Relevant bibliographies by topics / Confinement mechanism

Academic literature on the topic 'Confinement mechanism'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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Suzuki, T. "Abelian Confinement Mechanism in QCD." Progress of Theoretical Physics 81, no. 4 (April 1, 1989): 752–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/ptp.81.752.

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Chatterjee, Sourav. "A Probabilistic Mechanism for Quark Confinement." Communications in Mathematical Physics 385, no. 2 (April 15, 2021): 1007–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00220-021-04086-y.

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Bakker, B. "Central Dominance and the Confinement Mechanism." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 83-84, no. 1-3 (March 2000): 565–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(00)00314-5.

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Bakker, B. L. G., A. I. Veselov, and M. A. Zubkov. "Central dominance and the confinement mechanism." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 83-84 (April 2000): 565–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(00)91740-7.

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Tomboulis, E. T. "SO (3) monopoles as confinement mechanism." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 34 (April 1994): 192–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0920-5632(94)90341-7.

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MAGPANTAY, JOSE A. "THE CONFINEMENT MECHANISM IN YANG–MILLS THEORY?" Modern Physics Letters A 14, no. 06 (February 28, 1999): 447–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s021773239900050x.

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Using the recently proposed nonlinear gauge condition [Formula: see text] we show the area law behavior of the Wilson loop and the linear dependence of the instantaneous gluon propagator. The field configurations responsible for confinement are those in the nonlinear sector of the gauge-fixing condition (the linear sector being the Coulomb gauge). The nonlinear sector is actually composed of "Gribov horizons" on the parallel surfaces ∂ · Aa=fa≠0. In this sector, the gauge field [Formula: see text] can be expressed in terms of fa and a new vector field [Formula: see text]. The effective dynamics of fa suggests nonperturbative effects. This was confirmed by showing that all spherically symmetric (in 4-D Euclidean) fa(x) are classical solutions and averaging these solutions using a Gaussian distribution (thereby treating these fields as random) lead to confinement. In essence the confinement mechanism is not quantum mechanical in nature but simply a statistical treatment of classical spherically symmetric fields on the "horizons" of ∂ · Aa=fa(x) surfaces.
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Raval, Haresh. "BRST symmetry as a mechanism for confinement." Physics Letters B 820 (September 2021): 136495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physletb.2021.136495.

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Maedan, S., Y. Matsubara, and T. Suzuki. "Abelian Confinement Mechanism and the QCD Vacuum." Progress of Theoretical Physics 84, no. 1 (July 1, 1990): 130–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/ptp/84.1.130.

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Ilgenfritz, Ernst-Michael, Harald Markum, Michael Müller-Preuß ker, Wolfgang Sakuler, and Stefan Thurner. "Towards a Topological Mechanism of Quark Confinement." Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement 131 (1998): 353–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/ptps.131.353.

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Shifman, M., and A. Yung. "Lessons from supersymmetry: "Instead-of-confinement" mechanism." International Journal of Modern Physics A 29, no. 27 (October 28, 2014): 1430064. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217751x14300646.

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We review physical scenarios in different vacua of 𝒩 = 2 supersymmetric QCD deformed by the mass term μ for the adjoint matter. This deformation breaks supersymmetry down to 𝒩 = 1 and, at large μ, the theory flows to 𝒩 = 1 QCD. We focus on dynamical scenarios which can serve as prototypes of what we observe in real-world QCD. The so-called r = N vacuum is especially promising in this perspective. In this vacuum an "instead-of-confinement" phase was identified previously, which is qualitatively close to the conventional QCD confinement: the quarks and gauge bosons screened at weak coupling, at strong coupling evolve into monopole–antimonopole pairs confined by non-Abelian strings. We review genesis of this picture.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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Dix, James. "Understanding the mechanism of permeation through graphene-based membranes using molecular dynamics simulations." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2017. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/understanding-the-mechanism-of-permeation-through-graphenebased-membranes-using-molecular-dynamics-simulations(68f5ea06-3ba5-4b2c-91e9-18b57bb2b6d7).html.

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The UN predicts that by 2050 there will water shortages throughout the globe. Current sources for safe, clean drinking water are being over mined and exhausted. Seawater provides an alternative water source, but a high salt content makes it unsuitable for the majority of applications. However, reverse osmosis lowers the salt content producing water that is safe for human consumption. Reverse osmosis uses a semi-permeable membrane to prevent the transport of salt but allows for the transport of water. Currently these membranes are susceptible to fouling and contamination, which reduces their efficiency. Graphene-oxide membranes offer a new material for reserves osmosis membranes. Sheets of graphene-oxide are stacked in a layered structure. The separation between the sheets can be controlled using physical confinement, resulting in limited ion permeation of abundant cations in seawater, like Na+ and K+. This is believed to be due to the separation of 0.76 nm between the graphene sheets, forcing the ions to lose its surrounding water molecules, making it unfavourable for the ion to travel through the membrane. Molecular dynamics simulations can give an atomic level insight into the molecular processes within GO membranes. Recent simulations have shown that charged species are attracted to graphene surfaces due to polarisation of the pi-electron system. This work has managed to incorporate these ion-pi interactions into molecular dynamics simulations. Including ion-pi interactions caused some ions, like Na+ and K+, to prefer to lose water molecules and reside at a graphene surface. This work observed the same phenomena when ions were confined to graphene channel ranging from 1.3 nm - 0.7 nm. This observation could have a large impact on whether dehydration is limiting the permeation of these two ions, or if there are additional processes that limit their molecular transport.
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Shrestha, Pooja. "Mechanism of substrate protein remodeling by molecular chaperones." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1378113185.

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Müller, Martin Verfasser], Jörg [Akademischer Betreuer] [Kröger, Stefan [Gutachter] Krischok, and Simon [Gutachter] Crampin. "Single-atom junctions and novel electron confinement mechanism on Pb(111) / Martin Müller ; Gutachter: Stefan Krischok, Simon Crampin ; Betreuer: Jörg Kröger." Ilmenau : TU Ilmenau, 2017. http://d-nb.info/117814156X/34.

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Müller, Martin [Verfasser], Jörg [Akademischer Betreuer] Kröger, Stefan [Gutachter] Krischok, and Simon [Gutachter] Crampin. "Single-atom junctions and novel electron confinement mechanism on Pb(111) / Martin Müller ; Gutachter: Stefan Krischok, Simon Crampin ; Betreuer: Jörg Kröger." Ilmenau : TU Ilmenau, 2017. http://d-nb.info/117814156X/34.

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Tsegaye, Takele Dessie. "Confinement Mechanisms in Quantum Chromodynamics." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2003. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1051373650.

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Takele, Tsegaye. "Confinement mechanisms in quantum cherodynamics." Cincinnati, Ohio : University of Cincinnati, 2002. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=ucin1051373650.

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Kadri, Abdelaziz. "Etude electrochimique des processus de corrosion d'un alliage fe-36 ni sous des couches minces d'elecrolyte, a l'air libre ou en situation de confinement." Paris 6, 1986. http://www.theses.fr/1986PA066211.

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Etude du mecanisme de corrosion localisee observee sur les alliages fe-36ni et intervenant lors de leur stockage par empilement de feuilles destinees a la fabrication de supports de circuits integres. Utilisation d'une cellule de simulation ou l'epaisseur de l'electrolyte est maintenue a une tres faible valeur (
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Dangla, Rémi. "Microfluidique de gouttes 2D par gradient de confinement." Phd thesis, Ecole Polytechnique X, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00835536.

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L'usage de gouttes comme microréacteurs movite le développement rapide de la microfluidique de gouttes. En effet, une goutte peut être utilisée pour collecter, transporter et analyser du matériel chimique, biologique ou génétique. Ainsi, la microfluidique de goutte porte la promesse d'une miniaturisation et d'une automatisation sur puce des process actuellement mis oeuvre sur microplaques. Toutefois, l'architecture des dispositifs reste essentiellement sérielle et en opposition avec le format intrinsèquement 2D des microplaques. Ce travail de thèse fournit une nouvelle stratégie de gestion de gouttes sur puce qui permet d'implémenter des procédés de microfluidiques de goutte au sein de chambres bidimensionnelles. Les méthodes mises au point emploient des gradients de confinement pour agir sur les gouttes.
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Husowitz, Barry Charles. "Effect of Confinement and Heterogeneity on Phase Behavior: A Density Functional Approach." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/196124.

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Density functional theory of statistical mechanics in a square gradient approximation was used to study nucleation in confined systems such as a cylindrical pore and in-between two cylindrical disks. This approximation was further applied to study the evaporation and condensation in nanopores with finite lengths. Confinement effects induced nucleation phenomena that are not observed in more open systems. Density functional theory was also used to explore the solvation properties of a spherical solute immersed in a supercritical diatomic fluid. The solute was modeled as a hard core Yukawa particle surrounded by a diatomic Lennard-Jones fluid represented by two fused tangent spheres using an interaction site approximation. The results of this study indicate that local density augmentation and the solvation free energies are particularly sensitive to changes in solute and solvent particle geometry and solute/solvent anisotropic interactions. Density functional theory allowed us to systematically study the effect of a variety of geometric and interaction parameters on the properties and behavior of all the systems. Although more sophisticated, but computationally more demanding, theoretical approaches can be used, our results provide fundamental physical insights into the behavior of real systems and create a solid basis for the development of more realistic models.
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Habibzadeh, Pouya. "Small Scale Plasticity With Confinement and Interfacial Effects." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/226220.

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The mechanical properties of crystalline metals are strongly affected when the sample size is limited to the micron or sub-micron scale. At these scales, the mechanical properties are enhanced far beyond classical predictions. Besides, the surface to volume ratio significantly increases. Therefore surfaces and interfaces play a big role in the mechanical properties of these micro-samples. The effect of different interfaces on the mechanical properties of micro-samples is not yet well understood. The aim of this project is to characterize, understand, and predict the effect of confinement on deformation mechanisms at micro-scale. In this study, micro-pillars were fabricated by Focused Ion Beam (FIB). Micro-pillars were homogeneously coated with thin films by magnetron sputtering and cathodic arc deposition. The mechanical properties of carbon-coated-, chromium coated-, naked-, annealed- and non-annealed micro-pillars were measured. Afterwards, the results of micro-compression tests and Automated Crystal Orientation Mapping on Transmission electron microscopy (ACOM TEM) were compared and led to some surprising new findings.Dislocations are blocked by amorphous- and even crystalline coating in the deformed samples. Parallel slip systems were detected in the chromium layer and the copper micro-pillar. Even though the chromium layer has parallel slip systems, dislocation pile-up at the interface was found after deformation. The most significant finding in this study concerns the back stress of the dislocation pile-up, which affects the dislocation sources and causes an increase of the flow stress to generate new dislocations from these sources. Thermal annealing increases the strength and flow stress of FIB fabricated micro samples. The annealing treatment restores the lattice that was damaged by the FIB fabrication process. A higher stress is required to initiate the dislocation nucleation in a pristine lattice. Techniques of fabrication and investigation were developed to study the role of confinement and interfaces on the mechanical properties of materials at micro scale. Mechanisms of deformation were unraveled and a better understanding of the key parameters was reached.
Doctorat en Sciences de l'ingénieur et technologie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished
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Books on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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M, Fried H., and Müller Berndt 1950-, eds. Proceedings of the Workshop on Quantum Chromodynamics, Collisions, Confinement and Chaos: The American University of Paris, 3-8 June 1996. Singapore: World Scientific, 1997.

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Taylor, Jonathan M. Optical Binding Phenomena: Observations and Mechanisms. Springer, 2013.

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Iliopoulos, John. The Standard Theory. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198805175.003.0006.

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All ingredients of the previous chapters are combined in order to build a gauge invariant theory of the interactions among the elementary particles. We start with a unified model of the weak and the electromagnetic interactions. The gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken through the BEH mechanism and we identify the resulting BEH boson. Then we describe the theory known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD), a gauge theory of the strong interactions. We present the property of confinement which explains why the quarks and the gluons cannot be extracted out of the protons and neutrons to form free particles. The last section contains a comparison of the theoretical predictions based on this theory with the experimental results. The agreement between theory and experiment is spectacular.
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Martinetti. DEFORMATION SOILS V4 (Geology & Confinement of Toxic Waste). Taylor & Francis, 1994.

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Kharaka. WATER ROCK INTERACTION VOL 1 (Geology & Confinement of Toxic Waste). Taylor & Francis, 1992.

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Anagnostopoulos. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER (V1) HARD SO (Geology & Confinement of Toxic Waste). Taylor & Francis, 1993.

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Fried, H. M., and B. Muller. Quantum Chromodynamics: Collisions, Confinement and Chaos, Workshop. World Scientific Pub Co Inc, 1997.

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Zhou, S. Y., and A. Lanzara. The electronic structure of epitaxial graphene—A view from angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy. Edited by A. V. Narlikar and Y. Y. Fu. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199533046.013.14.

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This article analyzes the electronic structure of epitaxial graphene using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). It first describes how the carbon atoms in graphene are arranged before discussing the growth and characterization of graphene samples. It then considers the electronic structure of epitaxial graphene, along with the gap opening in single-layer epitaxial graphene. It also examines possible mechanisms for the gap opening in graphene, including quantum confinement, mixing of the states between the Brillouin zone corner K points induced by scattering, and hybridization of the valence and conduction bands caused by symmetry breaking in carbon sublattices. Clear deviations from the conical dispersions are observed near the Diracpoint energy, which can be interpreted as a gap opening attributed to graphene–substrate interaction. Graphene–substrate interaction is thus a promising route for engineering the bandgap in graphene.
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Book chapters on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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Wan, C., C. Quon, and L. Cheng. "Concrete Column Confinement with Mechanism-Based Composite Bistable Structures." In Advances in FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, 610–13. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-17487-2_133.

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Cheng, Ge, Hai Jin, Deqing Zou, Lei Shi, and Alex K. Ohoussou. "CFCC: A Covert Flows Confinement Mechanism for Virtual Machine Coalitions." In Communications in Computer and Information Science, 43–54. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-14944-3_6.

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Zohuri, Bahman. "Short Course in Thermal Physics and Statistical Mechanics." In Inertial Confinement Fusion Driven Thermonuclear Energy, 1–59. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50907-5_1.

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Wosiek, Jacek. "Supersymmetric Yang-Mills Quantum Mechanics." In Confinement, Topology, and Other Non-Perturbative Aspects of QCD, 303–14. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0502-9_33.

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Gonzalez, A., E. Diaz Herrera, M. Sandoval, M. A. Chavez Rojo, and J. A. Moreno Razo. "Confinement and Interaction Effects on the Diffusion of Passive Particles." In Selected Topics of Computational and Experimental Fluid Mechanics, 385–94. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11487-3_29.

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Serres, I., C. Chauveau, B. Sarh, and I. Gökalp. "Characterisation of confinement and impingement effects on the near field of axisymmetric jets." In Laser Techniques for Fluid Mechanics, 373–86. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08263-8_22.

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Wong, Bin Sheng, Panagiotis Mistriotis, and Konstantinos Konstantopoulos. "Exposing Cell-Itary Confinement: Understanding the Mechanisms of Confined Single Cell Migration." In Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 139–57. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95294-9_8.

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An, C. H., Robert Rosner, Zdzislaw E. Musielak, Ronald L. Moore, and Steven T. Suess. "Magnetic Confinement, Alfvén Wave Reflection, and the Origin of X-ray and Mass Loss “Dividing Lines”." In Mechanisms of Chromospheric and Coronal Heating, 445–47. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-87455-0_76.

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Bustamante, Michael C., and Duane S. Cronin. "Assessment of Fluid Cavitation Threshold Using a Polymeric Split Hopkinson Bar-Confinement Chamber Apparatus." In Mechanics of Biological Systems & Micro-and Nanomechanics, Volume 4, 95–99. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95062-4_21.

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Jiang, J. F., P. D. Li, and B. B. Li. "Prediction on stress-strain behavior of FRP-confined concrete with passive confinement-based 3D constitutive model." In Current Perspectives and New Directions in Mechanics, Modelling and Design of Structural Systems, 503–4. London: CRC Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003348450-236.

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Conference papers on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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Kröger, H., and S. Lantagne. "New mechanism for confinement." In Intersections between particle and nuclear physics. AIP, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.41604.

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Suzuki, Tsuneo, Katsuya Ishiguro, Yoshifumi Nakamura, and Toru Sekido. "Gauge invariant 'monopoles' and color confinement mechanism." In XXIIIrd International Symposium on Lattice Field Theory. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.020.0296.

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Langfeld, Kurt. "A fresh look at the confinement mechanism." In International Workshop on QCD Green’s Functions, Confinement and Phenomenology. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.087.0022.

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Papavassiliou, Joannis. "Schwinger mechanism in QCD." In International Workshop on QCD Green's Functions, Confinement and Phenomenology. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.136.0034.

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Schwenzer, Kai. "A mechanism for confinement in Landau gauge QCD." In VIIIth Conference Quark Confinement and the Hadron Spectrum. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.077.0177.

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Saito, Takuya, Atsushi Nakamura, H. Toki, and Yoshiyuki Nakagawa. "Lattice study of color confinement mechanism in Coulomb gauge." In XXIIIrd International Symposium on Lattice Field Theory. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.020.0303.

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Ishiguro, Katsuya, YOSHIHARU MORI, Yoshifumi Nakamura, Toru Sekido, Tsuneo Suzuki, Maxim N. Chernodub, M. I. Polikarpov, and Valentin I. Zakharov. "Towards SU(2) invariant formulation of the monopole confinement mechanism." In XXIIIrd International Symposium on Lattice Field Theory. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.020.0307.

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Chen, Dian-Yong, Xiang Liu, and Takayuki Matsuki. "Charged charmonium-like structures and the initial single chiral particle emission mechanism." In XITH CONFERENCE ON QUARK CONFINEMENT AND HADRON SPECTRUM. AIP Publishing LLC, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4938650.

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Alkofer, Natalia, and Reinhard Alkofer. "The non-perturbative BRST quartet mechanism in Landau gauge QCD: Ghost-gluon and ghost-quark bound states." In Xth Quark Confinement and the Hadron Spectrum. Trieste, Italy: Sissa Medialab, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.22323/1.171.0282.

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Bruckmann, Falk, Ernst-Michael Ilgenfritz, Boris Martemyanov, and Bo Zhang. "Vortex content of calorons and deconfinement mechanism." In THE IX INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON QUARK CONFINEMENT AND THE HADRON SPECTRUM—QCHS IX. AIP, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3574983.

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Reports on the topic "Confinement mechanism"

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Perkins, F. W. Issues in tokamak/stellarator transport and confinement enhancement mechanisms. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), August 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/6681563.

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Brosh, Arieh, David Robertshaw, Yoav Aharoni, Zvi Holzer, Mario Gutman, and Amichai Arieli. Estimation of Energy Expenditure of Free Living and Growing Domesticated Ruminants by Heart Rate Measurement. United States Department of Agriculture, April 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2002.7580685.bard.

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Research objectives were: 1) To study the effect of diet energy density, level of exercise, thermal conditions and reproductive state on cardiovascular function as it relates to oxygen (O2) mobilization. 2) To validate the use of heart rate (HR) to predict energy expenditure (EE) of ruminants, by measuring and calculating the energy balance components at different productive and reproductive states. 3) To validate the use of HR to identify changes in the metabolizable energy (ME) and ME intake (MEI) of grazing ruminants. Background: The development of an effective method for the measurement of EE is essential for understanding the management of both grazing and confined feedlot animals. The use of HR as a method of estimating EE in free-ranging large ruminants has been limited by the availability of suitable field monitoring equipment and by the absence of empirical understanding of the relationship between cardiac function and metabolic rate. Recent developments in microelectronics provide a good opportunity to use small HR devices to monitor free-range animals. The estimation of O2 uptake (VO2) of animals from their HR has to be based upon a consistent relationship between HR and VO2. The question as to whether, or to what extent, feeding level, environmental conditions and reproductive state affect such a relationship is still unanswered. Studies on the basic physiology of O2 mobilization (in USA) and field and feedlot-based investigations (in Israel) covered a , variety of conditions in order to investigate the possibilities of using HR to estimate EE. In USA the physiological studies conducted using animals with implanted flow probes, show that: I) although stroke volume decreases during intense exercise, VO2 per one heart beat per kgBW0.75 (O2 Pulse, O2P) actually increases and measurement of EE by HR and constant O2P may underestimate VO2unless the slope of the regression relating to heart rate and VO2 is also determined, 2) alterations in VO2 associated with the level of feeding and the effects of feeding itself have no effect on O2P, 3) both pregnancy and lactation may increase blood volume, especially lactation; but they have no effect on O2P, 4) ambient temperature in the range of 15 to 25°C in the resting animal has no effect on O2P, and 5) severe heat stress, induced by exercise, elevates body temperature to a sufficient extent that 14% of cardiac output may be required to dissipate the heat generated by exercise rather than for O2 transport. However, this is an unusual situation and its affect on EE estimation in a freely grazing animal, especially when heart rate is monitored over several days, is minor. In Israel three experiments were carried out in the hot summer to define changes in O2P attributable to changes in the time of day or In the heat load. The animals used were lambs and young calves in the growing phase and highly yielding dairy cows. In the growing animals the time of day, or the heat load, affected HR and VO2, but had no effect on O2P. On the other hand, the O2P measured in lactating cows was affected by the heat load; this is similar to the finding in the USA study of sheep. Energy balance trials were conducted to compare MEI recovery by the retained energy (RE) and by EE as measured by HR and O2P. The trial hypothesis was that if HR reliably estimated EE, the MEI proportion to (EE+RE) would not be significantly different from 1.0. Beef cows along a year of their reproductive cycle and growing lambs were used. The MEI recoveries of both trials were not significantly different from 1.0, 1.062+0.026 and 0.957+0.024 respectively. The cows' reproductive state did not affect the O2P, which is similar to the finding in the USA study. Pasture ME content and animal variables such as HR, VO2, O2P and EE of cows on grazing and in confinement were measured throughout three years under twenty-nine combinations of herbage quality and cows' reproductive state. In twelve grazing states, individual faecal output (FO) was measured and MEI was calculated. Regression analyses of the EE and RE dependent on MEI were highly significant (P<0.001). The predicted values of EE at zero intake (78 kcal/kgBW0.75), were similar to those estimated by NRC (1984). The EE at maintenance condition of the grazing cows (EE=MEI, 125 kcal/kgBW0.75) which are in the range of 96.1 to 125.5 as presented by NRC (1996 pp 6-7) for beef cows. Average daily HR and EE were significantly increased by lactation, P<0.001 and P<0.02 respectively. Grazing ME significantly increased HR and EE, P<0.001 and P<0.00l respectively. In contradiction to the finding in confined ewes and cows, the O2P of the grazing cows was significantly affected by the combined treatments (P<0.00l ); this effect was significantly related to the diet ME (P<0.00l ) and consequently to the MEI (P<0.03). Grazing significantly increased O2P compared to confinement. So, when EE of grazing animals during a certain season of the year is estimated using the HR method, the O2P must be re measured whenever grazing ME changes. A high correlation (R2>0.96) of group average EE and of HR dependency on MEI was also found in confined cows, which were fed six different diets and in growing lambs on three diets. In conclusion, the studies conducted in USA and in Israel investigated in depth the physiological mechanisms of cardiovascular and O2 mobilization, and went on to investigate a wide variety of ruminant species, ages, reproductive states, diets ME, time of intake and time of day, and compared these variables under grazing and confinement conditions. From these combined studies we can conclude that EE can be determined from HR measurements during several days, multiplied by O2P measured over a short period of time (10-15 min). The study showed that RE could be determined during the growing phase without slaughtering. In the near future the development microelectronic devices will enable wide use of the HR method to determine EE and energy balance. It will open new scopes of physiological and agricultural research with minimizes strain on animals. The method also has a high potential as a tool for herd management.
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