Academic literature on the topic 'Commerce, Germany: Bremen'

The subject of the study is the activity of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen, an organization created after the outbreak of the Ruhr crisis in 1923 by the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce to conduct export propaganda abroad. The article analyzes documents from the funds of the Russian State Military Archive and the German Federal Archives related to the functioning of this structure in 1923-1932. The purpose of the study is to determine how the Hamburg organization managed to deploy large—scale propaganda activity that spread to almost all countries of the world and acquired national significance in Weimar Germany. Special attention is paid to the characteristics of various areas of work, interaction with official departments and the impact of the world economic crisis of 1929-1933 on the activities of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen. Based on the study, it was revealed that the organization formed in Hamburg published various printed products, an information service was created abroad, and the key direction was covert penetration into the foreign press. The article shows that the reason for such activity lay in the interest of the economic circles of the region in improving the image of the country abroad in order to normalize foreign trade relations, and the possibility of its implementation — in the presence of the necessary connections for propaganda in foreign countries. One of the results of the study is the conclusion that the activities of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen affected not only export, but also cultural and political propaganda and was supported by the government interested in carrying out propaganda activities in a hidden form and through private structures. Over the years, the Hamburg-based organization has increasingly come under the influence of the state, whose assistance has become especially urgent after the global economic crisis of 1929-1933.

The societal mega-trends of the past four decades, such as a globalizing economy and an aging society, have challenged the understanding of the state in OECD countries. The resulting “transformations of the state” are the subject of an interdisciplinary research agenda established at the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 597 in Bremen, Germany. A total of twenty projects from political science, law, and economics explore changes of statehood which take place in two different dimensions: first, the internationalization and, second, the privatization of activities and functions which were traditionally performed by and ascribed to the democratic, constitutional and interventionist state. While the first research phase (2003-2006) aimed at founding empirical descriptions of these internationalization and privatization processes, the current phase (2007-2010) is dedicated to explaining the observed changes in statehood. Within this general framework, the authors’ research project on “New Forms of Legal Certainty in Globalized Exchange Processes” deals with changes in the institutional organization of commerce.

In 1971, upon the conclusion of my university studies and my first state examination, and before sitting for my second (final) state examination, I commenced my practical training as a so-called Referendar at the Amtsgericht (local district court) in Gettorf, near Kiel. It was a very small court, employing only one judge who was responsible in this position for all legal cases. In addition, a total of approximately 20 other employees were working there. The court had no electric typewriter, and no copying machine. When a copy had to be made, the document was literally transcribed in the true sense of the word. Later, after my second and final state examination, I started my services as a judge at the Landgericht (regional court) in Bremen, a court with approximately 60 judges and a total of approximately 200 employees. It was not a matter of course that each judge had a telephone of his/her own. Moreover, connections to the outside world were frequently only possible through the general telephone exchange. One office had to be shared by several judges. Dictating machines were available, but not taken for granted. On the contrary, as a rule it was the usual practice for a clerk to take the minutes—even in cases for which the Code of Procedure did not specifically require this.

Laparoscopic liver resection has been performed mostly in centers with an extended expertise in both hepatobiliary and laparoscopic surgery and only in highly selected patients. In order to overcome the obstacles of this technique through improved intraoperative visualization we developed a laparoscopic navigation system (LapAssistent) to register pre-operatively reconstructed three-dimensional CT or MRI scans within the intra-operative field. After experimental development of the navigation system, we commenced with the clinical use of navigation-assisted laparoscopic liver surgery in January 2010. In this paper we report the technical aspects of the navigation system and the clinical use in one patient with a large benign adenoma. Preoperative planning data were calculated by Fraunhofer MeVis Bremen, Germany. After calibration of the system including camera, laparoscopic instruments, and the intraoperative ultrasound scanner we registered the surface of the liver. Applying the navigated ultrasound the preoperatively planned resection plane was then overlain with the patient's liver. The laparoscopic navigation system could be used under sterile conditions and it was possible to register and visualize the preoperatively planned resection plane. These first results now have to be validated and certified in a larger patient collective. A nationwide prospective multicenter study (ProNavic I) has been conducted and launched.

During the greater part of the 15th century, the Burgundian princes created a stable, unified center for industry and the flourishing of the arts in the Netherlands. Philip the Good became one of the most powerful and wealthy princes of the House of Burgundy in the period. Under his rule, the Netherlands became an important center for commerce. The port of Bruges, and later Antwerp, offered easy access to the important trade routes. The German merchants of the Hansa towns of Bremen, Danzig, Lübeck, and Hamburg and ships from England and the Baltic regions brought wares to be bought and sold in Flemish towns. The routes along the Atlantic and Mediterranean provided direct lines of communication between Italian merchants from Venice, Genoa, Florence, and Bruges.The Netherlands soon became a center of a large part of the business activity in Europe and its prosperity grew. The concentration of trade, the presence of numerous banks, and the commission they charged contributed to the wealth of its bourgeois merchants and financiers. They soon became as rich and sometimes richer than the Burgundian princes. Thus they had the means to become important patrons of the arts so as to display their wealth. The acquisition of rare and exotic goods became an essential part of a society where exhibiting one's wealth was admired.Flemish artists' corporations were well organized, not unlike modern businesses. They were well-known locally and abroad and had significant influence on the art of the period. Works of art were created in workshops where a long apprenticeship afforded the artists guidance and expert training in their craft. High standards which contributed to the good reputation of the art of Flanders, were maintained by setting the quality of the materials and establishing the techniques used. The painters' guild controlled the production of paintings and took measures to control the supply of materials to keep down prices and to control competition. Also, contracts between artist and patron would sometimes stipulate the type of materials to be used.

Créée en 1719 pour lancer une nouvelle représentation de la sphère « commerciale » au sein de la généralité, la Chambre de commerce de La Rochelle, point central d’une organisation institutionnelle complexe, participe activement à la vie politique et économique du royaume. Malgré la rivalité organique qui la fragilise, cette neuvième chambre parvient finalement à se présenter comme l’interlocuteur privilégié du négociant et son plus fervent défenseur. En tant qu’intermédiaire entre les rouages du pouvoir et les maisons de commerce, elle devient le pilier du négoce de la généralité et aussi sa mémoire, en collectant une abondante correspondance et de nombreux écrits touchant au commerce. Inscrite dans une logique de participation mais aussi de contestation, sa défense des intérêts locaux au sein du vaste intérêt national trouve tout particulièrement à s’exprimer dans les relations commerciales avec l’Europe du Nord. Certes, les préoccupations essentielles du commerce sont ailleurs, dans la mesure où ce circuit maritime ne saurait rivaliser en importance avec le trafic colonial et la traite négrière. Pour autant, les négociants rochelais n’entendent pas se résigner à la situation de fait qui prévaut dans la route du Nord : des denrées coloniales et des marchandises françaises fort convoitées par l’espace septentrional, mais transportées presque exclusivement sous pavillon étranger. Connus pour être de « grands disputeurs et faiseurs de mémoires », les Rochelais ne manquent pas d’analyser au fond les causes de la crise du commerce direct entre le Nord de l’Europe et le royaume. Ils dénoncent non seulement la mainmise quasi hégémonique des Anglais et des Hollandais sur cette voie d’échanges, mais également les mesures adoptées par les bureaux de Versailles qu’ils jugent trop timides. Cette réalité, expliquée jusqu’alors par des considérations d’ordre économique, politique et culturel, se colore de tout autres teintes si l’on prend en considération la norme juridique. Analysée à plusieurs niveaux et dans plusieurs dimensions, cette dernière révèle une inégalité de traitement manifeste entre négociants français et étrangers. Ententes diplomatiques, traités internationaux, législation douanière, cadre institutionnel, toutes les composantes de la règle de droit jouent un rôle important dans le fonctionnement de ce circuit maritime. Toutefois, la corrélation entre la règle de droit et le commerce du Nord ne saurait être appréhendée par la seule étude des échanges avec le port de La Rochelle. Le regard doit se porter également vers les modèles institutionnels et douaniers septentrionaux. Or ces derniers confirment que la spécificité de la norme juridique dans certains États du Nord constitue un élément déterminant de cette carte maritime. Et au-delà de ce constat, l’analyse attentive de l’un des plus anciens monuments du droit maritime médiéval, par ailleurs à l’origine de la ligue hanséatique, conduit à une singulière découverte : ce texte, connu sous le nom de « Lois de Visby » laisse transparaître, dans le berceau même de l’Europe du Nord, une très nette influence romaine
Created in 1719 to launch a new representation of the "trade” sphere within the general population, the La Rochelle Chamber of Commerce, the central point of a complex institutional organization, participates actively in the political and economic life of the kingdom. In spite of the organic rivalry which weakens it, this ninth Chamber succeeds finally in becoming the privileged representative of the trader and its most fervent supporter. As the middleman between the wheels of power and the trading companies, it becomes not only the mainstay of popular trade, but also its recorder, by collecting numerous items of correspondence and papers relating to trade. In a policy of both participation and dispute, its defense of local interests within the vast national interest is especially to be found in business relations with Northern Europe. Admittedly, the main trade concerns are elsewhere, as this maritime circuit could never compete in importance with colonial traffic and the slave trade. For all that, the Rochelais traders do not intend to give up - which is shown in the route to the North: colonial commodities and French products, strongly desired by the North, but transported almost exclusively under a foreign flag. Famous for being "big debaters and memory makers", the Rochelais do not fail to analyze the root causes of the direct business crisis between Northern Europe and the kingdom. They denounce not only the almost hegemonic control that both the English and the Dutch have over these trade routes, but also the measures adopted by the Versailles offices which they consider too timid. This reality, explained until then, by economic, political and cultural considerations, looks completely different if we consider the legal rule. Analyzed on several levels and in several dimensions, the latter reveals an obvious disparity of treatment between French and foreign traders. Diplomatic agreements, international treaties, customs legislation, institutional framework, all the components of legal rule, play an important role in the functioning of this maritime circuit. However, the correlation between legal rule and trade with the North could not be explained merely by the observance of trade exchanges with the port of La Rochelle. The northern institutional and customs models must also be examined. And yet these models confirm that the specificity of legal rule in some Northern States constitutes a determining element of this maritime chart. Furthermore, the careful analysis of one of the oldest monuments of medieval maritime law, at the origin of the Hanseatic league, leads to a singular discovery: this text, known by the name of "Lois de Visby" shows clearly, in the cradle of Northern Europe, a very clear Roman influence

This book examines the representation of Wales and ‘Welshness’ in texts by French (including Breton) and German-speaking travellers from 1780 to the present day, focusing on key points in the period of Welsh modernisation from the Industrial Revolution to the post-devolution era. Since the emergence of the travel narrative as a popular source of information and entertainment in the mid-18^th century, writing about Wales has often been embedded and hidden in accounts of travel to ‘England’. This book seeks to redefine perceptions of Wales by problematizing the notion of ‘invisibility’ often ascribed to the Welsh context and by broadening perspectives outwards to encompass European perceptions. Works uncovered for the first time include travelogues, private correspondences, travel diaries, articles and blogs which have Wales or Welsh culture as their focus. The ‘travellers’ analysed in this volume ‘travellers’ feature those travelling for the purpose of leisure, scholarship or commerce as well as exiles and refugees. By focusing on Wales, a minoritized nation at the geographical periphery of Europe, the authors are able to problematize notions of hegemony and identity within the genre, relating to both the places encountered (the ‘travellee’ culture) and the places of origin (the travellers’ cultures). This book thereby makes an original contribution to studies in travel writing and provides an important case study of a culture often minoritized in the field, but that nevertheless provides a telling illustration of the dynamics of intercultural relations and representation.

Abstract Within the confines of the straggling kingdom of Prussia, which in the eight eenth century extended from the Meuse to the Memel throughout northern Germany, lay the small electorate of Braunschweig-Lüneberg, or Hanover, the continental possession of the English Georges. This small state, which in 1795 had an area about equal to the states of Massachusetts and Connecticut and a population of almost one million, lay between the Weser and the Elbe for a distance of about one hundred twenty-five miles from their mouths in a position which cut the Prussian monarchy into two unequal parts. To the west of it lay the small Westphalian and Rhine provinces of Prussia, comparatively prosper ous and advanced in their economic organization; to the east lay the larger provinces of central and eastern Prussia, with their more primitive and more unified feudal organization. Thus Hanover, with its control over the commer cial ports of Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck, at the same time a state of the Holy Roman Empire and in the possession of an independent power. was in a peculiarly strategic position in respect not only to the political, but also to the cultural interests of Prussia.