [Formula: see text]C relative to pure EP, and the residual carbon yield under air atmosphere is 8.8[Formula: see text]wt.%, which is significantly higher than other EP composites, indicating a higher thermal stability is offered by the as-prepared nanohybrid. The limiting oxygen index of EP/10HNT@CS@Fe3O4 is 31.3%, which is 10.2% higher than that of pure EP. Meanwhile, the HNT@CS@Fe3O4 nanofiller reduces the peak heat release rate, CO production and peak smoke production release of EP nanocomposite by 32.0%, 44.0% and 33.0% in a cone calorimeter test, respectively. This is because the HNT-based composite can form a three-dimensional network structure into the EP matrix to inhibit heat release and diffusion of flammable moieties upon burning of EP. In the meantime, the incorporated Fe3O4 nanoparticle can in situ catalyze the charring of CS and EP matrix on the surface of HNT during the combustion process, which also contributes to the significantly increased fire safety of EP.

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Wang, Yachao, and Jiangping Zhao. "Real-Time Measurement on the Heat Release Property of Titanium Blended with Different Carbon Allotropes, under Externally Constant Heat Flux." Metals 9, no. 9 (September 4, 2019): 981. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9090981.

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Ti/C blended powder is commonly employed as an initiating combustion agent for preparing calcium aluminate; a dedicated test system is exploited for real-time examining of the heat release of Ti/C blended powder during combustion under atmosphere conditions with an externally constant heat flux of 973 K, which is comprised of cone calorimeter, thermal-gravimetry/differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive spectrometer, and a theoretical thermal calculation, with the aim of quantitatively illuminating its combustion mechanism in depth. Furthermore, a comparison of the heat release property of titanium powder blended with different carbon allotropes, including natural flaky graphite (FG), carbon black (CB), expandable graphite (EG), and vermicular graphite (VG) is preliminarily investigated, to clarify the effect of different carbon allotropes on the heat release property of Ti/C blended powder. It reveals that the oxidation reaction between Ti and O2 initiates the subsequent combination of TiC through a thermal explosion reaction, using graphite (FG, VG, or EG) and Ti powder as the starting materials, respectively. Moreover, EG facilitates an accelerated (fire growth index of 0.42 kW·m−2·s−1) and enhanced peak heat release rate (pHRR) of 30.7 kW·m−2 at 73 s, while VG suppresses the heat release with the pHRR of 5.2 kW·m−2 at 64 s and fire growth index of 0.08 kW·m−2·s−1, and FG favors the formation of TiC with a higher crystallinity from XRD. Additively, the prior NaOH-impregnation is favorable for the formation of TiC for Ti/CB blended powder, although the TiO2 predominates final combustion production. It reveals the chemical evolution and mechanisms evolved in the formation of TiC during ignition.

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Kim, Taeyoon, Joo-Hyun Song, Jong-Ho Back, Bongkuk Seo, Choong-Sun Lim, Hyun-Jong Paik, and Wonjoo Lee. "Flame Retardant Submicron Particles via Surfactant-Free RAFT Emulsion Polymerization of Styrene Derivatives Containing Phosphorous." Polymers 12, no. 6 (May 29, 2020): 1244. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12061244.

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The reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) emulsion polymerization of diethyl-(4-vinylbenzyl) phosphate (DEVBP) was performed using PEG-TTC as a macro RAFT agent. PEG-TTC (MW 2000, 4000) was synthesized by the esterification of poly (ethylene glycol) methyl ether with a carboxylic-terminated RAFT agent, composed a hydrophilic poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) block and a hydrophobic dodecyl chain. The RAFT emulsion polymerization of DEVBP was well–controlled with a narrow molecular size distribution. Dynamic light scattering and confocal laser scanning microscopy were used to examine the PEG-b-PDVBP submicron particles, and the length of the PEG chain (hydrophilic block) was found to affect the particle size distribution and molecular weight distribution. The submicron particle size increased with increasing degree of polymerization (35, 65, and 130), and precipitation was observed at a high degree of polymerization (DP) using low molecular weight PEG-TTC (DP 130, A3). The flame retardant properties of the PEG-b-PDVBP were evaluated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and micro cone calorimeter (MCC). In the combustion process, the residue of PEG-b-PDEVBP were above 500 °C was observed (A1 ~ B3, 27 ~ 38%), and flame retardant effect of PEG-b-PDEVBP submicron particles/PVA composite were confirmed by increasing range of temperature and decreasing total heat release with increasing contents of PEG-b-PDEVBP. The PEG-b-PDEVBP submicron particles can provide flame retardant properties to aqueous, dispersion and emulsion formed organic/polymer products.

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Cancellieri, Dominique, Valérie Leroy-Cancellieri, Xavier Silvani, and Frédéric Morandini. "New experimental diagnostics in combustion of forest fuels: microscale appreciation for a macroscale approach." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 7 (July 16, 2018): 1957–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-1957-2018.

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Abstract. In modelling the wildfire behaviour, good knowledge of the mechanisms and the kinetic parameters controlling the thermal decomposition of forest fuel is of great importance. The kinetic modelling is based on the mass-loss rate, which defines the mass-source term of combustible gases that supply the flames and influences the propagation of wildland fires. In this work, we investigated the thermal degradation of three different fuels using a multi-scale approach. Lab-scale experimental diagnostics such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), use of the cone calorimeter (CC) or Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA) led to valuable results for modelling the thermal degradation of vegetal fuels and allowed several upgrades of pyrolysis models. However, this work remains beyond large-scale conditions of a wildland or forest fire. In an effort to elaborate on the kinetic models under realistic natural fire conditions, a mass-loss device specifically designed for the field scale has been developed. The paper presents primary results gained using this new device, during large-scale experiments of controlled fires. The mass-loss records obtained on a field scale highlight the influence of the chemical composition and the structure of plants. Indeed, two species with similar chemical and morphological characteristics exhibit similar mass-loss rates, whereas the third presents different thermal behaviour. The experimental data collected at a field scale led to a new insight about thermal degradation processes of natural fuel when compared to the kinetic laws established in TGA. These new results provide a global description of the kinetics of degradation of Mediterranean forest fuels. The results led to a proposed thermal degradation mechanism that has also been validated on a larger scale.

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Zheng, Huai Bing, Xu Jian Peng, Min Xia Zhang, and Lin Ju. "Fire Resistance of Four Coniferous Woody Species in Heilongjiang Province." Applied Mechanics and Materials 295-298 (February 2013): 2287–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.295-298.2287.

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On condition that the heat release rate is 50kW•m-2, the volume of a gas velocity is 24 L•s-1, the combustibility of Pinus koraiensis、Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica、Picea koraiensis、Larix gmelinii in Heilongjiang Province were determined systematically through the use of the controlled atmosphere tapered calorimeter. Through the comparative analysis of the heat release rate and the smoke production rate and some orther burning parameters of the barks and the withered leaves, combine the moisture content of barks and withered leaves of each species, evaluate the fire resistance of this four coniferous species. The results shown: the heat release rate, HRR; total heat release, THR; specific extinction area and smoke produce rate are higher in the barks and withered leaves of Picea koraiensis but the fire performance index is low, these instructions that the fireproof performance is worse in Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica; each Picea koraiensis burning indexs of the Larix gmelinii is lower or the lowest, both the smoke production rate, SPR and the heat release rate, HRR are slow, the fire performance index is high. However, its absolute moisture content and relative moisture content is the highest, it’s flammble.So,we conclude its fire-resistance performance is higher, we could choose it as the fire-preventing priority screening tree species; the flammability of Pinus koraiensis and Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica between the above two species. the combustion characteristics of trees is the result of multiple factor joint, The difference between the different research results is resulted in the choice of the indexs, so it’s urgent need to establish a comprehensive and integrated evaluation index system.

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Delichatsios, Michael. "Application of upward flame spread for the prediction of SBI and ISO room corner (and parallel wall) experiments and classification." Thermal Science 11, no. 2 (2007): 7–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/tsci0702007d.

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The flammability hazard assessment of wall and ceiling linings has occupied the attention of fire scientists and engineers and regulators over the last fifty years. Several tests (small, medium, and large) have been developed to classify the flammability of linings and predict their burning behavior in real enclosure fire situations. We examine in some detail three such efforts: (a) the development of an experimental room and a 9 ft vertical wall full scale test by Ferris leading to the Early Fire Hazard test in Australia, (b) the ISO room corner test, and (c) The new SBI (Single Burning Item test) which maybe the most thoroughly examined test in the history of flammability testing. Of these tests, the experimental room used by Ferris and the ISO room corner test may be considered as end use applications for medium size rooms whereas the SBI test and the vertical wall test by Ferris are intermediate scale test designed to represent the room fire behavior in a more controlled way. Performance criterion in the ISO room corner test is the time to reach flashover. Performance criteria in the SBI test are related to the fire growth in an open corner (no ceiling) configuration due to upward flame spread. Performance criterion in the experimental room of Ferris was the time to reach untenable conditions in the room. Finally, performance criterion in the vertical wall of Ferris was the time interval from ignition until the flames reach the top of the wall. Examination of all these efforts has led to consistently validating a new correlation of the performance criteria of these tests with small-scale cone calorimeter tests whenever both data are available. Previous correlations are also discussed. The new correlation compares well with essential features of upward flame spread as this is related to flammability properties. Comparison between the ISO room corner test and the SBI test leads to suggestions regarding the suitability of these tests as a regulatory tool. Some comments are also directed towards a new test method of parallel wall panels recently proposed by Fmglobal. This test method can be analyzed using the same methodology outlined in this paper.

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Bray, Robert John, Svetlana Tretsiakova-McNally, and Jianping Zhang. "The Controlled Atmosphere Cone Calorimeter: A Literature Review." Fire Technology, June 8, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-023-01423-6.

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AbstractCone calorimeters are widely used to assess heat release parameters and flammability of combustible materials, but their use is limited for applications where the global equivalence ratio (GER) exceeds one, because they can only replicate burning in open conditions. The standardisation of the controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter (CACC) in the ISO/TS 5660-5:2020 offers an opportunity to investigate the potential advantages and limitations of this apparatus. This paper presents a detailed review of existing studies conducted using the CACC. The review is aimed at examining the importance of atmospheric control for bench-scale experimental methods and the research-based development of key features of the apparatus. In addition, it highlights the research yet to be carried out to optimise the use of CACC as a tool in fire science. The effects of various design parameters are discussed including the method used for GER control, the chimney, the chamber, the gas inflow rate and others. Despite standardisation, it is concluded that there is limited consensus on optimal CACC control variables. A lack of consensus has led to significantly different testing conditions even where researchers use the same materials and have similar research objectives. The lack of best practice, particularly with regards to a gas sampling location and the method of GER control, motivates the need for further research so as to improve the value of data collected, reduce uncertainty and optimise CACC reproducibility.

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Hermouet, Fabien, Éric Guillaume, Thomas Rogaume, Franck Richard, and Mohamad El Houssami. "Experimental determination of the evolution of the incident heat flux received by a combustible during a cone calorimeter test: Influence of the flame irradiance." Journal of Fire Sciences, December 14, 2020, 073490412097044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734904120970440.

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The decomposition kinetic of polymeric materials in a cone calorimeter strongly depends on the irradiance level imposed at the sample’s surface. Indeed, even if the irradiance level is supposed to be kept constant during cone calorimeter test, the amount of heat flux which is emitted by the flame can greatly increase the total heat flux received by the material. Analytical treatment on recently obtained results of an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene’s mass loss rate with controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter has shown that the differences observed between well-ventilated and inert environments can be attributed to the impact of the flame. This observation has brought the necessity to determine the impact of the flaming process on the material thermal decomposition. To do so, series of experiments have been devised, based on the insertion of a heat fluxmeter within the matrix of an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene material, during cone calorimeter tests in order to measure the flame heat flux as a function of the decomposition and the combustion processes.

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Barton, John, Oriol Rios, Marcus Runefors, and Patrick Hees. "The effect of oxygen concentration on selected industrial products in the open controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter." Fire and Materials, July 13, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.3006.

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Chatenet, Sarah, Olivier Authier, Serge Bourbigot, and Gaëlle Fontaine. "Reaction to fire of polymethylmethacrylate and polyvinylchloride under reduced oxygen concentrations in a controlled-atmospherecone calorimeter." Journal of Fire Sciences, April 29, 2022, 073490412210929. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07349041221092968.

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Electrical cable sheaths are the most abundant fire load in nuclear power plants, mainly in rooms that are kept in under slight pressure. This configuration leads fires to grow in under-ventilated and vitiated conditions. Assessing fire threat involves characterizing the heat released, responsible for fire growth, and the smoke evolved, which may interact with sensitive components in the area. For that purpose, a revisited controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter has been designed, set up, and coupled to a Fourier transformed infrared spectrometer and an electrical low-pressure impactor to measure simultaneously the evolved gases and aerosols, respectively. This bench-scale apparatus has been first qualified with polymethylmethacrylate. It has second been used to characterize polyvinylchloride cable sheath representative material reaction to fire in under-ventilated and vitiated conditions. It appeared that vitiation in under-ventilated fires lowers the heat release rate and the fuel mass loss rate.

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Lamandé, Adèle, Véronique Marchetti, Serge Bourbigot, and Gaëlle Fontaine. "Effects of Oxygen Concentration on the Reaction to Fire of Cross-Laminated Timber in a Controlled-Atmosphere Cone Calorimeter." Fire Technology, January 7, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-023-01518-0.

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Gong, Junhui, Hongen Zhou, Hong Zhu, Conor G. McCoy, and Stanislav I. Stoliarov. "Development of a pyrolysis model for oriented strand board: Part II—Thermal transport parameterization and bench-scale validation." Journal of Fire Sciences, August 6, 2021, 073490412110366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07349041211036651.

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Oriented strand board is a widely used construction material responsible for a substantial portion of the fire load of many buildings. To accurately model oriented strand board fire response, kinetics and thermodynamics of its thermal decomposition and combustion were carefully characterized using milligram-scale testing in part I of this study. In the current work, Controlled Atmosphere Pyrolysis Apparatus II tests were performed on representative gram-sized oriented strand board samples at a range of radiant heat fluxes. An automated inverse analysis of the sample temperature data obtained in these tests was employed to determine the thermal conductivities of the undecomposed oriented strand board and condensed-phase products of its decomposition. A complete pyrolysis model was formulated for this material and used to predict the mass loss rates measured in the Controlled Atmosphere Pyrolysis Apparatus II experiments. These mass loss rate profiles were predicted well with the exception of the second mass loss rate peak observed at 65 kW m−2 of radiant heat flux, which was underpredicted. To further validate the model, cone calorimeter tests were performed on oriented strand board at 25 and 50 kW m−2 of radiant heat flux. The results of these tests, including both mass loss rate and heat release rate profiles, were predicted reasonably well by the model.

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Knez, F., M. Uršič, N. Knez, K. Peeters, M. Franko, and P. Zidar. "Use of the modified controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter for the assessment of fire effluents generated by burning wood under different ventilation conditions." Fire and Materials, November 9, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fam.3042.

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Melati, Asih, Abdelhakim Settar, Madiha Rashid, Khaled Chetehouna, Okur Nazan, and Omer B. Berkalp. "Effect of fire-retardant coating on bamboo and banana-based biocomposites: A comparative study thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimeter tests." Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, May 29, 2023, 089270572311764. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08927057231176431.

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In this work, a thermal behaviour comparison of a new bamboo-based and banana-based Green Bio-Composites (GBC) is conducted using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and cone-calorimeter experiments. An Intumescent Fire-Retardant (IFR) coating (a mixture of Exolit IFR36 and boric acid) has been applied on the investigated GBC materials in order to explore the flammability resistance of such GBCs. Vacuum Bag Resin Transfer Moulding (VBRTM) technique has been used to manufacture the samples. TGA test have been conducted under oxidative atmosphere with three different heating rates while cone calorimeter tests have been performed with a horizontally exposure on the top surface of the sample. The outcomes of TGA revealed that Bamboo-based (BM-GBC) and Banana-based (Bn-GBC) materials exhibited similar thermal degradation patterns. However, BM-GBC outperformed Bn-based in the cone calorimetry analysis, this is proven by the fire reaction parameters as well as the higher char residue. In addition, IFR coating improved the flame retardancy of both GBCs, reduced the Peak Heat Release Rate (PHRR) by approximately 40–50% and smoke production (SEA) by 26%. SEM and EDS analysis of char residue were performed to deeply investigate the effectiveness of the IFR as a protecting layer.

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Wang, Yiming, Dayong Jiang, Xin Wen, Tao Tang, Karolina Szymańska, Krzysztof Sielicki, Karolina Wenelska, and Ewa Mijowska. "Investigating the Effect of Aluminum Diethylphosphinate on Thermal Stability, Flame Retardancy, and Mechanical Properties of Poly(butylene succinate)." Frontiers in Materials 8 (August 26, 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2021.737749.

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Poly(butylene succinate) is one of the most promising biodegradable polymers, but its applications are limited by poor flame retardancy. In this work, poly(butylene succinate)/diethylphosphinate (PBS/AlPi) composites were fabricated to investigate the effect of AlPi on their thermal stability, flame retardancy, and mechanical properties. It was found that the high content of AlPi decreased the thermal stability of PBS, and the decrease became stronger under the air atmosphere. When the content of AlPi reached 25wt%, the flame retardancy was improved with limited oxygen index (LOI) of 29.5%, V0 rating in UL-94 vertical burning test, and 49.3% reduction on the peak of heat release rate (PHRR) in cone calorimeter test. Meanwhile, the addition of AlPi could improve the mechanical properties of PBS with high tensile strength and Young’s modulus, which was ascribed to the compatible effect of maleic anhydride-grafted poly(butylene succinate) (PBS-g-MA) with good filler dispersion and strong matrix-particles interaction. Thus, the AlPi was an effective flame retardant to PBS, so that PBS/AlPi composites displayed excellent flame retardancy without seriously sacrificing other comprehensive performances.

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Papadogianni, V., A. Romeos, K. Perrakis, and T. Panidis. "Fire behaviour of a Carbon/Nomex honeycomb sandwich composite used in aircraft interiors as ceiling panel." Heat and Mass Transfer, November 10, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00231-022-03313-z.

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AbstractFire behaviour of a carbon/Nomex honeycomb composite, used as ceiling panel in aircraft cabins, has been investigated experimentally. The thermal decomposition that was examined in a thermogravimetric analyser (TGA), under inert atmosphere, at several heating rates (5,10 and 20 °C/min), revealed a complex degradation process with overlapping stages. Cone Calorimeter tests at different incident heat fluxes, ranging from 20 to 70 kW/m2 have also been performed. The material exhibited good fire performance with relatively low amount of heat release and long ignition times. Ignition did not occur at 20 and 30 kW/m2. Combustion of the material at 40 kW/m2 proceeded in one stage, while at higher heat fluxes two stages were observed. The burning mechanisms and structural changes during thermal decomposition at different heat fluxes were also examined. The long tail after flameout in heat release curves and the significant increase in CO production and mass loss were analysed with respect to smouldering combustion of the material core. Measurements of the surface temperature prior to ignition were in agreement with the degradation processes observed in the TGA, and were also employed for the determination of ignition temperature (Tig = 593 °C). A modified iterative method, based on the correlation of the ignition data with the imposed heat flux, was adopted for the determination of the ignition parameters, including critical heat flux and temperature for ignition, providing results in agreement with experimental observations.

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Kadel, Jacob, Faraz Hedayati, Stephen L. Quarles, and Aixi Zhou. "Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Dehydration and Performance of Fire-Protective Gels." Fire Technology, September 26, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-020-01045-2.

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Abstract During wildfire events fire-protective gels can be used as a line of defense to protect structures. The effectiveness of freshly applied gels in delaying ignition and flame growth on structures has been well established. However, in a real-world scenario there is a period between the application of the gel and the arrival of a spot fire or the fire-front. During this period, the gels are often exposed to extreme conditions consisting of high winds and low relative humidity. The effect of these weathering conditions on the performance of fire-protective gels is still poorly understood. This study examined the dehydration and performance of fire-protective gels following a range of weathering conditions. Two commercially available gels were applied to a 100-mm by 100-mm T1-11 plywood sample and then artificially weathered in an environmental chamber, with controlled temperature, relative humidity, and wind. The remaining mass of the gels was measured at selected intervals to determine the relationship between mass loss and dehydration related to weathering. A second series of tests was conducted on weathered T1-11 samples at specific mass loss states as well as on freshly applied gels using a 50 kW/m2 heat flux exposure utilizing a cone calorimeter. Results indicated that they dehydrated to the point where, after 3 h, fire performance was no better than the uncoated wood samples and the gels could facilitate ignition. This timeline suggests that gels should only be applied by first responders and homeowners should focus on evacuation related activities.

Journal articles on the topic 'Controlled atmosphere calorimeter cone'

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