Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Contextual interference'

Two instructional design features hypothesized to affect problem solving performance, problem format and contextual interference, were investigated. Problem format was manipulated by altering the format of worked examples to demonstrate a molar or modular solution. Contextual interference was manipulated by randomizing the order in which problem categories were studied. Participants studied worked examples from 5 complex probability categories and solved 11 novel problems. The modular problem format reduced study time and the workload during study and increased performance on the subsequent test. Greater contextual interference increased study time but had no effect on workload or test performance. Additionally, a regression analysis demonstrated that mental workload partially mediated the effect of problem format on test performance. A separate regression analysis did not demonstrate that working memory capacity moderated the effect of problem format on mental workload.

It is commonly accepted that instrumental responses that have been extinguished can return. For example, in a phenomenon known as the renewal effect, extinguished behaviors return upon removal from the extinction context. Another well-accepted notion is that instrumental behaviors can be thought of as goal-directed actions, which form over the course of moderate amounts of practice or training, and habits, which form after extended practice. Despite years of research on both topics, what happens to actions and habits following extinction is poorly understood. The present experiments examined the renewal of actions and habits following retroactive interference paradigms such as extinction and additional training. Experiment 1 examined renewal of an action following its extinction in a separate context, and demonstrated that the extinguished behavior renewed as an action upon return to the acquisition context. Experiment 2 asked the same question about habits, and found that the behavior renewed as a habit after extinction upon return to the acquisition context. Experiment 3 examined renewal of goal-directed responding in one context following extensive training and conversion into habit in another context. It demonstrated that a single response could manifest as a habit in one context, and renew as an action in the original training context. Experiment 4 asked if this effect depends on returning to the acquisition context, or simply removal from the habit training context. The results suggest that mere removal from the habit training context is sufficient to renew the goal-directed properties of a behavior. Together, the results suggest that actions and habits can be inhibited in a context-specific manner by extinction, and that instrumental behaviors can have both action and habit properties that can each renew under the proper circumstances. The results also expand on the notion that habits are especially context specific, while actions can transfer across contexts.

Previous research on contextual interference theory in controlled laboratory situations consistently illustrated that random practice was superior to blocked practice when learning motor skills. However, when considered in relation to physical education class settings the findings of the contextual interference experiments were not as uniform. Furthermore, the results of the contextual interference research were ambiguous when an open skill was used as the experimental task, with no definite trend evident. Random practice was found more effective for learning (del Rey, 1989) whereas French, Rink and Werner (1990) demonstrated blocked practice to be superior. In the present study, the influence of high and low contextual interference as practice schedules was investigated within an applied sports setting using an open sports skill as the experimental task. Two groups of boys and girls, 8-9 and 10-12 years of age, were taught a forehand tennis groundstroke using both their preferred and non-preferred hands over a ten week coaching and practice period. The findings showed that male subjects were significantly better at the experimental task than female subjects at the pre-test stage only. The result also demonstrated that the 10-12 year old subjects were significantly better than the 8-9 year olds at the task with the exception of the preferred hand at the post and retention test stage. The contextual interference effect was demonstrated in the retention phase on the preferred hand of the 10-12 year old subjects where the random practice group was significantly better than the blocked practice group in an applied sports setting. These findings were discussed in relation to the role of cognition in the learning of these motor skills and the influence of the subjects related background experiences.

Esta tese debruça-se sobre um fenómeno conhecido como Contextual Interference Effect (CIE) e sua aplicação ao estudo do reportório para clarinete, procurando avaliar e descrever as vantagens da sua utilização na preparação da performance musical. O CIE, aplicado à música, propõe uma forma diferente de trabalho, revelando grande eficácia na aquisição e retenção de competências motoras, e favorecendo, também, a transferência das mesmas para situações de performance. Esta descoberta de Battig (1966) baseia-se no princípio de que a transferência e aplicação de uma determinada competência em diferentes contextos é facilitada pela variação e interferência no contexto durante a sua aprendizagem. O autor descobriu que, durante o processo de aquisição de competências, os fatores que possam exagerar a dificuldade de uma tarefa, tornando-a mais complicada de executar, facilitam a sua memorização e consequente transferência para momentos distintos de performance; Abstract: The use of Contextual Interference Effect on the study of the clarinet repertoire: proposal of practice tools and work methods This thesis is about a phenomenon known as Contextual Interference Effect (CIE) and its use in the study of the clarinet repertoire, describing its advantages in the preparation for musical performance. This concept appears with Battig (1966) and it is based on the principle that the acquisition of motor competences is directly linked to the variables that interfere with the learning process during the acquisition of the same. The human brain is genetically wired to respond to new stimuli that are continually appearing, thus staying constantly alert and with an elevated capacity of reaction. On the contrary, the brain, when made to repeat the same action numerous times, tends to save itself, similar to when a computer enters into hibernation. These techniques, when applied to music, result in great efficacy in the learning process and in the transfer of skills to the performance.

Research on motor learning between old and young adults has shown that young adults benefit from high levels contextual interference (CI) and perform faster than older adults. This project analyzed retention performance in young and older adults with high CI and low CI from a previously completed study for insights about similarities and differences in motor retention. Specifically, young (21-39 years) and old (>71 years) participants performed under random (high CI) and blocked (low CI) practice to determine which practice condition facilitated the retention of motor performance. Participants moved the lever either in random or in blocked fashion to achieve a target position of20°, 30°, 40°, and 50°. Data analysis was completed for movement accuracy and the movement pattern kinematics. Results indicated that random practice led to accurate motor skill learning than blocked practice; older adults were slower as compared to young; but, there was no age related difference found in terms of movement accuracy and consistency. These findings indicate that older adults move slower, but appear to learn movements in similar way to their younger cohorts.

Em um estudo recente, Guadagnoli e Lee (2004) propuseram que o efeito de interferência contextual (IC) depende da dificuldade funcional de uma tarefa motora, com reversão do efeito de aprendizagem esperado quando a dificuldade imposta pela tarefa é elevada. No presente estudo esta hipótese foi testada em crianças na aprendizagem de uma tarefa de desenhos de padrões gráficos em uma base digitalizadora, recebendo feedback visual imediato invertido em um monitor de microcomputador. Foram avaliadas 30 crianças de 8-9 anos de idade, as quais foram designadas a três grupos: baixa IC, com prática variada entre blocos de tentativas possuindo o mesmo padrão gráfico; alta IC, com variação aleatorizada dos padrões gráficos entre as tentativas dentro de cada bloco; e controle, sem prática na tarefa. Após a etapa de prática, o tempo de movimento foi comparado entre os grupos em testes de retenção, transferência ipsilateral e transferência contralateral de aprendizagem. Os resultados mostraram que os dois grupos experimentais obtiveram resultados semelhantes de aprendizagem em todas as avaliações realizadas, com ambos os grupos apresentando resultados superiores ao grupo controle. A ausência de diferença entre os grupos experimentais indica que ambos os modos de variar a prática, sob baixa e alta IC, induziram efeitos semelhantes de aprendizagem, oferecendo apenas suporte parcial à hipótese de Guadagnoli e Lee. A vantagem dos grupos experimentais no teste de transferência contralateral indica que a adaptação devida à aprendizagem da tarefa não foi específica ao sistema neuromuscular empregado durante a prática
In a recent study, Guadagnoli and Lee (2004) proposed that the contextual interference (CI) effect depends on the functional difficulty of a motor task, with reversion of the expected learning effect when the difficulty imposed by a task is high. In the present study that hypothesis was tested in children in the learning of a task of drawing graphic patterns on a digitizing tablet while receiving immediate inversed visual feedback on a microcomputer monitor. Thirty 8-9 year-old children were assessed, who were assigned to three groups: low CI, with variability between blocks of trials composed of the same graphic pattern; high CI, with random variability within blocks of trials; and control, without practice on the task. Following the practice phase movement time was compared between the groups in retention, ipsilateral transfer, and contralateral transfer tests. Results showed that both experimental groups achieved similar results of learning in all tests, with the two groups presenting better results in comparison with the controls. Absence of difference between the experimental groups indicates that both modes of practice variability, under low and high CI, induced similar effects of learning, offering only partial support for the Guadagnoli and Lees hypothesis. The advantage of the experimental groups over the controls in the contralateral transfer of learning indicates that adaptation was not specific to the neuromuscular system employed during practice

This study manipulated common practices variables of contextual interference (CI) and frequencies of augmented feedback in order to determine the optimal practice conditions for beginner and experienced performers of a computer-based task. Twenty participants performed 36 trials in the acquisition of a task that involved moving a computer mouse to click 10 on-screen targets as quickly and accurately as possible. Acquisition trials consisted of either blocked practice with knowledge of results (KR) feedback provided on every trial or random practice with a faded feedback schedule. The extent of learning that occurred was gauged by 24-hour retention and transfer tests of two dependent variables: average response time and average accuracy. In line with the predictions of the challenge point framework, beginner participants demonstrated improved learning through low levels of CI and KR feedback after every trial, while experienced participants benefitted from a high CI and faded KR feedback environment. These findings provide insight about the viability of the challenge point framework and how practice can be structured in distinctive ways to foster skill learning for performers of different skill levels.

The skill of putting in golf contributes approximately 40 percent to one’s total score making it an important skill to master in golf. One of the critical means of improving putting skill is through practice. The purpose of this study was to: (a) investigate if different practice schedules with different degrees of contextual interference (CI) influenced the participants’ immediate and long-term putting performance, (b) examine if performance changes were associated with concomitant changes in specific kinematic parameters, and (c) assess the cognitions of the participants during various stages of the practice of the putting skill. Twenty-four undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either a blocked or random practice schedule. On Day One each participant practiced putting to three targets (4 ft, 8 ft, and 12 ft distance) for a total of 108 trials (36 trials to each target). On Day Two 30 trials of retention (10 trials to each target) and 10 transfer trials (10 ft distance) were performed. To obtain a kinematic description of the putting action, an OPTOTRAKTM 3020 camera system recorded the 3D movement of the putter. Participants’ cognitions were analyzed from stimulated recall interview data. Random practice participants exhibited poorer putting performance during acquisition compared to their blocked practice counterparts but showed superior performance in retention and transfer tests. While the blocked practice participants had significantly lower variability in the amplitude in the x-dimension for backswing, impact velocity, and putter position at impact (z-dimension) during practice, the random practice participants showed significantly lower variability in the amplitude of the x-dimension for the backswing and downswing, impact velocity, and putter position at impact during the retention and transfer phases. Content analysis of interview data yielded three emergent categories: participant focus, self-evaluation of performance, and benefits of practice. The participants provided evidence of active thought processes during the putting task while receiving little instruction. The blocked group focused more on accuracy while the random group was more focused on judging distance. The lack of recognition about the z-dimension has potential implications for how instruction and feedback might be employed during the learning process.

The purpose of this research was to examine whether a transition schedule of contextual interference facilitated learning in retention and transfer equal to or better than random and blocked schedules among children. The author selected participants from the central coast of California and from youth activity leagues. The author selected children between the ages of 10 to 13 with a mean age of 11.5. There were a total of 36 subjects, half male and half female. Unfortunately, due to computer error, only data from 15 subjects were saved and available for analysis. Researchers randomly assigned participants to one of three groups: the random group, the blocked group, or the transition group. Each group performed 60 trials during the acquisition phase and practiced a total of 3 different arm patterns. All three groups practiced each pattern a total of 20 times during acquisition. The random group practiced each pattern in random fashion such that no one pattern was repeated more than twice in a row. The blocked group performed 20 trials of the green pattern, followed by 20 trials of the blue pattern, and lastly 20 trials of the red pattern. The transition group performed the first 24 trials in a blocked fashion, that is 8 trials of the green pattern were practiced, followed by 8 trials of the blue pattern, and then 8 trials of the red pattern. The group then practiced smaller blocks and performed 5 trials of each color. Another 9 trials were performed in a blocked fashion with 3 trials of each pattern. The final 12 trials were presented randomly to this group. Following acquisition, participants took an immediate retention test that was counter balanced following a 10 minute rest. The retention test consisted of 9 random trials of the three various patterns. Researchers gave a transfer test following the retention test, which consisted of six trials of a novel (white) pattern. Researchers tested all three groups one week later with a delayed retention and transfer test similar to the tests described above. One-way ANOVA analysis of the data revealed a significant movement time difference (F=4.28; P=.039) during the delayed retention test. The follow up Tukey test demonstrated that the transition group had a significantly faster movement time than the blocked group but that random group was not significantly different from either the blocked or transition group. The other retention and transfer tests revealed no significance, however the trend in the data suggest that with a bigger sample size, the transition group would demonstrate learning equal to or better than both random and blocked groups. Further research is needed in the area of transition practice schedules.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar os efeitos da interferência contextual em função das dificuldades funcional e nominal da tarefa. Participaram do estudo 160 adultos de ambos os sexos. Os participantes divididos em grupos de experientes e inexperientes praticaram uma tarefa simples ou complexa de timing coincidente, sob regime aleatório ou por blocos, totalizando oito grupos experimentais. As medidas de desempenho foram os erros absoluto, variável e constante. Os resultados não mostraram diferenças entre os grupos de prática aleatória e por blocos em nenhuma das condições de dificuldade (nominal e funcional). Sendo assim, concluiu-se que o efeito da interferência contextual não é dependente das dificuldades funcional e nominal da tarefa
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of contextual interference due to the lack of functional and nominal task. The study included 160 adults of both sexes. Participants were divided in groups of experience and inexperience, which performed a simple or complex task of coincident timing, under random or blocked schedule. It resulted in eight experimental groups. Performance measures were the absolute, variable, and constant errors. Results did not show differences between random and blocked groups in all conditions of difficult (nominal and functional). Therefore, it was conclude that the effect of contextual interference is not dependent of the nominal and functional difficulties of the task

É sabido que a população idosa vem aumentando em números relativamente altos, gerando preocupações em relação aos cuidados que necessitam. Uma forma de idosos se manterem ativos é através da aprendizagem de novas habilidades motoras. Neste sentido, foram encontrados poucos estudos envolvendo a população idosa e o efeito da interferência contextual, particularmente estudos que utilizassem habilidades esportivas como tarefa. O objetivo do estudo foi investigar se há o efeito da interferência contextual na aprendizagem de uma habilidade esportiva em idosos. Foram selecionados para participar do estudo quarenta idosos (65-80 anos), fisicamente ativos, que foram divididos aleatoriamente em dois grupos: prática variada aleatória; e prática variada em blocos. A tarefa praticada foi o arremesso a ponto do jogo de bocha e bola deveria atingir três alvos nas distâncias de 2, 4 e 6 metros. A prática constou de 120 tentativas divididas em duas sessões de prática. Foram realizados dois testes de Retenção (10min e 24h) e também dois testes de Transferência (24 horas), sendo um realizado com a mão preferencial e outro com a mão não preferencial do participante, com o alvo à 5 metros. As medidas de desempenho utilizadas foram o erro radial, o desvio padrão do erro radial e a frequência de erros grosseiros. Também foram realizadas medidas cinemáticas, como amplitude, velocidade média e pico de aceleração de deslocamento da bola no forwardswing; e velocidade de soltura da bola. Na comparação entre os grupos de prática, não foi encontrada diferença no erro radial ou no desvio padrão do erro (p > 0,05), mas na frequência de erros grosseiros houve diferença entre os grupos apenas na fase de aquisição (p < 0,05). Além disso, as análises inferenciais referentes às medidas cinemáticas nos testes de retenção e transferência, tanto da velocidade média como da velocidade de soltura, mostraram que os idosos de ambos os grupos mudaram a velocidade nos testes (p < 0,05), provavelmente procurando ajustar o movimento. Correlações de Pearson foram realizadas entre medidas de desempenho e medidas cinemáticas e observou-se apenas uma correlação fraca entre o erro radial e a amplitude de deslocamento da bola no teste de transferência com a mão não preferencial (p < 0,05). Em conjunto, os resultados mostraram que os grupos apresentaram desempenho semelhante em ambas as estruturas de prática (aleatória e blocos) e, portanto, não houve efeito da interferência contextual na aprendizagem de idosos nesta habilidade esportiva. No entanto, pode ser argumentado que o controle adequado de força necessário no arremesso a ponto possa exigir maior tempo de prática para ser adquirido
It is known that the elderly population is increasing in relatively high numbers, generating concerns about the care they need. A form of seniors remain active is through the learning of new motor skills. In this sense, few studies involving the elderly population and the contextual interference effect have been found, particularly, studies that used sports skills as task. The objective of this study was to investigate if there is the contextual interference effect on sports skill learning in elderly. We selected 40 old persons (65-80 years old), physically active, which were divided randomly into two groups: random varied practice; and practice varied in blocks. The task was the throwing practiced at the bocce game, in which the ball should reach three targets at distances of 2, 4 and 6 meters. The practice consisted of 120 attempts divided into two practice sessions. Two Retention tests were conducted (10 min and 24 hours) and also two Transfer tests (24 hours), being performed with the preferential hand and also with the non-preferential hand of the participant, with the target at 5 meters. The performance measures used were the radial error, the standard deviation of radial error and frequency of gross errors. Kinematic measures were also used, such as amplitude, average speed and peak of acceleration in the displacement of the ball on the forwardswing; and also, speed of release of the ball. Comparisons between the practice groups, found no difference in the radial error or the standard deviation of the error (p > 0.05), but in the frequency of gross errors, there was a difference between the groups only at the acquisition phase (p < 0.05). In addition, the inferential analysis on retention and transfer tests, both the average speed as the speed of release, showed that the elderly of both groups have changed the speed (p < 0.05), probably trying to adjust the movement. Pearson correlations were performed between performance and kinematic measures and there was only a weak correlation between the radial error and amplitude on the transfer test with the non-preferential hand (p < 0.05). Overall, the results showed that the groups have similar performance on both practice structures (random and blocks) and, therefore, there was no effect of contextual interference in learning this sport skill by the elderly. However, it can be argued that the proper control of force needed in this task may require more practice time to be acquired

O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar o efeito da interferência contextual na aprendizagem de habilidades motoras em função de diferentes testes de retenção. Quatro diferentes intervalos de retenção foram empregados: (10m) 10 minutos (24h) 24 horas, (07d) sete dias, e (30d) 30 dias após a fase de aquisição. Cento e quarenta e quatro estudantes universitários, homens (n=88) e mulheres (n=56), com idade média de 21,9 anos (±3,2), todos voluntários e sem experiência com a tarefa, foram divididos em dois grupos de prática variada: aleatória e blocos. A tarefa consistiu em arremessar dardos de salão em um alvo circular com a mão dominante, a fim de acertar o seu centro. Participantes realizaram a tarefa em três distâncias diferentes do alvo (2,00m, 2,60m e 3,20m). O experimento consistiu de duas fases: aquisição (90 tentativas) e retenção (18 tentativas). O desempenho foi analisado em termos de magnitude (somatória de pontos) e variabilidade (coeficiente de variação dos pontos). Os resultados mostraram que todos os grupos melhoraram o desempenho na fase de aquisição e o mantiveram na fase de retenção. Além disso, concernente ao objetivo deste estudo, nenhuma diferença entre os grupos foi verificada no teste de retenção
The objective of the present study was to investigate the contextual interference effect in the motor skills learning in function of different retention tests. Four different retention intervals were employed: (10m) ten minutes, (24h) twenty-four hours, (07d) seven days, and (30d) thirty days after the acquisition phase. One hundred and forty-four college students, men (n=88) and women (n=56), mean age 21.9 years (±3.2), all volunteers and without experience with the task, were divided into two groups of varied practice: random and blocks. The ask consisted of throwing darts at a circular target (dartboard), with the dominant hand, in order to hit its center. Participants performed the task at three different target distances (2,00m, 2,60m, and 3,20m). The experiment consisted of two phases: acquisition (90 trials) and retention (18 trials). Performance was analyzed by magnitude (sum of points) and variability (coefficient of variation of points). Results showed that all groups improved the performance in the acquisition phase, and that it was kept in the retention test. Moreover, concerned to the aim of this study, no difference between the groups was found in the retention test

Thesis (P.E.D.)--Indiana University, School of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 2005.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Dec. 8, 2008). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 66-05, Section: A, page: 1691. Chair: Paul R. Surburg.

De acordo com o efeito da interferência contextual (EIC), a prática variada aleatória ou prática com alta interferência contextual (abcbcacbabac) proporciona pior desempenho de aquisição, porém melhor transferência e retenção em comparação à prática variada em blocos ou prática com baixa interferência contextual (aaaabbbbcccc). Entretanto, muitas pesquisas não confirmaram totalmente o EIC, o que põe em dúvida a aplicação do princípio no domínio motor. Através de um procedimento metodológico que prolongou a transferência (aumento do número de tentativas), o objetivo do presente estudo foi verificar se o EIC é um fator duradouro, temporário ou inexistente. Trinta e seis escolares do sexo feminino, com idades entre 12 e 14 anos, foram distribuídas em dois grupos de prática variada em função dos resultados de um teste de entrada: grupo aleatório e grupo em blocos. As tarefas de aquisição foram os saques de voleibol por baixo e por cima, a dois alvos afixados no solo. A tarefa de transferência foi o saque japonês a um terceiro alvo. Todos os saques foram executados a cinco metros da rede. O experimento constou de quatro fases: teste de entrada (oito tentativas), fase de aquisição (288 tentativas), fase de transferência (84 tentativas) e fase de retenção (12 tentativas). Os resultados das medidas de precisão e de padrão de movimento mostraram que não houve diferenças estatisticamente significantes entre os grupos em nenhum dos blocos do experimento. Logo, a estrutura da prática variada não influiu de forma significante no desempenho da tarefa nova. Ademais, os resultados não deram suporte à hipótese de MAGILL & HALL (1990), segundo a qual o EIC ocorre quando as variações da tarefa pertencem a programas motores diferentes. Ainda, o presente estudo reforçou a tendência de que o EIC não ocorre com crianças e com a utilização de tarefas de campo.
According to the contextual interference effect (CIE), practicing several motor skills under random practice or high contextual interference practice (abcbcacbabac) facilitates retention and transfer in comparison to practicing the same tasks under blocked practice or low contextual interference practice (aaaabbbbcccc). This learning phenomenon has led to a considerable amount of research. However, no definite trend in the results has been found, which makes its acceptance in the motor learning domain questionable. By extending the transfer phase (increasing the number of transfer trials), the aim of this study was to assess whether the CIE is temporary, lasting or non-existent. Accordingly, based on the scores of the pre-test, thirty-six schoolgirls (12 -14 years of age) were allocated to either a blocked or a random group. The acquisition tasks were the underhand and overhand volleyball serves, to two targets placed on the floor. The transfer task was the round house (Asian floater) volleyball serve to a third target. All serves were performed five meters away from the net. The experimental design consisted of four phases: pre-test (eight trials), acquisition (288 trials), transfer (84 trials) and retention (12 trials). The results of precision and movement pattern measures did not provide support to the CIE, since there were no significant statistical differences between the groups in any of the phases. The structure of variable practice did not affect the performance of the new task. Likewise, there was no support to the MAGILL & HALL (1990) hypothesis that, when task variations involve learning of different motor programs, the benefit of random practice over blocked practice would be found. Moreover, the present study reinforced the trend that the CIE does not take place in children as well as with field tasks.

AIM The purpose of this experiment is to assess whether the advantages of variable practice are due to schema formation or to enhanced information processing (contextual interference) alone. DESIGN The design involved a 2 (mode; cognitive and motor) x 5 (practice schedule; blocked, random, constant distance one, constant distance two, and constant distance three) between subjects design resulting in ten groups. One hundred participants were randomly chosen from Human Movement students at Australian Catholic University and assigned to each of the ten groups (n=10). The cognitive mode involved the participants having to recognise the appropriate target from three geometrical shapes (triangle, square or circle), the triangle being the target in every case. The motor mode involved the participants having to tap on the target among three boxes that was merely filled in. The experiment consisted of ninety (3 blocks of 30) acquisition trials followed by ten transfer trials to a novel movement. MAIN HYPOTHESIS It was hypothesised that if facilitated transfer to a novel target occurs through schema formation, then there would be no differences between the motor groups and their corresponding cognitive groups. However, if facilitated transfer to a novel target occurs through enhanced information processing, then there would be differences between the motor groups and their corresponding cognitive groups. RESULTS Statistical analysis revealed a contextual interference effect for participants involved in the cognitive mode, in that the cognitive blocked group outperformed the cognitive random group in acquisition, but the reverse was the case in transfer. In the motor mode, the motor blocked group outperformed the motor random group in acquisition, and repeated the performance in transfer. CONCLUSION The results appear to indicate that for simple motor tasks it is the amount of variability of practice that is important for transfer to a novel task, while for tasks with a cognitive component, the schedule of practice is critical.

AIM The purpose of this experiment is to assess whether the advantages of variable practice are due to schema formation or to enhanced information processing (contextual interference) alone. DESIGN The design involved a 2 (mode; cognitive and motor) x 5 (practice schedule; blocked, random, constant distance one, constant distance two, and constant distance three) between subjects design resulting in ten groups. One hundred participants were randomly chosen from Human Movement students at Australian Catholic University and assigned to each of the ten groups (n=10). The cognitive mode involved the participants having to recognise the appropriate target from three geometrical shapes (triangle, square or circle), the triangle being the target in every case. The motor mode involved the participants having to tap on the target among three boxes that was merely filled in. The experiment consisted of ninety (3 blocks of 30) acquisition trials followed by ten transfer trials to a novel movement. MAIN HYPOTHESIS It was hypothesised that if facilitated transfer to a novel target occurs through schema formation, then there would be no differences between the motor groups and their corresponding cognitive groups. However, if facilitated transfer to a novel target occurs through enhanced information processing, then there would be differences between the motor groups and their corresponding cognitive groups. RESULTS Statistical analysis revealed a contextual interference effect for participants involved in the cognitive mode, in that the cognitive blocked group outperformed the cognitive random group in acquisition, but the reverse was the case in transfer.;CONCLUSION The results appear to indicate that for simple motor tasks it is the amount of variability of practice that is important for transfer to a novel task, while for tasks with a cognitive component, the schedule of practice is critical

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. of Kinesiology, School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 2009.
Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Jul 7, 2010). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 70-10, Section: A, page: 3794. Adviser: John B. Shea.

Feedback, Trainingsplan und individuelle Unterschiede zwischen Lernern sind drei Faktoren die den motorischen Fertigkeitserwerb beeinflussen und wurden in der vorliegenden Dissertation untersucht. Ein besonderer Fokus lag auf den zugrundeliegenden Gehirnprozessen von Feedbackverarbeitung und Handlungsvorbereitung, die mittels ereigniskorrelierter Potenziale (EKPs) untersucht wurden. 120 Teilnehmer trainierten auf virtuelle Zielscheiben zu werfen und wurden in einer Folgesitzung auf Abruf und Transfer getestet. Der Trainingsplan verursachte entweder hohe contextual interference (CI) (randomisiert) oder niedrige CI (geblockt). In einer anschließenden Onlinestudie, bearbeiteten 80% der Teilnehmer eine Untermenge der Raven advanced progressive matrices, die schlussfolgerndes Denken (SD) erfassen. Unter hoher CI hängt besseres SD mit größerem Zuwachs im Training und höherer Performanz in Abruf und Transfer zusammen. Ähnliche Effekte von SD im späten Trainingsverlauf unter niedriger CI lassen darauf schließen, dass Variabilität eine notwendige Voraussetzung für positive Effekte von SD ist. Wir folgern, dass CI das Ausmaß an Praxisvariabilität über den Trainingsverlauf beeinflusst und darüber moduliert, ob Regeln abstrahiert werden (Studie 1). Diese Interpretation wird durch differenzielle Lerneffekte auf EKPs in der Vorbereitungsphase gestützt. Hohe CI führt zu einer stärkeren Abnahme von aufmerksamkeits- und kontrollbezogenen EKPs während der Vorbereitungsphase. Die CNV Amplitude, als Maß motorischer Vorbereitungsaktivität nimmt zu, wenn die Anforderungen in Training und Abruf gleich sind, wie bei niedriger CI. Das spricht für zwei parallele Mechanismen motorischen Lernens, die gemeinsam zur CNV Amplitude beitragen (Studie 2). Wir zeigten außerdem, dass sich graduelle Verarbeitung positiven Performanz-Feedbacks in der Variation der Amplitude der Reward Positivity widerspiegelt (Studie 3).
Feedback, training schedule and individual differences between learners influence the acquisition of motor skills and were investigated in the present thesis. A special focus was on brain processes underlying feedback processing and motor preparation, investigated using event related potentials (ERPs). 120 participants trained to throw at virtual targets and were tested for retention and transfer. Training schedule was manipulated with half of the participants practicing under high contextual interference (CI) (randomized training) and the other half under low CI (blocked training). In a follow-up online study, 80% of the participants completed a subset of the Raven advanced progressive matrices, testing reasoning ability. Under high CI, participants’ reasoning ability was related to higher performance increase during training and higher subsequent performance in retention and transfer. Similar effects in late stages of low CI training indicate, that variability is a necessary prerequisite for beneficial effects of reasoning ability. We conclude, that CI affects the amount of variability of practice across the course of training and the abstraction of rules (Study 1). Differential learning effects on ERPs in the preparatory phase foster this interpretation. High CI shows a larger decline in attention- and control-related ERPs than low CI. CNV amplitude, as a measure of motor preparatory activity, increases with learning only, when attention demands of training and retention are similar, as in low CI training. This points to two parallel mechanisms in motor learning, with a cognitive and a motor processor, mutually contributing to CNV amplitude (Study 2). In the framework of the “reinforcement learning theory of the error related negativity”, we showed, that positive performance feedback is processed gradually and that this processing is reflected in varying amplitudes of reward positivity (Study 3). Together these results provide new insights on motor learning.

I outline a framework for researching the effects of practice schedule on skill acquisition, based upon stage theories of information processing and stage theories of skill acquisition. Skilled performance requires stimulus identification, response selection, and response execution. I hypothesize that practice schedule affects learning in two types of information processing stages: stimulus-oriented and response-oriented stages. The loci of these effects differ based on the stage. In stimulus-oriented stages, practice schedule affects concept and categorization learning via contiguity of exemplars and feature saliency. In response-oriented stages, practice schedule affects the efficiency with which individuals produce a response by affecting response preparation. I evaluated this framework and theory with 4 experiments that manipulated practice schedule and amount of practice, in 2 domains with different information processing demands. Experiments~1~and~2 focused on response-oriented stages via a task that required participants to execute a multisegment movement according to a target time. Experiments~3~and~4 focused on stimulus-oriented stages via a task that required participants to categorize football play diagrams. Within the 2 task domains the amount of acquisition practice was manipulated to test whether different durations of acquisition training changed how practice schedules affected retention and transfer performance. The practice schedule manipulation had reliable effects on performance and learning when task performance involved either response preparation or induction of categorization rules. Practice schedule did not affect performance or learning when task performance involved categorization decisions, after the rules had been learned. Additionally, I report a novel method for quantifying amount of practice that allows comparisons across task domains.

Tidigare forskning har visat att hög contextual interference försämrar den omedelbara prestationen vid ackvisitionen av en färdighet, men främjar inlärning jämfört med låg contextual interference. Resultaten från tillämpad forskning är dock mångtydig och det råder oklarhet i när och i vilka sammanhang effekten uppstår. Syftet med denna positivistiska studie var att jämföra två övningsstrategier med olika grad av contextual interference vid inlärning av rudiments för trumspel. Vuxna musikhögskolestudenter (N=17) med begränsad erfarenhet av trumspel delades in i två grupper – seriell (n=8) och blockindelad (n=9). Uppgiften var att lära sig spela tre rudiment. Den blockindelade gruppen övade sex minuter på varje rudiment en gång, medan den seriella gruppen övade en minut på varje rudiment sex gånger. Deltagarnas retention testades direkt efter och 48 timmar efter övningen. Båda grupperna spelade signifikant snabbare mellan förtest och retentionstesten (p<.01) men det fanns ingen signifikant interaktion mellan grupp och mättillfälle (p=.96) vilket betyder att båda grupper blev lika mycket bättre. I diskussionen redovisas ett antal möjliga förklaringar till varför effekten inte visade sig i denna studie.
Previous research has found that high contextual interference hinders performance at acquisition but promotes learning compared to low contextual interference. The findings in applied research is however ambiguous and there’s uncertainty of when and in which contexts the effect occurs. The purpose of this study was to compare two practice strategies with different levels of contextual interference. Adult college music students (N=17) with limited experience playing drums were divided in to two treatment groups – serial (n=8) and blocked (n=9). The task was to learn to play three drum rudiments. The blocked group practiced each rudiment for six minutes one time while the serial group practice each rudiment for one minute six times. Retention tests were performed immediately after and 48 hours after acquisition. Both groups played significantly faster at retention compared to pre-test (p<.01) but there was no significant interaction between group and test (Pre-test to retention) (p=.96) meaning both groups improved equally. In the discussion a number possible of explanations as to why the effect wasn’t observed are presented.

De manière générale, le processus d'apprentissage implique l'intégration du patron à apprendre dans un répertoire initial. C'est dans cette problématique d'intégration que nous avons développé deux axes de recherche. Le premier axe identifie les principes à l'origine de l'apprentissage de plusieurs coordinations bimanuelles. Nous avons alors étudié l'évolution du répertoire suite à une telle pratique variable. Nous observons que celui-ci contraint et structure le processus d'apprentissage en vertu d'un principe de conservation de la symétrie. Le second axe concerne les mécanismes à l'origine de l'intégration d'une nouvelle coordination. Notre intérêt s'est porté sur les relations entre la commande motrice, les conséquences sensorielles et la coordination à apprendre. Une utilisation originale du degré d'asymétrie entre les membres à coordonner nous a permis de montrer que l'apprentissage d'une coordination bimanuelle est dépendant de la production des conséquences sensorielles associées à la coordination à apprendre plutôt que de la commande motrice. Situé à des niveaux d'analyse différents (principes et mécanismes), nos expériences sont discutées selon le point de vue des théories dynamiques
In general, the process of learning implies that a pattern to-be-learned is integrated into an initial repertory. To gain further insight into this problematic of integration, we have developed two lines of research. The first one identifies the principles underlying the learning of several bimanual coordination patterns. Thus, we studied the evolution of the repertory due to such variable practice. We observed that the repertory constraints and structures the learning process following a symmetry conservation principle. The second axe concerns the mechanisms underlying the integration of a new coordination pattern. We studied the relation between the sensory consequences, the motor commands and the to-be-learned pattern. By an original used of the degree of asymmetry between the coordinated limbs, we showed that regardless of the motor outflow command, leaning is based on the sensory consequences related to the pattern to be learned. Set at two distinct levels of analysis (principle and mechanism), this two experiments are discussed from a dynamical systems perspective

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
應用運動科學研究所
95
The purpose of this study was to examine the blocked-random effect considering the mechanism of contextual interference (CI) on learning serial dance skills. Twenty-four university-age and novice participants practiced basic Waltz steps (closed change, reverse turn, and nature turn) under either low CI (blocked practice) or high CI (random practice) through random assignment. All the tasks were series of movement and performance with the accuracy of time signature and spacing. All participants performed 108 acquisition trials in three continual days, followed by delayed retention trials (20 for 48 hours delayed and 20 for one-week delayed). A scoring rubric for basic Waltz technique developed by authors was used to assessing the performance at the beginning practice, the ending performance of every acquisition day, and two delayed retention tests. The interrater reliability between expert DanceSport teachers was around .72 and test-retest reliability was .99. The differences in the score of basic Waltz were analyzed by 2 (conditions of practice) × 6 (performing stages) mixed design two-way ANOVA with an alpha level of .05. Results showed there were no difference between the low CI group and the high CI group for three movements of Waltz during practice session (p > .05). However, the high CI practice in three movements of Waltz had been showed to be mostly as beneficial as the low CI practice (p < .05). It indicated the high CI in this study was a learning variable for the benefit of the learning serial Waltz movements. The group of low CI practiced the same movement repeatedly usually missed the required component and the group were also affected to perform the wrong movements repeatedly during the acquisition period.

Contextual interference (CI) is a learning effect whereby high interference practice conditions produce decreased acquisition performance yet increased retention and transfer performance. Thus, a more difficult practice environment, although initially detrimental to acquisition, actually benefits learning of the skill. Typical CI experimental paradigms involve the comparison of acquisition, retention and transfer performance of multiple tasks under a blocked acquisition schedule (low interference) versus a random acquisition schedule (high interference). Numerous studies have investigated contextual interference and it has been shown to be a stable, robust phenomenon. Two studies involving bimanual coordination were conducted to further examine the contextual interference effect. Experiment 1 involved comparison of acquisition, retention and transfer performance of a single task control group, two task blocked presentation group and a two-task random presentation group. Acquisition data showed both random and control groups outperformed the blocked group in performance of the coordination pattern. This was opposite to the expected CI effect and was attributed to the high number of acquisition trials providing enough time for the learning benefits of the interference to be realized. Retention data did show a typical CI effect for one dependent measure, with the random group significantly outperforming the blocked group. Neither two-task group significantly outperformed the control group, suggesting interference of a second task may be as beneficial to learning as extra practice on the initial task. No group effects were found during transfer performance, however there was a learning effect on the opposite, unpracticed coordination pattern. Experiment 2 examined an alternate form of interference, requiring participants to concurrently verbalize a compatible or incompatible counting pattern while performing a bimanual coordination pattern, to determine if CI effects could be generalized to other forms of interference. No significant group effects were found in acquisition, retention or transfer performance. This was attributed to insufficient interference caused by the counting patterns perhaps due to anchoring strategies of the participants. Analysis of the retention data did provide weak support for a concurrent 2-count pattern providing more interference than a concurrent 4-count pattern. However more research in the area of concurrent temporal interference is required to determine possible interference effects. Scanning data did show a significant improvement in performance of the to-be-learned task as well as the symmetrical bimanual coordination pattern, in support of previous studies. Examination of the sound data provided information regarding anchoring strategies of participants.

To better understand how introducing variability in training could enhance motor skills learning, we compared a training approach without addition of variability in the practice conditions, with an approach with contextual interference in young football players. 12 athletes between the ages of 11 and 12 were divided into 2 groups, control (6) and experimental (6). The control group performed exercises with no variability in practice conditions and the experimental group performed exercises with contextual interference by series. They trained for 6 weeks, twice a week (30 minutes sessions), on ball control and shooting at goal tasks. Three evaluations were made, one initial, one intermediate and one final and were carried out two weeks apart. Both groups had the same amount of repetitions during the practice sessions. The experimental group improvement regarding ball control was statistically significant from the control group and the experimental group also hit the goal significantly more than the control group. These results allow us to suggest that adding variability to practice may lead to technical improvements in young football players and that variability in practice may potentialize an adaptive behavior to the environment.

The broad aim of this dissertation was to explore the paradoxical accounts of contextual interference and implicit motor learning from the perspective of cognitive effort. Three key outcomes have emerged. First, from a theoretical perspective, the thesis offers a previously unexplored account for the contextual interference effect – one that potentially explains the paradoxical findings between contextual interference and implicit learning – the implicit learning hypothesis. The hypothesis states that random practice might share characteristics with implicit learning. High levels of cognitive effort due to task switching might prevent random learners from consciously focusing on their movements leading to a more passive mode of learning. Second, from a practical perspective, the thesis provides support for the application of implicit motor learning to performers who already possess explicit knowledge. Expert netball players practised shooting to an adapted ring while responding to a secondary task. Following the intervention, players were unaware of the knowledge underlying their technique adaptation, thus providing preliminary evidence for the use of implicit motor learning in high performance sport. Finally, from a methodological perspective, the thesis laid the foundation for the future development of measurement techniques for both cognitive effort and implicit/explicit processing. A battery of measures typically applied to implicit learning was used in a study of contextual interference. In addition, a behavioural measure of cognitive effort (time taken to prepare and execute movements) was explored in blocked and random practice. Furthermore, two experiments explored the use of a modified Stroop task as a potential measure of implicit/explicit processing. Overall, the thesis contributes to both the contextual interference and implicit motor learning research domains through advances in the areas of theory, practice, and methodology.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
體育研究所
87
This study examined how the scheduling of practice and aging affect motor learning. Sixteen female university students (mean age =20.1±1.2 years) and sixteen older adults (mean age =69.5±4.3 years) served as participants. Participants were required to perform 18, 33, or 48cm straight-arm outward and reversal self-paced movement in the linear movement device. During acquisition, participants practiced in either a blocked or random practice format. Retention of the movement was assessed after 10-minute and 7-day retention interval. Two-way ANOVA revealed there was no interaction both in acquisition and retention phases. In acquisition, blocked practice resulted in smaller absolute error (AE), variable error (VE) and absolute objective-subjective difference (│O-S│) as compared to the random practice. The young participants showed less error detection than the older participants did, but there were no accuracy or variability differences between the two age groups. In immediate retention, the random practice groups were more accurate and consistent than those of participants who practice in blocked sequence, no significant difference in error detection between groups was found. There was no contextual interference effect during delayed retention. Whether in immediate or delayed retention, the young participants performed better and had greater learning than that of older participants. Findings were as follows: (1) no interaction between contextual interference and age were found; (2) there was limited evidence for a contextual interference effect during immediate retention; and (3) a typical age-differences on motor learning was evidenced.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
體育研究所
88
In this study, the main purpose is to discuss the effect of contextual interference on the volleyball serves skill performance, and find out the effects for motion skill acquisition and retention. 80''s under graduate freshman are employed to this test. The testees are grouped by randomization, they are blocked, blocked / random, serial, and random four different contextual interference groups. When three week''s (9 times) practice is finished, and takes rest 10 minutes, the test is executing. The retention test is executing after 1 week pause practiciing. The factor of experiment''s operation is practicing under different contextual interference, dependent is the score given by motion''s skill. By means of single factor variance analysis - a prior orthogonal contrast find out the resulting as follow: 　　(1)It has major effect for serve skill of volleyball, under different contextual interference grades practice. 　　(2)In skill acquisition stage, relative lower contextual interference of the blocked practice for serve skill of volleyball has major effect. In skill retention stage, relative higher contextual interenferce of the random practice for serve skill of volleyball has major effect. 　　(3)In skill performance, not only contextual interference under high grade, sub - high grade, medium grade but also low grade all have improve performance of motion''s skill. 　　(4)The effect of blocked / random practicing is similar to serial practicing under medium contextual interference.

碩士
國立陽明大學
生物醫學工程學系
103
Our study investigated the influence of age differences on context interference effects on motor sequence learning. The first part of the study compared the age differences between structural connectivity and contextual interference effect by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The second part of the study used serial reaction-time (SRT) task to investigate the effect of chunking on contextual interference (CI) learning in young and old adults when blank spaces in the motor sequences were eliminated.

New neurons are continually produced throughout adult life in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, in a process termed adult neurogenesis. Although there is a significant effort in the literature to understand the functional significance of hippocampal neurogenesis, conflicting experimental reports have left the role of neurogenesis unclear. Recently, computational modelling studies have hypothesized that neurogenesis may play a role in allowing association between event and context to be formed in memory. By using a novel odour task and a raised plus maze task, our work demonstrates that the reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis using focal irradiation impairs the ability of animal subjects to utilize contextual information to learn interfering information. The result of this work provides experimental evidence of a unique role neurogenesis may play in learning and memory.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 2002.
Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 170-182).

碩士
中國文化大學
體育學系運動教練碩博士班
99
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of tennis poaching volley performance and retention of learning at different contextual interference. According to the study of Chinese Culture University, 60 members of boys electing courses of physical education majoring tennis has an average height of 175.23 ± 7.04 cm and average weight of 70.35 ± 12.08 kg, which there average age are 20.88 ± 1.12 years for this subject. These subject members have no previous experience of receiving professional training in tennis. After two weeks of training and practicing in skills of playing poaching volley as servicer, poaching volley as receiver, poaching volley in Australian Formation, the subject members are evenly divided as the following groups based on their performances with sorted skill marks: blocked practice group, serial practice group, random practice group and control group. This formal experiment eventually lasted for four weeks by training three times a week, pre-testing before the experiment, post-test at the end of experiment and retention test for one week after the experiment is carried out respectively to each of the subjects. In this study, different ways to practice is the independent variables, in order to intercept the performance of three different poaching volleys as the dependent variable, with two-way mixed design ANOVA. If the interactions are significance, then the simple main effect tests is carried out, and then carry up the significant standard of criteria, Bonferroni post hoc comparison is then complete. The results showed that: First, the effect of contextual interference on Tennis Poaching volley skill to obtain significant differences on stage. Second, significant differences on the retention phase. Conclusions of this study: First, different contextual interference on poaching volley tennis skills to the get stage during performance, the contextual interference is more conducive to skill performance. Second, different contextual interference on poaching volley tennis skills to retention period of learning, contextual interference is more conducive to skills learning.

碩士
中國文化大學
體育學系運動教練碩博士班
100
The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of contextual interference on the acquisition of table tennis forehand knuckle service skills at three different placement points (left, center, and right) and at three separate stages: pre-test, acquisition stage, and retention. The subjects of this study were 75 female high school students from the physical education table tennis class offered by the Shilin High School of Commerce, none of whom had formerly received professional table tennis training. The average age of those assessed was 15.81 (±0.53) years; the average height was 158.77 (±6.07) cm; and the average weight was 52.06 (±0.77) kg. The subjects were placed randomly into four separate groups: the blocked practice group (n=18), the serial practice group (n=19), the random practice group (n=19), and the control group (n=19). The experiment involved variables of high, medium, and low Contextual interference during training, and participants scored points based on varying levels of interference. It incorporated an even-training format (wherein both parties performed identical strokes) as well as separate group training sessions that prevented mutual interference. The experiment consisted of 11 sessions over six weeks and tests were conducted in the first week (experiment-initial), fifth week (experiment-final), and sixth week (post-experiment). The results were then analyzed using Two-way Analysis of Variance. If the analysis produced a marked contrast between causal factors, a test of simple-main effect would be applied. If the subsequent results again rendered a noticeable difference between causal factors, the Bonferroni Correction method would be employed. The results of the experiment show that in the experiment-final (skill acquisition) and post-experiment (retention) phases, the random practice group consistently outperformed the serial practice group, while the serial practice group in turn outperformed the blocked practice group. Moreover, the random practice, serial practice, and blocked practice groups all recorded better results than the control group. This study therefore concludes that the high-level Contextual interference experienced by the random practice group is conducive to increased levels of accuracy in the acquisition of table tennis skills.

碩士
國立陽明大學
生物醫學工程學系
105
Practicing motor sequences arranged in an interleaved order in general leads to inferior performance during practice but better performance during retention, compared to practicing the same sequences arranged in a repetitive order. This phenomenon is known as the contextual interference (CI) effect. Previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies suggested that motor regions, such as primary motor (M1), premotor, and prefrontal cortices are the neural substrates of CI effects on motor learning. Nevertheless, the causal relationship between these motor regions and CI benefits to learning remains unclear. In the current study, we applied the continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) to M1 immediately after the participants practiced serial reaction time tasks (SRTT) on Days 1 and 2. They received retention test on Day 5. Our findings showed that cTBS tended to interfere the CI benefits to motor sequence learning. However, indices of sequence learning such as sequence improving and sequence saving were not apparently affected by cTBS. Our results suggest that M1 is not the single region responsible for the CI benefits to motor sequence learning under the SRTT paradigm, and other motor regions should also be considered as the target of interest for cTBS.

碩士
國立臺東大學
教育研究所
92
Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different contextual interference（CI）and feedback styles on basketball set shot skill acquisition. Taking the six grade students of Chiao Rong Elementary School, Taichung County, who have not the experience of basketball training, as the subjects（N=50）.It assigned them to high CI with visual feedback group, high CI with spoken feedback group, low CI with visual feedback group and low CI with spoken feedback group, to carry out 16 times during 8 weeks of basketball set shot practice. All subjects’ grade of set shot accuracy was recorded every practice, and recorded the movement preference by DV. After eight weeks practice , taken acquisition tests, transfer tests and retention tests of eight weeks. The independent variables were CI（HCI、LCI）and feedback styles（visual、spoken）, and the dependent variables were grade of evaluate and score the student’s set shot accuracy and movement preference. Descriptive statistics two way ANOVA and two way trend analysis. This study set the significant level（α） for all assumed tests at .05. The conclusions made from this research range were as follows: 1.The score of basketball set shot skill accuracy : On the acquisition , transfer and retention stage the interaction effect between different contextual interference and visual feedback had not reached significant level. On the acquisition and retention stage, the low CI group was significantly better than high CI group; In the transfer stage, each group had not reached significant level. The performance of basketball set shot skill :In the acquisition and retention stage ,each groups had not reached significant level.2. In the score of basketball set shot skill accuracy, high CI with visual feedback group、high CI group and visual feedback group, the score appeared linear trend week by week.3. In the performance of basketball set shot skill, high CI with visual feedback group、low CI with visual feedback group and visual feedback group appeared linear trend. High CI with visual feedback group and visual feedback group ,the score appeared quadratic trend at the same time.4. This study hope will be helpful for physical education and school administrative in aftertime.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
體育學系
102
Concepts of contextual interference and self-control were combined in this study. Effects of self-control on motor performance and learning under gradual contextual interference practice scheduling were examined. Twenty four young adult participants were randomly assigned into gradual contextual interference practice of self-control group or yoked group. Three “N” shape tasks with different relative timing but with the same overall duration (1800 ms) were used as experimental task. The dependent variables were absolute error, total variability, and relative timing error. 2 (group) x 3 (block) mixed design two-way ANOVA with repeated measures on blocks and independent t test indicated (1) absolute error, total variability, and relative timing error, were found no significant difference in acquisition phase; (2) absolute error, total variability, and relative timing error, were found no significant difference in retention test. These findings suggested that (1) There is no effect of self-control in gradual contextual interference practice scheduling on motor performance of motor accuracy, motor stability, and relative timing; (2) There is no effect of self-control in gradual contextual interference practice scheduling on motor learning of motor accuracy, motor stability, and relative timing accuracy.

Cognitive effort has been identified as the basis of the contectual interference (Cl) effect (Lee, Swinnen, & Serrien, 1994). It has been argued that higher levels of cognitive activity related to either the evaluation of movement information (encoding) or the retrieval of movement plans are demanded by the conditions of random rather than blocked practice. Current theories of skill acquisition appear to more heavily emphasize evaluative/encoding than retrieval processes. Furthermore, a review of evidence from research on the knowledge of results (KR) and observational learning implicates the critical role of evaluative processes as well. A series of three experiments was designed to (a) test the isomorphism of evaluative processes and cognitive effort within the contextual interference paradigm, and (b) use the Cl phenomenon as a way to explore the more general role of evaluative processes in motor skill acquisition. The typical Cl effect was replicated in Experiment 1 using three spatial variations of a multi-segment arm movement task. However, this experiment featured the co-occurrence of differential demands for both encoding variability and retrieval practice. In Experiment 2, one of the variations from Experiment 1 was practiced within the context of two unrelated video games. The results showed that no acquisition or retention performance differences emerged between blocked and random practice groups. These results suggest that the role of retrieval practice as the basis of the Cl effect should be questioned. Experiment 3 A replicated Experiment 1 with pans of blocked and random groups. In Experiment 3B, using a second set of three spatial variations, an attempt was made to reduce differential encoding variability while keeping differential retrieval practice intact between one pair of blocked and random groups (verbalize groups). The blocked group was required to evaluate and associate the features of each pattern variation during the acquisition phase, and to verbalize their thoughts. A random group was also required to verbalize the cognitive strategies they used to learn the patterns. The co-occurrence of differential encoding variability and retrieval was maintained for the remaining pair of blocked and random groups (control groups). The results of Experiment 1 were replicated in Experiment 3A and by the control groups in Experiment 3B. In Experiment 3B, relative retention and retention performance improved to a greater extent for the blocked verbalize than the blocked control group. However, relative retention and retention performance were not similar between the blocked verbalize and random groups, indicating that the evaluation of pattern variations in isolation does not appear to be an effective intervention with which to reduce the demands for differential encoding variability between blocked and random groups. Analysis of qualitative data obtained in Experiment 3B indicated differences between blocked and random groups in the degree to which the features of the spatial patterns were compared, suggesting that information derived from single task evaluation may not be equivalent to the information derived from multiple task comparison. Results are discussed within Glenberg's (1979) component levels theory. Insight into the nature of the cognitive processes underlying the Cl effect may have implications for a general explanation of motor skill acquisition. The relationship between cognitive effort, the development of knowledge, and skill acquisition is outlined in a preliminary framework for a unified theory of skill acquisition. The ability of the proposed framework to incorporate a range of experimental data and theoretical views is discussed.
Graduate

碩士
國立屏東教育大學
體育學系碩士班
102
The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of contextual interference on the acquisition of table tennis forehand knuckle skills at three separate stages: pretest, post-test and retention test. The subjects of this study were 80(which contains 34 boys and 46 girls) students of 5th grade in Lin-Yuan elementary school ,and none of whom had formerly received professional table tennis training. The subjects were placed randomly into four separate groups: the blocked practice group (n=20), the serial practice group (n=20), the random practice group (n=20), and the control group (n=20). The independent variable were groups and test time; the dependent was the grades of proformace. And the experiment incorporated an even-training format (wherein both parties performed identical strokes) as well as separate group training sessions that prevented mutual interference. It consisted of seven weeks and tests were conducted in the first week (experiment-initial), sixth week (experiment-final), and seventh week (post-experiment). The results were analyzed by using Mixe design two-way ANOVA to testify the differences. If there is significance on interaction, then simple interaction test is further undertaken and simple main effect is performed regarding items with significance. This study sets a significance level of α = 0.05. The result of this study shows: 1. The blocked practice group, the serial practice group and the random practice group all outperformed the control group; the blocked practice group outperformed the random practice group. As to the blocked practice group and the serial practice group, there is no significant difference between them. 2. The grades of post-test and retention test are better than pretest, but the grades between post-test and retention are no difference. 3. There is interaction in different groups and test time. The concluding is that the contextual interference is advantageous to the acquisition of table tennis forehand knuckle skills.

Relatório de estágio de mestrado em Ensino da Música
O presente relatório inscreve-se no âmbito da realização do estágio profissional do Mestrado em Ensino de Música, ministrado pelo Instituto de Educação da Universidade do Minho, e pretende documentar o trabalho realizado num projeto de intervenção pedagógica supervisionada. O projeto associado a este estágio pretendeu investigar e aplicar estratégias pedagógicas para a resolução de problemas de coordenação bimanual no repertório dos alunos. Abordou-se extensivamente questões relacionadas com a coordenação motora e com a sua relevância no contexto do processo de ensinoaprendizagem da guitarra clássica. As estratégias elaboradas foram fundamentadas em conceitos tais como habilidades parciais, integração de habilidades, segmentação, abordagem integrada, transferência de aprendizagem e interferência contextual. Aplicou-se a imagética motora como recurso pedagógico visando o treino das habilidades motoras bimanuais. Abordou-se também o papel dos feedback intrínseco e extrínseco no ensino e na aprendizagem respetivamente, e a importância da demonstração instrumental em comparação com as instruções verbais. Todas as estratégias aplicadas foram eficazes na consolidação das habilidades motoras e no domínio das passagens musicais. Foi também realizado um questionário dirigido aos professores de guitarra clássica do ensino vocacional de música em Portugal. Pretendeu-se com este obter informação sobre em que grau os conceitos e estratégias mencionados fazem parte da prática de docência da guitarra clássica no país. As respostas obtidas sugerem que tais conceitos e estratégias estão de certo modo incluídos no pensamento pedagógico dos docentes no que concerne à conceção de metodologias e exercícios.
This report is part of a professional internship of the Master's Degree in Music Teaching, ministered by the Instituto de Educação da Universidade do Minho, and aims to document the work carried out in a supervised pedagogical intervention project. The project associated with this internship intended to investigate and apply pedagogical strategies to solve problems of bimanual coordination in the repertoire of students. Issues related to motor coordination and its relevance in the context of the teaching-learning process of Classical Guitar were extensively discussed. The strategies developed were based on concepts such as partial skills, skills integration, segmentation, integrated approach, learning transfer and contextual interference. Motor imagery was applied as a pedagogical resource aiming at the training of bimanual motor skills. The role of intrinsic and extrinsic feedback in teaching and learning was also discussed, and the importance of instrumental demonstration compared to verbal instructions. All strategies applied were effective in consolidating motor skills and in mastering musical passages. A questionnaire was also conducted for Classical Guitar teachers of vocational music education in Portugal. The intention was to obtain information on the degree to which the concepts and strategies mentioned are part of the teaching practice of classical guitar in the country. The answers obtained suggest that such concepts and strategies are in a way included in teachers' pedagogical thinking regarding the conception of methodologies and exercises.

Dans cette thèse, nous abordons le contrôle moteur du mouvement du coude à travers deux approches expérimentales : une première étude psychophysique a été effectuée chez les sujets humains, et une seconde implique des enregistrements neurophysiologiques chez le singe. Nous avons recensé plusieurs aspects non résolus jusqu’à présent dans l’apprentissage moteur, particulièrement concernant l’interférence survenant lors de l’adaptation à deux ou plusieurs champs de force anti-corrélés. Nous avons conçu un paradigme où des stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à prédire la nature du champ de force externe actuel avant qu’ils ne l’expérimentent physiquement durant des mouvements d’atteinte. Ces connaissances contextuelles faciliteraient l’adaptation à des champs de forces en diminuant l’interférence. Selon le modèle computationnel de l’apprentissage moteur MOSAIC (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control), les stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à former « un modèle interne » de chaque champ de forces, à s’en rappeler et à faire la transition entre deux champs de force différents, sans interférence. Dans l’expérience psychophysique, quatre groupes de sujets humains ont exécuté des mouvements de flexion/extension du coude contre deux champs de forces. Chaque force visqueuse était associée à une couleur de l’écran de l’ordinateur et les deux forces étaient anti-corrélées : une force résistante (Vr) a été associée à la couleur rouge de l’écran et l’autre, assistante (Va), à la couleur verte de l’écran. Les deux premiers groupes de sujets étaient des groupes témoins : la couleur de l’écran changeait à chaque bloc de 4 essais, tandis que le champ de force ne changeait pas. Les sujets du groupe témoin Va ne rencontraient que la force assistante Va et les sujets du groupe témoin Vr performaient leurs mouvements uniquement contre une force résistante Vr. Ainsi, dans ces deux groupes témoins, les stimuli de couleur n’étaient pas pertinents pour adapter le mouvement et les sujets ne s’adaptaient qu’à une seule force (Va ou Vr). Dans les deux groupes expérimentaux, cependant, les sujets expérimentaient deux champs de forces différents dans les différents blocs d’essais (4 par bloc), associés à ces couleurs. Dans le premier groupe expérimental (groupe « indice certain », IC), la relation entre le champ de force et le stimulus (couleur de l’écran) était constante. La couleur rouge signalait toujours la force Vr tandis que la force Va était signalée par la couleur verte. L’adaptation aux deux forces anti-corrélées pour le groupe IC s’est avérée significative au cours des 10 jours d’entraînement et leurs mouvements étaient presque aussi bien ajustés que ceux des deux groupes témoins qui n’avaient expérimenté qu’une seule des deux forces. De plus, les sujets du groupe IC ont rapidement démontré des changements adaptatifs prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices à chaque changement de couleur de l’écran, et ceci même durant leur première journée d’entraînement. Ceci démontre qu’ils pouvaient utiliser les stimuli de couleur afin de se rappeler de la commande motrice adéquate. Dans le deuxième groupe expérimental, la couleur de l’écran changeait régulièrement de vert à rouge à chaque transition de blocs d’essais, mais le changement des champs de forces était randomisé par rapport aux changements de couleur (groupe « indice-incertain », II). Ces sujets ont pris plus de temps à s’adapter aux champs de forces que les 3 autres groupes et ne pouvaient pas utiliser les stimuli de couleurs, qui n’étaient pas fiables puisque non systématiquement reliés aux champs de forces, pour faire des changements prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices. Toutefois, tous les sujets de ce groupe ont développé une stratégie ingénieuse leur permettant d’émettre une réponse motrice « par défaut » afin de palper ou de sentir le type de la force qu’ils allaient rencontrer dans le premier essai de chaque bloc, à chaque changement de couleur. En effet, ils utilisaient la rétroaction proprioceptive liée à la nature du champ de force afin de prédire la sortie motrice appropriée pour les essais qui suivent, jusqu’au prochain changement de couleur d’écran qui signifiait la possibilité de changement de force. Cette stratégie était efficace puisque la force demeurait la même dans chaque bloc, pendant lequel la couleur de l’écran restait inchangée. Cette étude a démontré que les sujets du groupe II étaient capables d’utiliser les stimuli de couleur pour extraire des informations implicites et explicites nécessaires à la réalisation des mouvements, et qu’ils pouvaient utiliser ces informations pour diminuer l’interférence lors de l’adaptation aux forces anti-corrélées. Les résultats de cette première étude nous ont encouragés à étudier les mécanismes permettant aux sujets de se rappeler d’habiletés motrices multiples jumelées à des stimuli contextuels de couleur. Dans le cadre de notre deuxième étude, nos expériences ont été effectuées au niveau neuronal chez le singe. Notre but était alors d’élucider à quel point les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1) peuvent contribuer à la compensation d’un large éventail de différentes forces externes durant un mouvement de flexion/extension du coude. Par cette étude, nous avons testé l’hypothèse liée au modèle MOSAIC, selon laquelle il existe plusieurs modules contrôleurs dans le cervelet qui peuvent prédire chaque contexte et produire un signal de sortie motrice approprié pour un nombre restreint de conditions. Selon ce modèle, les neurones de M1 recevraient des entrées de la part de plusieurs contrôleurs cérébelleux spécialisés et montreraient ensuite une modulation appropriée de la réponse pour une large variété de conditions. Nous avons entraîné deux singes à adapter leurs mouvements de flexion/extension du coude dans le cadre de 5 champs de force différents : un champ nul ne présentant aucune perturbation, deux forces visqueuses anti-corrélées (assistante et résistante) qui dépendaient de la vitesse du mouvement et qui ressemblaient à celles utilisées dans notre étude psychophysique chez l’homme, une force élastique résistante qui dépendait de la position de l’articulation du coude et, finalement, un champ viscoélastique comportant une sommation linéaire de la force élastique et de la force visqueuse. Chaque champ de force était couplé à une couleur d’écran de l’ordinateur, donc nous avions un total de 5 couleurs différentes associées chacune à un champ de force (relation fixe). Les singes étaient bien adaptés aux 5 conditions de champs de forces et utilisaient les stimuli contextuels de couleur pour se rappeler de la sortie motrice appropriée au contexte de forces associé à chaque couleur, prédisant ainsi leur sortie motrice avant de sentir les effets du champ de force. Les enregistrements d’EMG ont permis d’éliminer la possibilité de co-contractions sous-tendant ces adaptations, étant donné que le patron des EMG était approprié pour compenser chaque condition de champ de force. En parallèle, les neurones de M1 ont montré des changements systématiques dans leurs activités, sur le plan unitaire et populationnel, dans chaque condition de champ de force, signalant les changements requis dans la direction, l’amplitude et le décours temporel de la sortie de force musculaire nécessaire pour compenser les 5 conditions de champs de force. Les changements dans le patron de réponse pour chaque champ de force étaient assez cohérents entre les divers neurones de M1, ce qui suggère que la plupart des neurones de M1 contribuent à la compensation de toutes les conditions de champs de force, conformément aux prédictions du modèle MOSAIC. Aussi, cette modulation de l’activité neuronale ne supporte pas l’hypothèse d’une organisation fortement modulaire de M1.
In this thesis, we addressed motor control by two experimental approaches: psychophysical studies in human subjects and neurophysiological recordings in non-human primates. We identified unresolved issues concerning interference in motor learning during adaptation of subjects to two or more anti-correlated force fields. We designed paradigms in which arbitrary color stimuli provided contextual cues that allowed subjects to predict the nature of impending external force fields before encountering them physically during arm movements. This contextual knowledge helped to facilitate adaptation to the force fields by reducing this interference. According to one computational model of motor learning (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control; MOSAIC), the color context cues made it easier for subjects to build “internal models” of each force field, to recall them and to switch between them with minimal interference. In our first experiment, four groups of human subjects performed elbow flexion/extension movements against two anti-correlated viscous force fields. We combined two different colors for the computer monitor background with two forces: resistive (Vr) and assistive (Va). The first two groups were control subjects. In those subjects, the color of the computer monitor changed at regular intervals but the force field remained constant; Vr was presented to the first group while the second group only experienced Va. As a result, the color cues were irrelevant in the two control groups. All control subjects adapted well to the single experienced force field (Vr or Va). In the two experimental groups, in contrast, the anti-correlated force fields and the monitor colors changed repeatedly between short blocks of trials. In the first experimental group (Reliable-cue subjects), there was a consistent relationship between the force and the stimulus (color of the monitor) - the red colour always signalled the resistive force while the green colour always signalled the assistive force. Adaptation to the two anti-correlated forces for the Reliable-cue group was significant during 10 days of training and almost as good as in the Irrelevant-cue groups who only experienced one of the two force fields. Furthermore, the Reliable-cue subjects quickly demonstrated predictive adaptive changes in their motor output whenever the monitor color changed, even during their first day of training, showing that they could use the reliable color context cues to recall the appropriate motor skills. In contrast, the monitor color also changed regularly between red and green in the second experimental group, but the force fields were not consistently associated with the color cue (Unreliable-cue group). These subjects took longer to adapt to the two force fields than the other three groups, and could not use the unreliable color cue change to make predictive changes to their motor output. Nevertheless, all Unreliable-cue subjects developed an ingenious strategy of making a specific “default” arm movement to probe the type of force field they would encounter in the first trial after the monitor color changed and used the proprioceptive feedback about the nature of the field to make appropriate predictive changes to their motor output for the next few trials, until the monitor color changed again, signifying the possibility of a change in force fields. This strategy was effective since the force remained constant in each short block of trials while the monitor color remained unchanged. This showed that the Unreliable-cue subjects were able to extract implicit and explicit information about the structure of the task from the color stimuli and use that knowledge to reduce interference when adapting to anti-correlated forces. The results of this first study encouraged us to advance our understanding of how subjects can recall multiple motor skills coupled to color context stimuli can be recalled, and how this phenomenon can be reflected by the neuronal activity in monkeys. Our aim was to elucidate how neurons of primary motor cortex (M1) can contribute to adaptive compensation for a wide range of different external forces during single-joint elbow flexion/extension movements. At the same time, we aimed to test the hypothesis evoked in the MOSAIC model, whereby multiple controller modules located in the cerebellum may predict each context and produce appropriate adaptive output signals for a small range of task conditions. Also, according to this hypothesis, M1 neurons may receive inputs from many specialized cerebellar controllers and show appropriate response modulations for a wide range of task conditions. We trained two monkeys to adapt their flexion/extension elbow movements against 5 different force-field conditions: null field without any external force disturbance, two anti-correlated viscous forces (assistive and resistive), which depended on movement speed and resembled that used in the human psychophysical study, a resistive elastic force which depended on elbow-joint position and finally, a visco-elastic field that was the linear sum of the elastic and viscous forces field. Each force field was reliably coupled to 5 different computer monitor background colors. The monkeys properly adapted to the 5 different force-field conditions and used the color context cues to recall the corresponding motor skill for the force field associated with each color, so that they could make predictive changes to their motor output before they physically encountered the force fields. EMG recordings eliminated the possibility that a co-contraction strategy was used by the monkeys to adapt to the force fields, since the EMG patterns were appropriate to compensate for each force-field condition. In parallel, M1 neurons showed systematic changes in their activity at the single-neuron and population level in each force-field condition that could signal the required changes in the direction, magnitude and time course of muscle force output required to compensate for the 5 force-field conditions. The patterns of response changes in each force field were consistent enough across M1 neurons to suggest that most M1 neurons contributed to the compensation for all force field conditions, in line with the predictions of the MOSAIC model. Also, these response changes do not support a strongly modular organization for M1.

碩士
國立屏東教育大學
體育學系
100
This research aimed to study the different contextual interferences to the grade-three girl students’ performance of the accurate Tee ball hitting skills. Therefore, both pre- experiment and formal experiment were applied in the study to follow an experimental research model. The pre- experiment consisted of confirming these girl students’ personal hitting distance and their learning weeks. While in the formal experiment, these untrained subjects, 30 grade-three girl students (8.7±0.3 years old) in Ser-Pei primary school located in Pin-Tung County, were divided into three groups according to their pre-test. They are blocked practice group, serial practice group, and random practice group. The independent variables in this study were the three teams and the three different tests in different test time ─ pre-test, post-test, and retention test. The accurate hitting skills were the dependent variables. These variables were all analyzed in the Mixed Design of Two-way ANOVA to testify the differences. If the interaction was obvious, the test of simple main effect would be applied. The conspicuous statistic level is α＝ 0.5. Finally, the findings of this study were presented as the following: A. There was certain interaction between the different contextual interferences (blocked practice group, serial practice group, random practice group) and the three different tests in different test time (pre-test, post-test, retention test). The average score of serial practice group was higher than that of serial practice group and random practice group. Besides, the average grade of the post-test is better than that of the pre-test and the retention test. B. As a result, the practice of the different contextual interferences was beneficial to the Tee Ball hitting skill learning. Hitting skill learning impressed the beginners very much. And the learning effect was greater. It was not easy for them to forget the skill.

碩士
國立屏東教育大學
體育學系碩士班
101
This research aimed to study the different contextual interferences to the grade-three and grade-four pupils of the Soccer Tee inside kick shooting , instep kick shooting and outside kick shooting in different testing time(pre-test and post-test). There are forty-eight untrained grade three and grade four subjects in Bei Ye primary school in Ma Jia township in Pingtung county, whose average age is between nine to eleven years old, average height is 130±5.9 centimeters, and average weight is 32.8±7.7 kilograms. The subjects are divided into four groups randomly, and there are blocked practice group (twelve subjects), serial practice group (twelve subjects), random practice group (twelve subjects) and control group (twelve subjects). The method is practiced by dividing subjects into four groups (blocked practice group, serial practice group, random practice group, and control group), and it will last twice a week, forty minutes each section, for four weeks, in each section three kinds of shootings will be practiced, so 36 shots will be counted. These variable were all analyzed in the Mixed design Two-way ANOVA to testify the differences. If the interaction was obvious, the test of simple main effect would be applied. The conspicuous statistic level is α＝.05. The finding of the study presented that the learning of the blocked practice group, serial practice group, and random practice group is better than the control group, but there is no significant difference between blocked practice group, serial practice group, and random practice group. 　　As a result, applying different skill learning to grade-three and grade-four pupils by dividing them into blocked group practice, serial practice group, and random practice group, are all beneficial methods to improve their motion skills.