Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Compassion scale'

Objective: Previous research on the assessment of compassion focussed on self-reported self-compassion measures. This study reported on the development and evaluation of a new compassion scale that expands the previous conceptualisation by incorporating relational aspects of compassion. Methods: In an online study, 201 participants completed the relational compassion scale and a random sample of four questionnaires comprising measures of self-compassion, emotional approach coping, self-attacking/self-criticism and attachment. Moreover, the criterion-based validity of the scale was tested with an extreme group comparison design for which 30 Arts and Engineering students were recruited. Results: Consistent with a relational conceptualisation of compassion, findings supported a four-factor structure of the measure. Furthermore, the scale was positively correlated with measures of self-compassion, emotional approach coping, reassured self and a secure attachment style. However, the self to other compassion factor of the scale did not correlate with the self-attacking/self-criticism scale. Conclusions: Findings suggest that compassion can be conceptualised from within a relational framework. Moreover, this study indicates a need for further research investigating the relationship between self- and other-compassion in clinical samples and the interaction between different affect regulation systems.

Past research indicates that self-compassion has positive implications for psychological health and functioning. However, as a newly specified construct, the literature regarding self-compassion could benefit from a more thorough validation of the primary scale used in this area of research, the Self-Compassion Scale. In the present study, structural path analysis (using Amos) was used to explore the criterion validity of the SCS with four variables which have been theorized to be relevant to self-compassion (caregiver emotional responsiveness, fear of emotion, internalized spirituality, and achievement goal orientation). Initial hypothesis testing indicated support for the path model, with the exception of achievement goals which were not significantly associated with self-compassion. Trimming these paths in a subsequent analysis improved model fit. Interestingly, further analyses of the model indicated that the pairing of participant and parent gender produced substantial differences in path coefficients. Next, correlational and factor analytic methods were used to test the construct validity of the SCS. Correlational analyses found adequate convergent construct validity but some lack of divergent validity between SCS dimensions and conceptually similar constructs (i.e., fear of emotion, social connectedness and self-criticism). Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that a two-factor model fit the data better than the one-factor model proposed by the author of the SCS. The incremental validity of the two-factor model was supported by incorporating a two-factor SCS in the path analysis. In sum, these findings generally support the criterion validity of the SCS through meaningful associations with theoretically relevant variables but cautions that these associations are strongly influenced by gender. It is also strongly recommended that a two-factor model of the SCS be explored in further research to ascertain its incremental utility for understanding self-compassion’s positive effects on psychological health.

Objectives: The ability to regulate affect in the face of stress has implications for recovery and chronicity in complex mental health problems such as schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder. In addition to adaptive integrating and maladaptive sealing over recovery styles it may be possible to delineate a further maladaptive recovery style of “ruminative preoccupation”. In addition, the capacity to compassionately relate to self and others may be linked to an recovery trajectories. The current study presents data on the utility of a Narrative Compassion Scale for recovery in a mixed clinical sample of individuals with diagnoses of psychotic disorder (with or without interpersonal violence) and Borderline Personality Disorder Design: A cross-sectional mixed methods design was used with a within subjects condition and three between subjects groups Methods: Forty-Three individuals were interviewed and transcripts coded with the Narrative Compassion Scale (NCS). Self-report measures of compassion, attachment, interpersonal problems and symptoms were completed. Symptomatology was also measured. Results: Three recovery styles were identified. Compassion was strongly positively correlated with Integration; and negatively correlated with Sealing Over. NCS compassion was unrelated to self-reported compassion, symptoms, interpersonal problems or attachment. Differential patterns of recovery emerged between clinical groups, with lower preoccupation and higher sealing-over in the psychosis with history of interpersonal violence group. Conclusions: The NCS is a promising narrative measure of recovery and compassionate responding. Implications are discussed in terms of a transdiagnostic understanding of recovery processes.

The literature review aimed to systematically review whether higher ratings of therapist competence predicted better treatment outcomes in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). A systematic search was completed of four electronic databases. A total of 16 relevant articles met inclusion criteria. Findings provided variable support for therapist competence predicting better treatment outcomes in CBT. However, the findings indicated a stronger link between competency and outcome in anxiety treatments. There was evidence that therapeutic alliance and therapist adherence may have influenced the link between therapist competence and outcome, and competencies such as 'structuring' and 'homework setting' were shown to be strongly related to outcome. Limitations of the included papers included small sample sizes, biases in the sampling of therapists and insufficient ratings of tapes to establish a reliable measure of therapist competence. Further research and ongoing review is needed that uses more robust methodologies. The aims of the research were to develop a useful measure of therapist competence in compassion focused-therapy (CFT) that could be used to assess therapist competence in research trials, clinical practice and training. Eleven experts were involved in the development of the CFT therapist competence scale (CFT-TRS). The Delphi method was used to develop and operationalise the competencies over five rounds. The CFT-TRS included 23 competencies and these were separated into fourteen CFT unique therapist competencies and nine microskills. There was high agreement about the included unique and generic competencies, however there were differences in opinion between experts about the content of items and item overlap. The scale can be used as a learning guide for delivering CFT, to assess therapist competence for CFT training courses or clinical practice, and to assess fidelity in research trials. Future research is required to understand and evaluate the psychometric properties of this scale.

This study introduces the Self-Compassion Scale adapted for Children (SCS-C) and presents psychometric findings regarding its reliability and validity. A sample of 382 students in 4th to 7th grade provided data on the SCS-C and measures of mindfulness, self-concept, indicators of well-being, empathic-related responding, and prosocial goals. Teachers provided data on students’ social and emotional competence and empathy/sympathy. Results indicated a two-factor structure for the SCS-C with negatively-worded items and positively-worded items forming two discrete subscales each with high internal consistency. As predicted, students’ scores on the SCS-C were significantly related to multiple indicators of social and emotional well-being, demonstrating preliminary evidence of convergent validity. In addition, scores on the SCS-C were found to differ across grade level, with students in 5th grade reporting higher scores on the SCS-C than students in 4th grade and students in 6th grade. This study provides insight into the factor structure of the SCS-C, as well as the relations of self-compassion to other indicators of social and emotional well-being in childhood and pre-adolescence. Limitations and future directions are discussed with regard to the relevance of the SCS-C for research and applications.

The self-compassion conceptualization developed by Neff (2003a, b) and its corresponding 26-item inventory (SCS) has gained interest in recent years. SCS have proven good validity and reliability, but its suggested six-factor model cannot always be replicated. Recent studies have shown a more promising two-factor model for the SCS. The aim of this study was to test the structural validity of a translated Swedish SCS in university students (n = 464; 22% men). The results showed good construct validity, test-retest and internal reliability (ICC = .97; α = .86). Partial confirmatory factor analysis could not confirm the six-factor model but did support the two-factor model consisting of a positively worded (self-compassionate attitude) and a negatively worded (self-critical attitude) factor. The modified scale (SCS-Swe22) showed good reliability and construct validity (ICC = .96; α = .89). Despite promising results, additional work is required to secure the structural construct of SCS-Swe22.

Self-compassion denotes a compassionate and empathic attitude toward oneself (Neff, 2003b). In the past decade, the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) has been used to measure self-compassion in individuals and its effects on social, psychological, and physiological functioning. While many studies have found positive effects of high self- compassion showing promise for the use of the construct in clinical and empirical applications, there is a dearth of literature regarding the psychometric properties of the SCS. Furthermore, previous studies have not evaluated the individual subscales of the SCS as they relate to other inventories. This study evaluated the SCS and its subscales in relation the to the well-established Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II). The study included 142 undergraduate Cal Poly students who completed both the SCS and the BDI- II. As predicted, a statistically significant negative correlation was found between total SCS and BDI-II scores (r = -.57). Statistically significant negative correlations were also found between BDI-II total scores and the Self-Kindness (r = -.35), Common Humanity (r = -.37), and Mindfulness (r = -.35) subscales of the SCS. Statistically significant positive correlations were found with BDI-II total scores and the Self-Judgment (r = .49), Isolation (r = .59) and Over-Identified (r = .43) subscales of the SCS. This study evaluated the convergent and discriminant validity of the SCS and its subscales as compared to the BDI-II.

Ubuntu is an African humanist philosophy described by the Nguni aphorism “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” which translates as a person is a person through other people. While Ubuntu has been a domain of extensive scholarly research, to date almost all of this work has been philosophical or conceptual; by contrast, there is a dearth of empirical research examining the nature of Ubuntu. Scholars provide indicator values, namely descriptive abstract nouns, of Ubuntu with no consistency in how the indicator values were derived because the concept lacks a clear definition. The challenges arising from the lack of a clear definition of Ubuntu can be attributed to the fact that there is no empirical research that has been conducted to develop a reliable and valid measure of Ubuntu. This research operationalised Ubuntu by developing a psychometrically reliable and valid scale for measuring Ubuntu. The research established the underlying dimensions of Ubuntu. This thesis develops and validates a scale to measure Ubuntu using a mixed-methods, multiple study approach. First, a literature review identifies 82 indicator values of Ubuntu. Next, using focus groups, depth interviews, and q-sorting, three nascent components of Ubuntu emerge: humanness, interconnectedness, and compassion. Finally, across three quantitative studies, the scale is purified to seventeen items which exhibit a three-factor structure that is psychometrically reliable and valid. The Ubuntu scale has discriminant validity relative to a collectivism scale and demonstrates predictive validity in terms of charitable and altruistic behaviours. This study contributes towards the development of theory through conceptualisation of Ubuntu. The current study utilised large sample sizes to replicate the factor structure, reliability, and construct validity of the measure including nomological validity assessment and measurement invariance.
Thesis (DPhil)--University of Pretoria, 2020.
Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS)
DPhil
Unrestricted

Self-compassion has quickly gained recognition for its many cognitive, emotional, and psychological benefits (Neff, 2003b). The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003a) is currently the only instrument measuring self-compassion and is commonly used. The current model contains six factors: self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. However, the SCS has recently come under fire due to limited evidence of its psychometric properties (Lopez et al., 2015). Researchers who have attempted to replicate the factor structure proposed by Neff have found mixed results using both exploratory and confirmatory methods. Our primary aim is to establish the factor structure of the SCS with a large, more representative sample. Thirteen samples (total n = 2,515) using the SCS were combined to demonstrate a more comprehensive approach to investigating the scales’ psychometric properties. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated good model fit for the six-factor solution. However, little is known about how the SCS items naturally load together. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) demonstrated lack of good model fit for the six-factor model; instead, a simpler, two-factor solution emerged. However, the twofactor model is inconsistent with the theoretical conceptualization of self-compassion. Future research should use more advanced statistical models to explain the multidimensionality of the SCS.

Stress är ett växande samhällsproblem och står för en tredjedel av alla sjukskrivningar i Sverige. Många företag uppger att de inte har metoder för att hantera stress. Därmed finns ett stort behov av effektiva metoder för detta. Mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) verkar vara en effektiv metod för att minska stress, men verkningsmekanismerna är ej helt fastställda. Både mindfulness och självmedkänsla förefaller kunna ha inverkan på stress. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka vilken relation mindfulness och självmedkänsla har till upplevd stress bland universitetsstudenter samt om något av begreppen har en starkare relation till upplevd stress än det andra. Tre validerade självskattningsinstrument, Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Five Facet Mindfulness Questionaire (FFMQ-S) och Perceived Stress Scale-14 (PSS-14), administrerades till 203 universitetsstudenter. I enlighet med förväntningarna fanns det ett statistiskt signifikant samband mellan FFMQ och SCS. Regressionsanalyser visade att både FFMQ och SCS predicerade poäng på PSS-14 och att SCS kunde predicera poäng på  PSS-14 i högre grad än FFMQ. Kön var också en signifikant prediktor av poäng på PSS-14, men dess prediktiva värde var ej signifikant när FFMQ och SCS inkluderades i regressionsmodellen. Fyndet tyder på att självmedkänsla är en viktig del i hanteringen av stress och bidrar med en ledtråd i verkningsmekanismerna i MBSR och andra copingstrategier. Mer forskning behövs för att vidare utreda kausalitet och hur de olika komponenterna i självmedkänsla verkar på upplevd stress.
Stress is a growing social problem which accounts for a third of all sick leave in Sweden. Many companies say they do not have methods to manage stress. Thus there is a great need for effective methods to manage stress with. Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) is an effective method to reduce stress, however the mechanisms are not completely understood. Research indicates that Self-compassion seems to have a significant role. Both mindfulness and self-compassion hence seems to be able to have an impact on stress. The purpose of this study is to examine what relationship mindfulness and self-compassion has with perceived stress, and if any of the concepts has a stronger relationship to perceived stress than the other. Three validated self-report instruments, Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and Perceived Stress Scale-14 (PSS14), were administered to 203 university students. The collected data was analyzed with regression analysis. In line with expectations, mindfulness and self-compassion correlated. The results also indicated that both FFMQ and SCS can predict PSS-14 scores, and that scores on SCS could predict scores on PSS-14 to a greater extent than FFMQ could. Gender did also significantly predict scores on PSS-14, but it did not have any significant predictive value when SCS and FFMQ was included in the regression analysis. These findings suggests that self-compassion is an important part of managing stress and therefore might be a significant mechanism of action of MBSR and other coping strategies. More research is needed to further investigate causality, and the function of the various components of self-compassion on perceived stress.

Självmedkänsla ett relativt nytt begrepp och anses vara en viktig faktor för psykisk hälsa och för ett hälsosamt beteende och kan tänkas utgöra ett skydd mot empatitrötthet och utbrändhet. Människor i vård- och omsorgsyrken anses utsatta och man talar mycket om vikten att vårda sig själv. Självmedkänsla är en förmåga man kan ”öva upp” vilket gör det ytterligare intressant. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka självmedkänsla hos vårdpersonal inom psykiatrisk öppenvård och att få mer kunskap om hur behandlare hanterar misslyckanden och svårigheter. Studien har haft både en kvantitativ och en kvalitativ ansats. En enkät (42 svarande) baserad på en översättning av Self-compassion Scale, som mäter självmedkänsla och tre intervjuer har bearbetats. I resultatet framkommer att det med avseende på självmedkänsla var fördelaktigt att vara man, äldre, att ha antigen kort eller lång erfarenhet i yrket eller att ha steg ett-utbildning. Det framkom i den kvalitativa analysen en rad copingstrategier som individer använder sig av för att hantera misslyckande. Dessa sorterades in under följande teman: att hämta kraft från andra, att hämta kraft inifrån, att ta hand om sig samt att luta sig mot sina livserfarenheter. Självmedkänsla är inte ett självgående lokomotiv utan behöver bränsle, från andra, inifrån individen själv och från livserfarenheterna.

The Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale (SCBCS) is a brief measure of compassion, created in English and translated into Brazilian Portuguese. Nonetheless, to date, no study has assessed the psychometric evidence of its Spanish translation. This study examines the evidence of validity, reliability, and factorial invariance according to the gender of a Spanish version of the SCBCS. Participants included 273 Peruvian university students (50.9% women) with an average age of 21.23 years (SD = 3.24); divided into two groups of men and women to conduct the invariance factor analysis. Other measures of mindfulness, well-being, empathy, and anxiety were applied along with the SCBCS. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated that a unifactorial model adjusted significantly to the data (χ2 = 12,127, df = 5, p =.033, χ2 /df = 2.42, CFI =.998, RMSEA =.072 [CI90%.019,.125]; SRMR =.030, WRMR =.551) and presented good reliability (α =.90 [95%.88–.92]; ω =.91). Moreover, correlations between the SCBCS and other measures of mindfulness (r =.53, p <.05, cognitive empathy (r = 55; p <.05), affective empathy (r =.56, p <.05), well-being (r =.55, p <.05), and anxiety (r = −.46; p <.05) supported the convergent and discriminant validity. Likewise, the multiple-group CFA supported the factorial invariance according to the gender of the SCBCS. Results indicate that the SCBCS possesses evidence of validity, reliability, and invariance between men and women for measuring compassion toward others in Peruvian undergraduate students. SCBCS is expected to be used by researchers, healthcare professionals, teachers, and others as a useful measure of compassion in college students.

The claims of the traditional texts and teachers of Buddhist meditation include the enhancement of mental health. Twenty five meditators sitting a ten day retreat in Vipassana and Metta meditation were measured on a compassion scale and an androgyny index. The androgyny index was used to measure mental health. Compassion scores for all meditators increased slightly after the retreat. Experienced meditators had significantly higher scores than inexperienced meditators. Regardless of previous experience, meditators with high compassion scores significantly increased in androgyny after the retreat. The traditional claims for the enhancement of mental health are therefore supported by these results.

Bakgrund: Tidigare psykologisk forskning har visat på samband mellan hög grad självmedkänsla och välbefinnande samt att låg grad självmedkänsla haft samband med psykopatologi. Lite vårdvetenskaplig forskning har gjorts om självmedkänsla och begreppet anses fortfarande relativt okänt. Syfte: Att beskriva hur vuxna personer med adhd uppfattade begreppet självmedkänsla och samtal utifrån Self-Compassion Scale. Hur såg vuxna med adhd på begreppet självmedkänsla och dess innebörd? Vilka utmaningar och vilken behållning beskrev de i användandet av Self-Compassion Scale? Hur var deras självmedkänsla? Metod: Undersökningen hade en QUAL + quan, mixed method design. Fyra personer deltog i kognitiva intervjuer i den kvalitativa delen och i den kvantitativa delen fyllde 23 personer i Self-Compassion Scale. Intervjuerna genomgick en innehållsanalys medan skattningsskalorna har analyserats numeriskt. Resultat: Intervjuerna redovisar tre kategorier; Självmedkänsla innefattar välbefinnande och relationen till sig själv och andra, Samtal leder till självinsikt och Att utforska problem och lösningar är givande och utmanande. Personerna skattade totalt 2,6 i självmedkänsla, vilket betyder medelnivå (medelnivå = 2,6-3,5 ). Slutsatser: Att samtala om självmedkänsla kan vara utmanande och betydelsefullt för personer med adhd. Att som specialistsjuksköterska inom psykiatri ha kunskap om självmedkänsla kan vara värdefullt för patientens hälsa och återhämtning.
Background: Research has shown correlation between high self-compassion and wellbeing as well as low self-compassion has been correlated with psychopathology. Little research of Self-compassion in nursing science has been done and the concept is still relative unknown. Aim: To describe how adults with adhd percived the concept of self-compassion and conversation  with Self-Compassion Scale as starting point. How did adults with adhd perceive self-compassion and it´s meaning? Which challanges and profits did they describe in the use of Self-Compassion Scale? How was their self-compassion? Method: The study had a QUAL + quan, mixed method design. Four participants performed cognitive interviews in the qualitative part and in the quantitative part 23 participants performed Self-Compassion Scale. The interviews underwent content analysis and the assessment tools has been numerically analyzed. Result: The interviews present three categories; Self-compassion contains wellbeing and the relationship to oneself and others, Conversation leeds to self-awareness and To explore problems and solutions is rewarding and challenging. Persons rate a medium-level self-compassion of 2,6 in total (medium level = 2,6-3,5). Highest scores for the categories isolation and over-identified. Conclusion: To converse about self-compassion can be challenging and important for persons with adhd. For the nurse within psychiatric care to have knowledge of self-compassion can be valuable to patient’s health and recovery.

This study examined the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) using secondary data drawn from 20 samples (N = 11,685)—7 English and 13 non-English—including 10 community, 6 student, 1 mixed community/student, 1 meditator, and 2 clinical samples. Self-compassion is theorized to represent a system with 6 constituent components: self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness and reduced self-judgment, isolation and overidentification. There has been controversy as to whether a total score on the SCS or if separate scores representing compassionate versus uncompassionate self-responding should be used. The current study examined the factor structure of the SCS using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM) to examine 5 distinct models: 1-factor, 2-factor correlated, 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor (1 general self-compassion factor and 6 group factors), and 2-bifactor models (2 correlated general factors each with 3 group factors representing compassionate or uncompassionate self-responding). Results indicated that a 1- and 2-factor solution to the SCS had inadequate fit in every sample examined using both CFA and ESEM, whereas fit was excellent using ESEM for the 6-factor correlated, single-bifactor and correlated 2-bifactor models. However, factor loadings for the correlated 2-bifactor models indicated that 2 separate factors were not well specified. A general factor explained 95% of the reliable item variance in the single-bifactor model. Results support use of the SCS to examine 6 subscale scores (representing the constituent components of self-compassion) or a total score (representing overall self-compassion), but not separate scores representing compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding.

These studies define a Buddhist conceptualization of compassion and describe the development of the Compassion Scale. The definition of compassion was adopted from Neff's (2003) model of self-compassion that proposes that the construct entails kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. The six-factor structure was adopted from the Self-Compassion Scale (2003) representing positively and negatively worded items of the three components proposed to entail compassion. The six-factors for compassion are named: kindness vs. indifference, common humanity vs. separation, and mindfulness vs. disengagement. Study 1 was conducted to provide support for content validity. Study 2 was conducted to provide initial validation for the scale. Study 3 was conducted to cross-validate findings from the second study. Results provide evidence for the structure of the scale. Cronbach's alpha and split-half estimates suggest good reliability for both samples. Compassion was significantly correlated with compassionate love, wisdom, social connectedness, and empathy providing support for convergent validity. Factor analysis in both samples indicated good fit using Hu & Bentler (1998) criteria. Results suggest that the Compassion Scale is a psychometrically sound measure of compassion. Given that Buddhist concepts of compassion are receiving increased attention in psychology (e.g. Davidson, 2006; Gilbert, 2005, Goetz, 2010) this scale will hopefully prove useful in research that examines compassion from a non-Western perspective.
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This thesis focuses on the concept of self-compassion - a healthy attitude toward oneself which could be more easily attainable than unconditional self-acceptance and have less downsides than self-esteem. The first part of the thesis offers the most widely used conceptualisation of self-compassion, a comparison between self-compassion, self-esteem and unconditional self-acceptance, a summary of application areas of self-compassion, a list of relevant psychometric tools and a description of the Czech translation of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-CZ). The second part of the thesis consists of a quantitative study designed to further assess the construct validity of the SCS-CZ using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), the trait form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI X2) and the Unconditional Positive Self-Regard Scale (UPSRS) and to explore the connection between self-compassion and unconditional positive self-regard. A battery of web-based inventories was administered to a non-clinical sample (n = 415). The SCS-CZ shows a strong negative correlation with the BDI-II and the STAI X2, and a strong positive correlation with the UPSRS. The SCS-CZ is a valid measure of self-compasssion, suitable for comparing groups and population samples. For drawing conclusions about individuals, it is...

The psychological benefits of self-compassion, a construct associated with adaptively dealing with emotional suffering from life's problems appear to overlap with those of trait resiliency in terms of theoretical underpinnings and outcome research. This study investigated the relationship between self-compassion, personality, and gender in order to shed light on the construct's relevance to an existing framework of resiliency personality research. One hundred and twenty-three college students completed the Big Five Inventory (BFI) and Self-compassion Scale (SCS). A cluster-analysis of the BFI scores yielded three cluster prototypes consistent with overcontrolled, undercontrolled, and resilient personality prototypes identified in previous studies of children and adult community samples. Analyses revealed resilient individuals reported significantly higher overall Self-compassion (M = 3.08, SD = .25) compared to both overcontrolled (M = 2.85, SD = .20, t = -4.32, p <= .00) and undercontrolled types (M = 2.90, SD = .25, t = 3.53, p <= .00). Interestingly, there were no significant differences between overcontrolled and undercontrolled types or between men and women, on overall Self-compassion. A two by three MANOVA of gender and personality prototype on the SCS revealed a significant interaction on overall Self-compassion score (F = 3.92, p <= .02) and the Common Humanity subscale (F = 3.81, p <= .03). Post hoc analyses were conducted to examine the nature of the gender and personality interactions. The theoretical issues raised by these results are discussed and recommendations are made for utilizing self-compassion in treatment and future research.

abstract: The purpose of this dissertation was to develop a Compassionate Communication Scale (CCS) by conducting a series of studies. The first study used qualitative data to identify and develop initial scale items. A series of follow-up studies used exploratory factor analysis to investigate the underlying structure of the CCS. A three-factor structure emerged, which included: Compassionate conversation, such as listening, letting the distressed person disclose feelings, and making empathetic remarks; compassionate touch, such as holding someone's hand or patting someone's back; and compassionate messaging, such as posting an encouraging message on a social networking site or sending a sympathetic email. The next study tested convergent and divergent validity by determining how the three forms of compassionate communication associate with various traits. Compassionate conversation was positively related to compassion, empathetic concern, perspective taking, emotional intelligence, social expressivity, emotional expressivity and benevolence, and negatively related to verbal aggressiveness and narcissism. Compassionate touch was positively correlated with compassion, empathetic concern, perspective taking, emotional intelligence, social expressivity, emotional expressivity, and benevolence, and uncorrelated with verbal aggressiveness and benevolence. Finally, compassionate messaging was positively correlated with social expressivity, emotional expressivity, and uncorrelated with verbal aggressiveness and narcissism. The next study focused on cross-validation and criterion-related validity. Correlations showing that self-reports of a person's compassionate communication were positively related to a friend or romantic partner's report of that person's compassionate communication provided cross-validation. The test for criterion-related validity examined whether compassionate communication predicts relational satisfaction. Regression analyses revealed that people were more relationally satisfied when they perceived themselves to use compassionate conversation, when they perceived their partner to use compassionate conversation, and when their partner reported using compassionate conversation. This finding did not extend to compassionate touch or compassionate messaging. In fact, in one regression analysis, people reported more relational satisfaction when they perceived that their partners used high levels of compassionate conversation and low levels of compassionate touch. Overall, the analyses suggest that of the three forms of compassionate communication, compassionate conversation is most strongly related to relational satisfaction. Taken together, this series of studies provides initial evidence for the validity of the CCS.
Dissertation/Thesis
Ph.D. Communication Studies 2013

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Psicologia apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação
São vários os estudos que ao longo dos anos tentaram compreender asmotivações e ações no cerne da compaixão, amplamente definida como uma motivaçãouniversal para reconhecer o sofrimento e tentar aliviá-lo. Em 2017, Gilbert et al. criouas Compassion Engagement and Action Scales (CEAS) com o objetivo de medir aautocompaixão, a compaixão pelos outros e a compaixão dos outros. Porém, não existenenhum estudo, do qual tenhamos conhecimento, que avalie a abertura a recebercompaixão dos outros. Por esta razão, a presente investigação tem como objetivoprimordial contribuir para o estudo psicométrico da CEAS, desenvolvendo uma novamedida de auto-resposta que permita avaliar a abertura a receber compaixão dos outros:a escala de Abertura à Compaixão. Este estudo foi realizado com uma amostra de 284participantes da população portuguesa, que completaram um conjunto de escalasrelativas a diferentes constructos: abertura à compaixão, compaixão pelos outros,compaixão dos outros, memórias de calor e afeto, perceção de importância para osoutros, sentimentos de segurança social e conexão com os outros, indicadorespsicopatológicos, sentimentos de solidão, dificuldades nos padrões de sono, e ainda umconjunto de questões qualitativas sobre as experiências subjetivas de recebercompaixão, que se revelaram um importante complemento para a compreensão dacompaixão dos outros e para a literatura atual. A estrutura factorial da escala Abertura àCompaixão revelou valores adequados de ajustamento do modelo e provou ser umamedida fiável, com boa validade e qualidades psicométricas. Adicionalmente, osresultados apontaram para a existência de correlações positivas entre a abertura àcompaixão e os três outros fluxos da compaixão, bem como com memórias de calor eafeto, a perceção de importância para os outros e sentimentos de segurança social econexão com os outros. Em contraste, a abertura à compaixão revelou estarnegativamente associada com sentimentos de solidão. Relativamente aos modelos demediação, os resultados mostraram que a abertura à compaixão medeia parcialmente oimpacto das memórias de calor e afeto nos sentimentos de segurança social e conexãocom os outros, bem como nos sentimentos de solidão. Desta forma, a escala de Aberturaà Compaixão não só provou ser uma válida e fiável medida da abertura à compaixão dosoutros, como também uma relevante contribuição às Compassion Engagement andAction Scales, podendo ser uma importante adição à prática clínica e a futurasinvestigações sobre a compaixão e os seus principais componentes: motivação e ação.
Several studies over the years have been trying to understand the motivationsand actions in the core of compassion, defined as the universal motivation to recognizethe suffering in self and others and the attempt to alleviate that pain. Gilbert et al. (2017)created the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales (CEAS) that measure selfcompassion,compassion to others and compassion from others. However, to the best ofour knowledge, there are no studies that assess one’s openness to receive compassionfrom others. For that reason, the present study aimed to contribute to the psychometricstudy of the CEAS scales, by developing a new self-report measurement that evaluatesopenness to compassion from others: the Openness to Compassion scale. This study wasconducted with a sample of 284 participants from the Portuguese population.Participants completed a set of scales that measured openness to compassion, selfcompassion,compassion to others, compassion from others, feelings of mattering toothers, early memories of warmth and safeness, feelings of social safeness,psychopathological indicators, feelings of loneliness and difficulties in the sleeppatterns. Furthermore, this study included a set of qualitative questions about subjectiveexperiences of receiving compassion from others. Openness to Compassion factormodel revealed acceptable fit values, proving to be a valid and reliable measure, withgood validity and psychometric qualities. We found that openness to compassion ispositively correlated with the three other scales of compassion, compassion engagementand action scales, early memories of warmth and safeness, the perception of matteringto others and feelings of social safeness and connectedness to others. Moreover,openness to compassion was also found to be negatively correlated with feelings ofloneliness. Mediation analysis showed that openness to compassion partially mediatedthe impact of early memories of warmth and safeness on feelings of social safeness, andon feelings of loneliness. The qualitative reported data was an important complement tothe understanding of receiving compassion from others and to the current literature.Openness to Compassion scale may constitute a relevant contribution to the assessmentof one’s openness to receive compassion from others and an important addition to theCompassion Engagement and Action Scales. Furthermore, this scale proved to be avalid and reliable measure that may be used in future research and clinical practice.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Psicologia apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e de Ciências da Educação
Compassion can be defined as a sensitivity to suffering, both from the self and the other, with a motivation and commitment to alleviate and prevent this suffering (Gilbert, 2014). There are several studies that mention the importance of interventions in the scope of compassion, signaling the countless benefits of these. However, there is no scale to assess the progress made with this type of interventions (Steindl et al., unpublished).Thus, in order to evaluate, weakly, how individuals improve in terms of compassionate actions and with existing interventions, the Compassion Motivation and Action Scales were created (CMAS; Steindl et al., 2017).This study aims to examine the psychometric characteristics of EMAC (Matos et al., 2018) in the Portuguese population. A sample of 516 participants was used to perform an Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Analyzes confirmed the original structure of the instrument, composed by three subscales (intention, distress tolerance and action), both for the Compassion for others scale (12 items) and the Self-Compassion scale (18 items). The psychometric study also revealed good internal consistency of the scales and adequate construct validity. Thus, the scale seems to constitute a validinstrument for the evaluation and investigation of compassion. The present study also confirmed the predictive role of Self-Compassion and Self-Criticism in Depressive Symptoms. Subjective experiences of Compassion towards others and ourselves were also discussed.
A compaixão pode ser definida como uma sensibilidade ao sofrimento, tanto do eu como do outro, com uma motivação e compromisso para aliviar e prevenir este sofrimento (Gilbert, 2014). Existem diversos estudos que referem a importância das intervenções no âmbito da compaixão, sinalizando os inúmeros benefícios destas. No entanto, não existia ainda nenhuma escala que permitisse a avaliação dos progressos obtidos com este tipo de intervenções (Steindl et al., unpublished). Assim, de modo a se conseguir avaliar, semanalmente, como os indivíduos melhoram em termos de ações compassivas e com as referidas intervenções, procedeu-se à criação das Escalas da Motivação e Ação Compassiva (EMAC; Steindl et al., 2017). O presente estudo pretende examinar as características psicométricas das EMAC (Matos et al., 2018) na população Portuguesa. Uma amostra de 516 participantes foi utilizada para realizar uma Análise Fatorial Exploratória e Confirmatória. As análises confirmaram a estrutura original do instrumento, com três subscalas (intenção, tolerância ao sofrimento e ação), tanto para a escala de compaixão pelos outros (12 items) como para a escala de autocompaixão (18 items). O estudo psicométrico revelou também boa consistência interna das escalas e validade de constructo adequada. Assim, a escala constituiu-se como um instrumento útil para avaliação e investigação da compaixão. O presente estudo permitiu também confirmar o papel preditivo da autocompaixão e do autocriticismo na Sintomatologia Depressiva. Experiências subjetivas de Compaixão em relação aos outros e ao próprio foram também discutidas.

Dissertação de mestrado em Psicologia Clínica e de Saúde (Intervenções Cognitivo-Comportamentais nas Perturbações Psicológicas e de Saúde) apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação da Universidade de Coimbra
A Compaixão tem sido cada vez mais alvo de interesse, tendo associada a si um vasto conjunto de investigações sobre as suas manifestações, em diversas populações. O treino de competências e atributos compassivos tem revelado um impacto significativo na redução de sintomatologia psicopatológica e na promoção do bem-estar psicológico. Contudo, tem-se verificado em contexto terapêutico que para alguns sujeitos o desenvolvimento de sentimentos e capacidades auto-compassivas ou a recepção destas por parte de outros, se torna extremamente difícil, sendo que muitas vezes se sentem receosos, tentando mesmo evitá-los. Estas reacções são evidentes em sujeitos com elevados níveis de vergonha e autocriticismo. Neste sentido, surge a Fears of Compassion Scales (FCS), um conjunto de três escalas que visam medir o medo de desenvolver sentimentos de compaixão pelos outros, o medo de desenvolver sentimentos de compaixão pelo Eu e ainda, o medo de receber este tipo de sentimentos por parte dos outros. Estas escalas pretendem contribuir para uma melhor compreensão dos medos da compaixão, possibilitando, deste modo, entender a melhor forma de os abordar em contexto terapêutico. O presente estudo teve como objectivo primordial estudar as propriedades psicométricas da versão portuguesa da FCS numa amostra constituída por 302 participantes da população geral não-estudante. De seguida, pretendeu-se averiguar a existência de associações entre este instrumento e medidas de vergonha, compaixão e ainda de sintomatologia psicopatológica, nomeadamente depressão, ansiedade, stress e ideação paranóide, tendo-se efectuado estas análises por géneros. O instrumento revelou boas propriedades psicométricas, provando ser uma medida válida e fidedigna na avaliação dos medos da compaixão, confirmando a existência de bons indicadores de consistência interna e uma estrutura unifactorial robusta à semelhança do que foi encontrado pelos autores da versão original (Gilbert, McEwan, Rivis & Matos, 2010). De uma forma global, os resultados permitiram concluir que para ambos os géneros, as experiências de vergonha na infância, o impacto traumático e centralidade das experiências de vergonha, a vergonha interna e vergonha externa e as facetas negativas da auto-compaixão se encontram associadas de forma positiva tanto ao medo de desenvolver sentimentos de compaixão pelo Eu, como ao medo de receber este tipo de sentimentos por parte dos outros. A única associação encontrada entre o medo de desenvolver compaixão pelo Eu e as facetas positivas da auto-compaixão, verificou-se no género feminino. Neste seguimento, as memórias de calor/afecto e segurança encontram-se associadas de forma negativa com estes dois medos. Apurou-se que estes se encontram associados positivamente à sintomatologia psicopatológica. Contudo, de uma forma global apenas se verificaram associações entre o medo de desenvolver sentimentos de compaixão pelos outros e as restantes variáveis em estudo, no que concerne ao género feminino. Os resultados das regressões permitiram concluir que é a centralidade das experiências de vergonha que melhor explica o medo de desenvolver compaixão pelo Eu e medo de receber compaixão por parte dos outros. Por sua vez, estes dois medos são os que melhor explicam a vergonha interna e a vergonha externa, tal como as facetas negativas da auto-compaixão e a sintomatologia psicopatológica, em ambos os géneros.
Compassion has increasingly been the target of interest, with a vast array of research being conducted on its manifestations in diverse populations. The training of compassionate skills and attributes appears to have a significant impact on the reduction of psychopathological symptoms and the promotion of psychological well-being. However, there has been notice that in therapeutic context some people find extremely difficult to develop feelings and self-compassionate capabilities or to receive them from others. This is because they often feel afraid and even try to avoid them. These reactions are evident in subjects with high levels of shame and selfcriticism. In this context, Fears of Compassion Scales (FCS) appears, as a set of three scales designed to measure the fear of developing feelings of compassion for others, the fear of developing feelings of compassion for the self and also the fear of receiving these types of feelings from others. These scales are intended to contribute to a better understanding of the fears of compassion, thus enabling us to understand how best to address them in a therapeutic context. The primary objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of FCS with a sample of 302 participants from the general non-student population. Also, it sought to investigate the associations between this instrument and measures of shame, compassion and of psychopathological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, stress and paranoid ideation. It performed these analyzes according to gender. This instrument had revealed good psychometric properties, and proved to be a valid measure in the evaluation of the fears of compassion. It noted an unifactorial structure with good values of internal consistence, as the autors of the original study had found (Gilbert, McEwan, Rivis & Matos, 2010). Holistically, the results showed that for both genders, the experiences of shame in childhood, the impact of traumatic and the centrality of shame experiences, both internal and external shame and the negative facets of selfcompassion are positively associated to both the fear of developing feelings of compassion for the self as well as the fear of receiving this type of feelings from others. The only association found between fear of developing compassion for the self and the positive aspects of self-compassion was found in females. Following this, the memories of warmth, affection and safeness are negatively associated with these two fears. It was also found that these two fears are positively associated with psychopathological symptoms. However, on a global basis, it were only found associations between fear of developing feelings of compassion for others and the other study variables, regarding the female gender. The results of the regressions showed that, in general, it is the centrality of the experience of shame that best explains the fear of developing self-compassion and the fear of receiving compassion from others. These two fears are also those that best explain both internal and external shame, such as the negative facets of selfcompassion and psychopathological symptoms in both genders.