Academic literature on the topic 'Conservation biological control'

Thesis (M.S.) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2003.
Thesis research directed by: Entomology. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

In agroecosystems, conservation biological control is often constrained by low availability of pollen and nectar. Although floral resources can be integrated into agricultural systems, this usually requires sacrifice of productive land. This thesis describes experiments which test the influence of floral resources provided by species which have marketable value in their own right as food or medicinal crops. Floralresource strips comprising such species were intercropped with Brassica crops at plot, field and commercial scales in replicated field experiments. The abundance and distribution of key Brassica crop pests a,nd their natural enemies in the presence of floral resources was examined. Parasitoids displayed distinct flower species preferences; Fagopyrum esculentum significantly increased parasitoid abundance. Parasitoids also responded to distance; their abundance significantly declined with increasing distance from floral strips, especially in F. esculentum, and parasitism levels declined significantly after 8 m. Borago offtcinalis also proved attractive to parasitoids and Tanacetum parthenium to Syrphidae. In addition, F. esculentum and B. offtcinalis were found to suppress the second generation of Pierid larvae at field scale. This evidence suggests that several flower species could be intercropped within a Brassica crop to promote biological pest control.

Agriculture has done more damage to nature than any other human activity, and yet food production could need to be doubled by the middle of this century. As agricultural land is expanded and intensified, critical thresholds in the loss of natural habitats are crossed. This loss of non-crop habitats can have negative feedback on crop production, because it can cause a loss of “ecosystem services” that support and regulate crop production, such as the pollination of crops by bees and the biological control of crop pests by their natural enemies. Because of this connection between non-crop habitats and crop yields, there could be potential for habitat conservation to benefit both agriculture and nature. The research in this thesis focuses on pollinators and natural enemies, because these species constitute a vital connection between food production and biodiversity conservation. Could habitat management be used to conserve both pollinators and natural enemies in agricultural landscapes? Will the relationships between pollinators, natural enemies, and natural habitats change with climate change? Where should we prioritize the resolution of conflict between agriculture and nature, and how? This thesis addresses these questions through literature review and meta-analysis, geographic information systems (GIS) and hotspot analysis, field research on the distributions of trap-nesting bees and wasps on environmental gradients, and laboratory research on the development of bees and wasps at high temperatures. This thesis suggests that it might be possible to conserve communities of both pollinators and natural enemies, in general, by means of habitat management, but it might not be possible to conserve specific combinations of pollinators and natural enemies, which might have opposite responses to some forms of environmental change, such as global warming. This thesis also suggests that the resolution of conflict between agriculture and nature should be prioritized in sub-Saharan Africa, and it outlines a conceptual framework for systematic conservation planning in agricultural landscapes.

Peach and nectarine tree belongs to the species Prunus persica and is the third most produced fruit species in the world. Within Europe, Spain is a leading producer. Most of the crops are located in Catalonia (northeastern Spain). Peach tree is the primary host of Myzus persicae, which is one of the most damaging pests of the crop. To date, its management has mainly based on insecticides, but the risk they pose to the human health and the environment, requires a reduction in their usage. Biological control could be a good tool to improve its control because of the wide array of natural enemies. Among the different strategies, conservation of already natural enemies present in the agroecosystem seems the more promising. Therefore, the present thesis was undertaken to determine the possibility of implementing conservation biological control against M. persicae in peach orchards in the Mediterranean area. The identification of the key natural enemies has to be the first step to start a conservation biological control program. The inclusion of floral resources close to the orchards might help to enhance the control by providing natural enemies with food sources, therefore improving aphid biological control. The first two chapters of this thesis, are dedicated to identify the key natural enemies of M. persicae in the Segrià area (Catalonia) and to evaluate in field conditions, the potential contribution of insectary plants to enhance aphid natural enemy populations. Sentinel plants, were used to recruit the natural enemies, and molecular and morphological methods were used to identify them. Then, their attraction to Achillea millefolium, Lobularia maritima, Moricandia arvensis, and Sinapis alba was evaluated. Results showed that, the most abundant natural enemies were parasitoids with the species Aphidius matricariae the most prevalent. Regarding predators, Aphidoletes aphidimyza and Episyrphus balteatus were the most prevalent, followed by Orius majusculus. Insectary plants were highly attractive to hoverflies and parasitoids, and none of the plants was a reservoir of damaging aphids for peach crops. Lobularia maritima was one of the more suitable plants. However, the proximity of these plants did not increase the abundance of natural enemies, probably due to the size of the orchards. To effectively contribute to natural enemy fitness, flowering insectary plants have to provide profitable food. The third chapter focused on assess whether the insectary plant L. maritima is a potential food source for Aphidius ervi and A. aphidimyza. Results showed that L. maritima, with and without flowers, attracted both natural enemies. However, this attractiveness was disrupted when compared with peach shoots infested with aphids. L. maritima flowers did not improved the fitness of A. aphidimyza, since the floral morphology prevented females to feed on the nectar. Nevertheless, flowers increased the longevity of A. ervi. The high diversity of natural enemies increases the probability of intraguild predation, additionally the presence of natural enemies in an aphid colony can also produce behavioral changes in aphids. The last chapter had the aim to evaluate the interactions among predators and parasitoids, and how these interactions may influence the biological control of the aphid. The contribution of E. balteatus, A. aphidimyza and O. majusculus was determined. The changes in the aphid’s behavior mediated by the aphid cornicle exudate and the interaction of these predators with the parasitoid A. matricariae were also evaluated. The most voracious predator was E. balteatus. O. majusculus did not reduce pest population. The cornicle exudate triggers fecundity compensation A. aphidimyza and O. majusculus preferred to kill nonparasitized aphids, and avoid to feed on mummies. The results of this thesis, suggest that the conservation biological control can be a useful tool to improve M. persicae control in peach and nectarine crops.
El melocotero y la nectarina pertenecen a la especie Prunus persica (L.) Batsch y es el tercer cultivo frutal con mayor producción a nivel mundial. En Europa, España es uno de los mayores países productores representando más del 30% del total de la producción. La mayoría de las plantaciones de melocotoneros y nectarinas están localizados en Cataluña, al noreste de España. Prunus persica es el huésped primario de Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), comúnmente conocido como el pulgón verde del melocotonero, que es una de las plagas más dañinas para el cultivo. Hasta la fecha el control de este pulgón se ha basado en la utilización de insecticidas pero, debido al riesgo que representan tanto para la salud humana como para el medio ambiente, se requiere reducir el uso de estos productos. El control biológico puede ser una buena herramienta para mejorar el control de la plaga en este cultivo debido a que los pulgones tienen un amplio rango de enemigos naturales que podrían contribuir a su control. Dentro de las diferentes estrategias de control biológico que se han utilizado contra los pulgones, la conservación de los enemigos naturales ya existentes en el agroecosistema parece ser la más prometedora para los cultivos frutales. Con estos antecedentes, la presente tesis se llevó a cabo para determinar la posibilidad de implementar el control biológico por conservación contra M. persicae en cultivos de melocotón y nectarina en el área del Mediterráneo. El control biológico por conservación, se basa en preservar a los enemigos naturales presentes en la zona e implementar estrategias para mejorar sus poblaciones. Por lo tanto, la identificación de los enemigos naturales clave involucrados en el control de M. persicae, debe ser el primer paso para comenzar un programa de control biológico por conservación. La inclusión de recursos florales cerca del cultivo, podría ayudar a mejorar el control al ofrecer a los enemigos naturales recursos alimenticios como néctar y polen, contribuyendo así a aumentar sus poblaciones en el momento adecuado para controlar eficazmente la plaga. Los dos primeros capítulos de esta tesis, están dedicados a identificar los depredadores y parasitoides clave de M. persicae en la comarca del Segrià (Cataluña), y a evaluar, en condiciones de campo, el potencial de ciertas plantas insectarias para mejorar sus poblaciones. Para recolectar a los enemigos naturales de M. persicae, se utilizaron plantas centinela, es decir plantones de melocotonero expresamente infestados con M. persicae, y para identificar a las especies más abundantes se utilizaron métodos moleculares y morfológicos. Posteriormente se evaluó la atracción de los enemigos naturales hacia manchas florales que incluían las siguientes especies: Achillea millefolium L. (Compositae), Lobularia maritima L. (Brassicaceae), Moricandia arvensis L. (Brassicaceae) y Sinapis alba L. (Brassicaceae). Los resultados mostraron que los enemigos naturales más abundantes de M. persicae fueron parasitoides. A pesar de que existió un amplio rango de especies, Aphidius matricariae Haliday (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) fue con mucho la más abundante. De los pulgones parasitados se identificaron, así mismo, diez especies de hiperparasitoides. Sin embargo, la ausencia de hiperparasitoides a principio de la temporada, cuando las poblaciones de M. persicae son elevadas, sugiere que el control biológico de este pulgón no se vería afectado negativamente. En cuanto a los depredadores, Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) y Episyrphus balteatus DeGeer (Diptera: Syrphidae) fueron los más abundantes, seguidos de Orius majusculus Reuter (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Los experimentos de campo realizados en esta tesis, mostraron que la presencia de manchas florales fue atractiva para los sírfidos y para los parasitoides y ninguna de las plantas evaluadas fue reservorio de pulgones dañinos para los cultivos de melocotón y nectarina. Entre las cuatro plantas insectarias evaluadas, L. marítima fue uno de los mejores para los enemigos naturales. Sin embargo, la proximidad de las plantas insectarias al cultivo no incrementó la abundancia de las poblaciones de enemigos naturales en las plantas centinela, probablemente a causa del tamaño de las parcelas. Para poder contribuir de manera positiva al estado físico (fitness en inglés) de los enemigos naturales, y por lo tanto al control biológico de M. persicae, las flores de las plantas insectarias deben proporcionar a los parasitoides y depredadores un alimento que puedan aprovechar, tanto en términos de calidad como de accesibilidad. En base a ello, el tercer capítulo de esta tesis se centró en evaluar si la planta insectaria L. marítima es una fuente de alimento adecuada para el parasitoide Aphidius ervi (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) y el depredador A. aphidimyza. Con este objetivo, se realizaron experimentos de laboratorio para investigar si ambos enemigos naturales eran atraídos hacia L. marítima en presencia y ausencia de flores. También se evaluaron los efectos de las flores en cuanto a la longevidad y el potencial reproductivo de estos insectos. Los resultados de los experimentos llevados a cabo en el olfactómetro mostraron que los compuestos volátiles producidos por L. maritima, con y sin flores, atraían a ambos enemigos naturales. Sin embargo, esta atracción se vio afectada cuando se comparó la L. marítima con brotes de melocotón infestados con M. persicae. Aunque A. aphidimyza se benefició de una alimentación rica en azúcar, la disponibilidad de L. marítima no mejoró ni la longevidad ni la reproducción del depredador, ya que la morfología floral de esta especie impidió que las hembras se alimentaran del néctar. En cambio, las flores de L. maritima incrementaron la longevidad de las hembras de A. ervi en ausencia de pulgones. Por lo tanto, la provisión de otros recursos azucarados, como nectarios extraflorales o flores con nectarios expuestos, pueden ser un recurso alimenticio viable para los enemigos naturales y por lo tanto ayudarían a mejorar el control biológico de M. persicae. Debido a la gran diversidad de enemigos naturales que atacan a M. persicae en el área de estudio, existe una alta probabilidad de que ocurra depredación intragremial porque estos enemigos naturales no solo compiten por el mismo recurso alimenticio, sino que también pueden depredarse entre sí. Además, dado que el desarrollo de las larvas de los parasitoides ocurre dentro del pulgón, los depredadores pueden comérselos al alimentarse del pulgón. Por otro lado, la presencia de enemigos naturales en una colonia de pulgones también puede producirles cambios en su comportamiento. El último capítulo de esta tesis tuvo como objetivo evaluar las interacciones entre depredadores y parasitoides, y estudiar cómo estas interacciones pueden influir en el control biológico de M. persicae. En ensayos de laboratorio, se determinó la contribución de E. balteatus, A. aphidimyza y O. majusculus al control de M. persicae. También se evaluaron los cambios en el comportamiento del pulgón asociados por las secreciones de los cornículos o sifones, y la interacción de estos depredadores con el parasitoide A. matricariae. Los resultados mostraron que el depredador más voraz fue E. balteatus, seguido de A. aphidimyza. Orius majusculus no redujo la población de M. persicae. La secreción de los cornículos de M. persicae desencadenó una compensación de la fecundidad, es decir, un aumento de la descendencia. Aunque, A. aphidimyza y O. majusculus prefirieron matar los pulgones no parasitados, ambos depredadores fueron capaces de matar a los individuos de M. persicae parasitados pero aún no momificados. Su preferencia por matar pulgones no parasitados indica que la coexistencia de parasitoides y depredadores no sería negativa para el control biológico de M. persicae. Los resultados de esta tesis, sugieren que el control biológico por conservación puede ser una herramienta útil para mejorar el control de M. persicae en cultivos de melocotón y nectarina.
Els préssecs i les nectarines Prunus persicae (L.) Batsch és el tercer conreu fruiter amb més producció a escala mundial. Dins d'Europa, Espanya és un dels majors productors amb el 30% del total de la producció europea. La majoria de camps de presseguer i nectarina estan localitzats a Catalunya, al nord-est d'Espanya. Prunus persicae és l'hoste primari del pugó verd del préssec, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) que és una de les plagues més nocives per al cultiu. Fins a la data actual, el control d'aquest pugó s'ha basat en l'ús d'insecticides, però el risc que representen tant per a la salut humana com per al medi ambient, fa necessari reduir-ne l’ús. El control biològic pot ser una bona eina per millorar el control d’aquesta plaga en els camps de cultiu, ja que els pugons tenen un ampli rang d'enemics naturals que podrien contribuir al seu control. Dins de les diferents estratègies de control biològic que s'han utilitzat contra els pugons, la conservació dels enemics naturals ja existents en l'agroecosistema sembla ser la més prometedora pels cultius de fruiters. Amb aquests antecedents, la present tesi es va dur a terme amb l'objectiu de determinar la possibilitat d'implementar el control biològic per conservació contra M. persicae en cultius de préssec i nectarina en l'àrea del Mediterrani. El control biològic per conservació es basa en preservar als enemics naturals presents a la zona i en la implementació d'estratègies per millorar les seves poblacions en l'agroecosistema. Per tant, la identificació dels enemics naturals clau involucrats en el control de M. persicae ha de ser el primer pas per a començar un programa de control biològic per conservació. La implementació de recursos florals prop dels camps, podria ajudar a millorar el control, ja que ofereixen als enemics naturals recursos alimentaris com nèctar i pol·len, contribuint així a augmentar les seves poblacions en el moment adient per a controlar eficaçment la plaga. Els dos primers capítols d'aquesta tesi, estan dedicats a identificar els depredadors i parasitoides clau de M. persicae en la comarca del Segrià (Catalunya), així com a avaluar, en condicions de camp, el potencial de certes plantes insectàries per incrementar les poblacions d’enemics naturals. Per a determinar els enemics naturals de M. persicae es van utilitzar plantes sentinella, plançons de presseguer expressament infestats amb M. persicae. Per identificar les espècies més abundants es van utilitzar mètodes moleculars i morfològics. Posteriorment es va avaluar l'atracció dels enemics naturals clau cap a marges florals que incloïen les següents espècies: Achillea millefolium L. (Compositae), Lobularia maritima L. (Brassicaceae), Moricandia arvensis L. (Brassicaceae) i Sinapis alba L. (Brassicaceae). Els resultats van mostrar que els enemics naturals predominants de M. persicae eren els parasitoides. Tot i l’ampli rang d'espècies, Aphidius matricariae Haliday (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) va ser amb diferència la més abundant. Dels pugons parasitats es van identificar també deu espècies d'hiperparasitoides. Amb tot, l'absència d'hiperparasitoides a principi de la temporada, quan les poblacions de M. persicae són elevades, suggereix que el control biològic d'aquest pugó no es veuria afectat negativament. Pel que fa als depredadors, Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) i Episyrphus balteatus DeGeer (Diptera: Syrphidae) van ser els més abundants, seguits de Orius majusculus Reuter (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Els experiments de camp realitzats en aquesta tesi, mostren que la presència de taques florals va ser atractiva per als sírfids i per als parasitoides, i cap de les plantes avaluades va ser reservori de pugons nocius per al cultiu. Entre les quatre plantes insectari avaluades, L. marítima va ser un bon recurs per als enemics naturals. No obstant això, la proximitat de les plantes insectàries no va incrementar l'abundància de les poblacions d'enemics naturals en les plantes sentinella, probablement degut a la mida de les parcel·les. Per a poder contribuir de manera positiva al estat físic (fitness en anglès) dels enemics naturals, i per tant al control biològic de M. persicae, les flors de les plantes insectàries han de proporcionar als parasitoides i depredadors aliment que puguin aprofitar tant pel que fa a la qualitat com a l’accessibilitat. Basat en l'anterior, el tercer capítol d'aquesta tesi es va centrar en avaluar si la planta insectària L. marítima és una font d'aliment adequada per al parasitoide Aphidius ervi (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) i el depredador A. aphidimyza. Amb aquest objectiu, es van realitzar experiments de laboratori per investigar si tots dos enemics naturals eren atrets cap a L. marítima en presència i absència de flors. També es van avaluar els efectes de les flors pel que fa a la longevitat i el potencial reproductiu. Els resultats dels experiments duts a terme en l'olfactòmetre van mostrar que els compostos volàtils produïts per L. maritima, amb i sense flors, atreien tots dos enemics naturals. Amb tot aquesta atracció es veia afectada quan L. marítima es van comparar amb brots de presseguer infestats amb M. persicae. Tot i que A. aphidimyza es va beneficiar d'una alimentació rica en sucre, la disponibilitat de L. maritima no va millorar ni la longevitat ni la reproducció d’aquest depredador, ja que la morfologia floral d'aquesta espècie va impedir que les femelles s'alimentessin del nèctar. D'altra banda, la disponibilitat de flors de L. maritima va incrementar la longevitat de les femelles d’ A. ervi en absència de pugons. Per tant, la provisió d'altres recursos rics en sucre, com nectaris extraflorals i flors amb nectaris exposats poden ser una opció per millorar el control biològic de M. persicae. A causa de la gran diversitat d'enemics naturals que ataquen a M. persicae en l'àrea d'estudi, existeix una alta probabilitat que hi hagi depredació intragremial, ja que aquests enemics naturals no només competeixen pel mateix recurs alimentari, sinó que també poden depredar-se entre ells. A més, degut al desenvolupament de les larves dels parasitoides dins del pugó, els depredadors se’ls poden menjar en alimentar-se de pugó. D’altra banda, la presència d'enemics naturals en una colònia de pugons també pot produir-los-hi canvis de comportament. L'últim capítol d'aquesta tesi va tenir com a objectiu avaluar les interaccions entre depredadors i parasitoides, i com aquestes interaccions poden influir en el control biològic de M. persicae. Es va determinar la contribució d’E. balteatus, A. aphidimyza i O. majusculus al control de M. persicae. També es van avaluar els canvis en el comportament del pugó derivats de el líquid secretat per les cornícules o sifons i la interacció d'aquests depredadors amb el parasitoide A. matricariae. Els resultats van mostrar que el depredador més voraç va ser E. balteatus, seguit d’ A. aphidimyza. Orius majusculus no va reduir la població de M. persicae. El líquid secretat per les cornícules de M. persicae va desencadenar una compensació de fecunditat, és a dir, un augment en la descendència. Tot i que, A. aphidimyza i O. majusculus van preferir matar pugons no parasitats, els dos depredadors van ser capaços de matar als individus de M. persicae parasitats que encara no estaven momificats. La seva preferència per matar pugons no parasitats suggereix que la coexistència de parasitoides i depredadors no seria negativa pel control biològic de M. persicae. Els resultats d'aquesta tesi, suggereixen que el control biològic per conservació, pot ser una eina útil per millorar el control de M. persicae en cultius de préssec i nectarina.

The goal of this study was to evaluate several sustainable turf maintenance techniques for their potential to increase beneficial insect populations, which could then provide ecosystem services including pest suppression and pollination. The three techniques in question were 1) raising mowing height in commercial and residential lawns, 2) establishing naturalized roughs on golf courses, and 3) creating pollinator refuges on golf courses through the program Operation Pollinator. We found that raising mowing heights did increase populations of some predators such as spiders and staphylinids, but did not increase predation, which was ubiquitously high because ant populations were unaffected by mowing height. In addition, we found that pests reared in high-mowed grass were less likely to survive and gained weight more slowly than when raised in low-mowed grass. On golf courses, we found that naturalized roughs and traditional roughs supported different populations of predators, but contrary to our original hypothesis, naturalized roughs had little impact on biological control on the rest of the golf course. Operation Pollinator was successful in supporting 49 species of pollinators, including rare and declining bumble bees, demonstrating that turf systems can provide valuable pollinator conservation services, especially in urban systems where pollinator habitats are already rare.

Natural enemies provide critical population regulation of many pest species, though their effects are not commonly incorporated into agricultural management decisions. Conservation biological control is an important tool that can be implemented to minimize pest damage, but applying it requires appropriate understanding of pest and natural enemy relationships. Through experimental cotton field trials, I identified predator: prey ratios based on key arthropod predators as action thresholds of the whitefly pest Bemisia tabaci MEAM1 (Dinsdale et al. 2010; equivalent to Bemisia argentifolii Bellows et al. 1994 [Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae]), validated their efficacy, and promoted them to cotton pest managers. This dissertation begins with a multi-year field trial where whitefly and natural enemy populations were manipulated with a series of insecticidal treatments to identify key arthropod predators. The critical abundance of four key predators necessary to suppress whiteflies was estimated through predator: prey ratios. These ratios were refined for commercial pest management and developed to conform to the current whitefly IPM framework as a simple to use management-decision tool that would be readily adopted and used by pest managers. Predator: prey ratios were then validated in 1) a second field trial, 2) commercial fields in Arizona and northern Mexico and 3) historical field trials conducted from 1997-2010, where whitefly management decisions made with the standard threshold and ratios, were compared with the standard threshold alone. I found no difference in management outcomes when decisions were made with the standard threshold alone, or with predator: prey ratios in the field trial, but analysis of potential decisions on commercial farms and with historical trial data indicated that the majority of sprays could be delayed if control decisions incorporated ratio-based thresholds. Finally, an outreach program was developed and deployed to present ratios as decision-making tools for cotton pest managers that reduce uncertainty in control decisions and optimize spray outcomes. Pest managers indicated positive changes in knowledge and a gradual adoption of ratios for decision-making. The implementation of whitefly control decisions that incorporate predator: prey ratios may reduce pest managers' uncertainty in decision-making, as well as insecticide use and management costs.

“The special law” on the environmental conservation of the Seto Inland Sea, Japan and governmental basic plan for the environmental conservation of the sea based on the law were both revised recently in 2015. Two major aims of the previous basic plan (1. conservation of water quality, 2. conservation of natural landscape) were reformed to broaden four new major aims (1. conservation and restoration of coastal environment, 2. conservation and appropriate management of water quality, 3. conservation of natural and cultural landscapes, 4. sustainable utilization of fish resources) in the revised basic plan. Historically, environmental management policy of the Seto Inland Sea had firstly made emphasis on water pollution control such as total pollution load control (TPLC). However, this kind of passive conservation policy is gradually being sifted recently to active conservation such as Satoumi which includes restoration of biodiversity, biological productivity, habitat and well balanced nutrient cycle between land and sea. Holistic approaches such as integrated coastal management (ICM), ecosystem-based management (EBM) and adaptive management were incorporated into new policy in Japan. These clear changes of management policies of the Seto Inland Sea will make change more detailed policy of every related prefecture and hence will promote Satoumi activities in near future.

“The special law” on the environmental conservation of the Seto Inland Sea, Japan and governmental basic plan for the environmental conservation of the sea based on the law were both revised recently in 2015. Two major aims of the previous basic plan (1. conservation of water quality, 2. conservation of natural landscape) were reformed to broaden four new major aims (1. conservation and restoration of coastal environment, 2. conservation and appropriate management of water quality, 3. conservation of natural and cultural landscapes, 4. sustainable utilization of fish resources) in the revised basic plan. Historically, environmental management policy of the Seto Inland Sea had firstly made emphasis on water pollution control such as total pollution load control (TPLC). However, this kind of passive conservation policy is gradually being sifted recently to active conservation such as Satoumi which includes restoration of biodiversity, biological productivity, habitat and well balanced nutrient cycle between land and sea. Holistic approaches such as integrated coastal management (ICM), ecosystem-based management (EBM) and adaptive management were incorporated into new policy in Japan. These clear changes of management policies of the Seto Inland Sea will make change more detailed policy of every related prefecture and hence will promote Satoumi activities in near future.

Bovine babesiosis caused by Babesia bovis continues to be a significant deterrent to global livestock production. Current control methods have both biological and technical drawbacks that have stimulated research on improved methods of vaccination. This BARD project has focused on characterization of candidate Babesia bovis vaccine antigens located in the apical complex, a unique group of subcellular organelles - including rhoptries, micronemes, and spherical bodies - involved in the invation of erythrocytes. Spherical bodies and rhoptries were partially purified and their contents characterized using monoclonal antibodies. Existing and newly developed monoclonal antibodies bound to antigens in the spherical body, rhoptry, merozoite membrane, and infected erythrocyte membrane. In an initial immunization study using biologically cloned strains, it was demonstrated that strain-common epitopes are important for inducing immune protection against heterologous challenge. Rhoptry-associated antigen 1 (RAP-1) had been demonstrated previously to induce partial immune protection, fulfilled criteria of broad interstrain B and T cell epitope conservation, and thus was further characterized. The RAP-1 gene family consists of at least two gene copies, is homologous to the RAP-1 gene family in B. bigemina, and contains significant sequence similarity to other erythroparasitic protozoan candidate vaccine antigens, including the apical membrane antigen of Plasmodium falciparum. A new RAP-1 monoclonal antibody was developed that inhibits merozoite growth in vitro, demonstrating the presence of a RAP-1 neutralization sensitive domain. Based on these observations, cattle were immunized with Mo7 (Mexico) strain recombinant RAP-1 representing one of the two gene copies. All cattle responded with variable levels of serum antibodies inhibitory to heterologous Israel strain merozoite growth in vitro, and RAP-1 specific T lymphocytes that proliferated when stimulated with either homologous or heterologous native parasite antigen. Minimal protection from clinical disease was present after virulent Israel (heterologous) strain B. bovis challenge. In total, the results support the continued development of RAP-1 as a vaccine antigen, but indicate that additional information about the native structure and function of both RAP-1 gene copies, including the relationship of conserved and polymorphic sequences to B and T cell lepitopes relevant for protection, is necessary for optimization of RAP-1 as a vaccine component.

The War in the Pacific National Historical Park (WAPA), a protected area managed by the National Park Service (NPS), was established "to commemorate the bravery and sacrifice of those participating in the campaigns of the Pacific Theater of World War II and to conserve and interpret outstanding natural, scenic, and historic values on the island of Guam." Coral reef systems present in the park represent a vital element of Guam?s cultural, traditional, and economical heritage, and as such, are precious and in need of conservation. To facilitate the management of these resources, NPS determined that a scleractinian (stony coral) species survey was necessary to establish a baseline for existing coral communities and other important factors for conservation. EnviroScience, Inc. performed a survey of stony coral species, coral habitat, and current evidence of stressors at WAPA?s H?gat and Asan Units in 2022. This report summarizes these findings from a management perspective and compares its findings to previous survey data from 1977 and 1999 (Eldridge et al. 1977; Amesbury et al. 1999). WAPA is located on the tropical island of Guam, located on the west-central coast of the island, and encompasses 2,037 acres. Underwater resources are a significant component of the park, as 1,002 acres consists of water acres. The park is comprised of seven units, of which two of these, the H?gat and Asan Beach Units, include all the oceanic water acres for the park. The H?gat Beach Unit (local spelling, formerly known as ?Agat?) is located at the south-west portion of the park and consists of 38 land acres and 557 water acres (NPS 2003). The Asan Beach Unit consists of 109 acres of land and 445 water acres (NPS 2003). A current baseline for existing coral communities and other important factors for conservation necessitates the need for up-to-date data on the location, presence, relative abundance, and present health of corals. Park managers need this updated data to determine where and how to best focus conservation priorities and identify restoration opportunities. Management actions in park reef areas informed by this inventory included identifying locations where there were: high rates of sedimentation; high coral biomass; rare or threatened species, with a priority given to species endemic to Guam and listed as ?threatened? under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA; Acropora globiceps, A. retusa, A. speciosa, and Seriatopora aculeata); coral persistence and decline, disease and/or nuisance species, including the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster cf. solaris, ?COTS?) and the sponge Terpios hoshinota; and bleached areas. All work carried out was in accordance with the NPS statement of work (SOW) requirements, which involved a quantitative inventory using both new and pre-existing transects. The resulting transects totaled 61 (including the four from the 1999 study), each measuring 50 meters in length and distributed across depths of up to 50 feet. Divers took photo-quadrat samples covering an area of approximately 9 m?, encompassing 50 photo-quadrats of dimensions 0.50 m x 0.36 m (n=50). The collective area surveyed across all 61 transects amounted to ~549 m?. Additionally, a qualitative search was conducted to enhance documentation of coral species that have limited distribution and might not be captured by transects, along with identifying harmful species and stressors. Timed roving diver coral diversity surveys were carried out at a total of 20 sites occurring within the waters of WAPA, including eight sites at the H?gat unit and 12 sites at the Asan unit. The findings from this report reveal significant disparities in benthic cover compositions between H?gat and Asan units. The H?gat unit exhibits high abundances of turf algae and unconsolidated sediment while the Asan beach unit presents a different scenario, with hard coral as the dominant benthic cover, followed closely by crustose coralline algae (CCA). The Asan unit is also more difficult to access from shore or boat relative to H?gat which provides that unit some protection from human influences. The Asan beach unit's prevalence of hard coral, CCA, and colonizable substrate suggests a more favorable environment for reef growth and the potential benefits of maintaining robust coral cover in the area. These distinct differences in benthic communities highlight the contrasting ecological dynamics and habitats of the two study areas. Across both H?gat and Asan beach unit transects, a total of 56 hard coral species were recorded from 27 genera, with 44 species recorded from the H?gat unit and 48 species recorded from the Asan unit. Of the four historical transects surveyed in the Asan unit from 1999, three experienced declines in percent coral cover (17.38-78.72%), while the fourth had an increase (10.98%). During the timed roving diver coral diversity surveys, a total of 245 hard coral species, including 241 scleractinian coral species representing 49 genera and 4 non-scleractinian coral species representing 4 genera were recorded. Uncertainties related to coral identification, unresolved boundaries between morphospecies, differences in taxonomists' perspectives, and the rapidly evolving state of coral taxonomy have significant implications for species determinations during coral diversity surveys. While the recent surveys have provided valuable insights into coral diversity in WAPA waters, ongoing taxonomic research and collaboration among experts will be essential to obtain a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of coral biodiversity in the region. Of the several ESA coral species that were searched for among the H?gat and Asan beach units, Acropora retusa was the only coral species found among quantitative transects (n=2) and A. globiceps was observed during coral diversity surveys. Acropora speciosa, which was dominant in the upper seaward slopes in 1977, is now conspicuously absent from all the surveys conducted in 2022 (Eldredge et al., 1977). The disappearance and reduction of these once-dominant species underscores the urgency of implementing conservation measures to safeguard the delicate balance of Guam's coral reefs and preserve the diversity and ecological integrity of these invaluable marine ecosystems. Other formerly common or locally abundant species were infrequently encountered during the diversity surveys, including Acropora monticulosa, A. sp. ?obtusicaulis?, A. palmerae, Stylophora sp. ?mordax?, Montipora sp. ?pagoensis?, and Millepora dichotoma. Significant bleaching-associated mortality was recorded for these species, most of which are restricted to reef front/margin zones exposed to moderate-to-high levels of wave energy. Sedimentation was present in both H?gat and the Asan units, though it was more commonly encountered in H?gat transects. While significant portions of the reef area within the WAPA H?gat unit are in poor condition due to a variety of stressors, some areas still hosted notable coral communities, which should be a potential focus for park management to prevent further degradation. There is a need for more effective management of point source pollution concerns, particularly when subpar wastewater treatment or runoff from areas with potential pollution or sediment-laden water is flowing from nearby terrestrial environments. Future monitoring efforts should aim to establish a framework that facilitates a deeper understanding of potential point source pollution incidents. This would empower park managers to collaborate with adjacent communities, both within and outside of park boundaries, to mitigate the localized impacts of pollution (McCutcheon and McKenna, 2021). COTS were encountered during transect surveys as well as in coral diversity surveys. including along the upper reef front/reef margin at site Agat-CS-2. The frequency of these observations, particularly in the WAPA H?gat unit and where stress-susceptible corals are already uncommonly encountered, raise concern about the ability of the populations of these coral species to recover following acute disturbance events, and calls in to question the ability of some of these species to persist in WAPA waters, and in Guam?s waters more broadly. More frequent crown-of-thorns control efforts, even if only a handful of sea stars are removed during a single effort, may be required to prevent further loss to vulnerable species. There were several documented incidents of Terpios hoshinota covering large sections of branching coral in the reef flat along transects, but it is still unclear how detrimental this sponge is to the overall reef system. There is a concern that elevated levels of organic matter and nutrients in the water, such as those resulting from sewage discharge or stormwater runoff, could lead to increased Terpios populations (De Voogd et al. 2013). Consequently, it is important to track populations in known areas of sedimentation and poor water quality. The presence of unique species at single survey sites within the study areas underscores the ecological importance of certain locations. Some species are known to occur in other locations in Guam, while a few may be limited to specific sites within WAPA waters. These differences are likely influenced by environmental and biological factors such as poor water quality, severe heat stress events, chronic predation by crown-of-thorns sea stars, disease, and reduced herbivore populations. These factors collectively shape the condition of the benthic community, leading to variations in species distribution and abundance across the study sites. Documenting coral stress and identifying potentially harmful species allows for proactive management strategies to prevent the establishment of nuisance or detrimental species while populations are still manageable. Updated data on the location, presence, relative abundance, and health of corals is essential for park managers to prioritize conservation efforts and identify restoration opportunities effectively. Observations from this report raise concerns about the health and resilience of coral ecosystems in the H?gat unit and emphasize the need for knowledge of local factors that shape benthic community structure. Understanding the drivers responsible for these variations is crucial for effective conservation and management strategies to preserve the ecological balance and overall health of coral reefs in both units. Continued monitoring efforts will be critical in assessing long-term trends and changes in benthic cover and enabling adaptive management approaches to safeguard these valuable marine ecosystems in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.