Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Collectivisme – Psychologie'

Durant des siècles, la religion a été considérée comme une entité extrêmement influente. Lentement et progressivement, les gouvernements ont pris la relève et gagné en puissance. De nos jours, quelques grandes entreprises prennent le relais (Cohen, 1988). Cependant, la recherche montre que les entreprises qui ne gèrent pas leur pouvoir de manière socialement responsable sont sanctionnées par la société (Davis, 1973). Pour cette raison, les PDG sont amenés à faire un usage intelligent et productif de leurs ressources, par le biais de la responsabilité sociale. La RSE est un phénomène important par le moyen duquel les employés acquièrent, par identification à l'entreprise, une identité sociale. Cette identification génère elle-même des comportements de citoyenneté organisationnelle (OCB). Il est nécessaire de procéder à une étude approfondie de ces comportements influencés par la RSE, en tenant compte de l'approche psychologique individualiste ou collectiviste de l'employé. Nous présentons ici un modèle optimal, testé empiriquement. Les résultats de cette recherche suggèrent aux entreprises d'utiliser intelligemment leurs activités opérationnelles pour répondre à un large éventail de besoins
Ages ago, religion was an entity which was deemed as influentially powerful. Slowly and gradually, governments became the entities even with greater power to influence the circumstances. And now, some big corporations have taken over that power (Cohen, 1988) . Nevertheless, when power comes, along lingers responsibility. Research shows that businesses which do not handle their power in socially responsible manner, the society deprives it of that power (Davis, 1973). For this reason, CEO's now make intelligent use of their resources in order to be productive as well as socially responsible, in short they exhibit Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR is such a powerful phenomenon which enables an employee to derive his/her social identity by identifying with the firm. Employees view their self as a depiction of their firm, when their firm behaves in a socially responsible manner. This resulting identification tends to generate organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). A need resides to conduct an deep study of employee behavior influenced by CSR while considering the individualist or collectivist psychological approach of the employee. This research plays its role in configuring the resulting behavioral patterns generated from the considerate behavior of the firm. We bring forward an optimal model, which is empirically tested. The findings support this research suggesting firms to cleverly utilize its operational activities to meet a broader range of needs

Notre objectif est de confronter une perspective différentielle à une perspective psychosociale. C'est de l'intérêt pour la psychologie culturelle comparative qu'a émergé un tel questionnement. Le constat auquel l'examen de cette littérature permet d'aboutir est que les auteurs concluent plus souvent à des différences qu'à des similitudes (Ongel et Smith, 1994) entre cultures. L'ethnocentrisme, inhérent à ces recherche, est souvent évoqué comme la cause principale de l'échec à identifier les universaux du fonctionnement humain (Jahoda, 1979, Malpass, 1988). Dans ce travail, nous défendons que c'est aussi parce qu'elle néglige le facteur social comme potentiellement explicatif, que la CCP constate des différences. Nous avons appuyé notre argument sur de récentes recherches, mettant en évidence que considérer l'individualisme et le collectivisme, au niveau culturel (Sinha et Tripathi, 1994), ou l'allocentrisme et l'idiocentrisme, au niveau individuel (Sengelis, 1994), comme potentiellement coexistants, suggère de ne pas négliger le facteur social comme explicatif. En effet, considérer que les 2 traits de personnalité (allocentrisme et idiocentrisme) coexistent au sein de tous les individus implique les comportements qui sont associés à chacun d'eux, peuvent s'exprimer au sein de tous les individus, selon les situations et les contextes sociaux. Dans la 2e partie, nous avons repris l'expérience de Tesser et Smith (1980). Notre but était de montrer que, dans un contexte culturel maintenu constant, des différences interindividuelles subsistaient. Ensuite notre objectif était de savoir si les différences observées pouvaient être expliquées uniquement par les dispositions ou si le contexte social contribuait aussi à expliquer une part de variance observée. Sur les 5 études effectuées, certines permettent de conclure en faveur d'une hypothèse bidimensionnelle, qui implique une perspective explicative -essentiellement psychosociale. Cependant, d'autres abondent dans le sens d'une perspective différentielle. Nos résultats s'ils ne permettent pas de proposer une conclusion radicale en faveur de l'une ou l'autre des 2 perspectives, suggèrent la nécessité d'une étude globale et non dichotomique des individus et des cultures

L’objectif de cette thèse est de vérifier si la perception d’humanité d’une cible varie en fonction des valeurs culturelles qu’elle exprime. En France, les valeurs dominantes correspondent, d’après un ensemble d’études de psychologie interculturelle, à des valeurs individualistes. En s’appuyant sur ces données, plusieurs études ont été mises en œuvre pour comparer les attributions d’humanité à une cible qui exprime soit des valeurs individualistes, soit des valeurs collectivistes. D’après l’hypothèse ethnocentrique, l’expression de valeurs collectivistes devrait susciter moins d’attributions d’humanité que l’expression de valeurs individualistes. Pour vérifier cette hypothèse, plusieurs mesures d’attributions d’humanité ont été utilisées. Trois prétests ont notamment été réalisés en vue de valider une mesure francophone d’Unicité Humaine et de Nature Humaine via des traits de personnalité. Quatre études expérimentales ont ensuite été mises en place pour répondre à la problématique générale. Les données obtenues ne permettent pas de confirmer l’hypothèse ethnocentrique et montrent que l’expression de valeurs individualistes et collectivistes sont chacune associées à des aspects spécifiques de l’humain. Les résultats conduisent à une réflexion au sujet de la validité convergente des mesures d’attributions d’humanité et de leur capacité à s’émanciper des effets de positivité. Une discussion concernant le statut normatif des valeurs individualistes est également engagée
The aim of this thesis is to test whether perceived humanness of an individual depends on the cultural values he expresses. Several studies in cross-cultural psychology identified individualistic values as the dominant values in France. Based on these data, we conducted a set of research studies to compare humanness attributions to a target person that expresses either individualistic or collectivist values. According to the ethnocentric hypothesis, the expression of collectivistic values should elicit fewer attributions of humanness than the expression of individualistic values. To test this hypothesis, several measures of humanness attributions were used. Three pre-tests were conducted to validate a francophone measure of Human Uniqueness and Human Nature via personality traits. Then, four experimental studies were set up to address the ethnocentric hypothesis. The data collected did not confirm the ethnocentric hypothesis and showed that the expression of individualistic and collectivistic values are each associated with specific aspects of human being. The results lead to a reflexion about the convergent validity of measures of humanness attributions and their ability to avoid being biased by positivity effects. The normative status of individualistic values is also discussed

Cette thèse examine les effets de la culture sur l’évaluation et l’intention d’achat des produits domestiques versus étrangers dans deux pays (France et Royaume-Uni).Les individus interrogés ont reçu des informations sur deux produits d’ameublement(canapés) fabriqués soit en France soit au Royaume-Uni. Les produits étaient décrits comme étant supérieurs ou inférieurs à la concurrence étrangère. Il s’avère que les français et les anglais évaluent favorablement les produits domestiques (versus importés) lorsqu’ils sont supérieurs à la concurrence étrangère. En outre, le pays d’origine du produit va plus influencer l’intention d’achat des produits domestiques chez les anglais que chez les français. Les dimensions individualisme horizontal, distance hiérarchique et masculinité expliquent les effets de la culture sur l’évaluation et l’intention. Cela donne lieu à de nombreuses implications sur les stratégies de marketing international dont les solutions sont proposées dans cette recherche
This thesis examines the effects of culture on the evaluation and purchase intention of domestic versus foreign products in two countries (France and United-Kingdom). Subjects received information about two furnishings products (sofas) manufactured in either France or the United-Kingdom. The products were described as being superior or inferior to foreign competition. It turns out that the French and English respondents evaluated favorably domestic products (versus imported ones) only when they are superior to competition. In addition, the country of origin of the product will most influence the intention to buy domestic products in United- Kingdom than in France. The horizontal dimension of individualism, the power distance and the masculinity explain the effects of culture on product evaluation and purchase intention. This gives rise to many implications on international marketing strategies whose solutions are proposed in this research

La demande croissante des marques de luxe crée de nouvelles opportunités et défis pour répondre aux attentes des consommateurs en fonction des caractéristiques sociodémographiques (genre, culture, âge et classe sociale). Cette thèse vise l’explication des effets de culture et du genre sur les valeurs (élitisme, exclusivité, raffinement, héritage) associées à la consommation des marques de luxe selon le modèle de Roux et al. (2007) et à le compléter en introduisant le besoin d'authenticité comme antécédent de l’héritage. Les variations interculturelles de ces valeurs sont étudiées en comparant 2 échantillons de consommateurs : France (512) et EAU (512). Les résultats indiquent que 1) le besoin d'authenticité exerce une influence positive sur l’héritage, 2) les consommateurs occidentaux accordent plus d’importance à l’héritage et au raffinement que les consommateurs orientaux, 3) ces derniers apparaissent plus attachés à l’élitisme, 4) aucune différence interculturelle n’est observée à propos de l’exclusivité. Concernant les effets du genre, elle réplique les travaux de Roux et al. (2007) : en France, les hommes sont plus attachés à l’élitisme et à l’exclusivité, et les femmes accordent plus d’importance au raffinement. Aux EAU, le genre n’affecte pas l’importance attribuée à l’exclusivité. Conformément à la théorie de la structure sociale d’Eagly et Wood (1999), les effets du genre sont, dans les deux pays, totalement médiatisés par l’adhésion des consommateurs aux stéréotypes du genre, ce qui les conduit à privilégier les valeurs du luxe consistantes avec ces stéréotypes. Les contributions théoriques et managériales sont discutées ainsi que les perspectives de recherche
The increasing demand for luxury brands creates new opportunities and challenges for the brands to better meet consumer expectations. This thesis aims to highlight and explain the effects of culture and gender on values (elitism, exclusivity, refinement, and brand heritage) associated with luxury brand consumption (Roux, Tafani, & Vigneron, 2017), and to complete this model by introducing the need for authenticity (NFA) as a driver of brand heritage. The cross-cultural variations of these values are investigated by comparing two samples of frequent luxury brand consumers issued from a more individualistic Western culture (France: N = 512) vs. a more collectivist Eastern culture (United Arabic Emirates: N = 512). Main results reveal that (i) NFA exerts a positive influence on brand heritage value, (ii) Western consumers attach more importance to brand heritage and refinement, (iii) whereas Eastern consumers are more concerned with elitism, and lastly (iv) no significant difference is observed with respect to exclusivity. Regarding gender effects, this research replicates Roux et al.’s (2007) findings: in France, men give more importance to elitism and exclusivity, whereas women favor refinement. However, in the United Arab Emirates, gender does not affect exclusivity. In addition, according to the Social Structural Theory (Eagly, & Wood, 1999), in both cultures, the adherence to own-gender beliefs fully mediates gender differences, which leads male and female consumers to favor luxury values consistent with their own gender beliefs. Key theoretical contributions and managerial implications of these findings are discussed before addressing new research perspectives

Though much research has been conducted concerning the horizontal and vertical attributes of individualism and, not much has been done comparing and contrasting an Eastern culture, collectivism to a specific aspect of American culture, individualism, such as Korean American. The 32-item INDCOL scale was used to measure the 4 attributes (Singelis et al., 1995). Contrary to the proposed hypothesis, this study found high scores in horizontal individualism in Korean American participants and high scores in horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism in Korean participants. These results could indicate a shift towards a different attribute in the Korean and Korean American community.

Self-disclosure is the process of sharing personal information with others and varies according to relationship intimacy, cultural norms, and personal values. Collectivism, defined as the tendency to define oneself in terms of social/cultural roles, may impact self-disclosure in intercultural relationships. The present study investigated whether Latinos/as reliably self-disclose more in intracultural versus intercultural friendships and acquaintanceships. An additional question was whether cultural variables such as collectivism, ethnic identity, and acculturation are related to self-disclosure differences. Data were collected via an online survey from internationally born Latinos and Latino Americans. Results of linear mixed effects model testing revealed that relationship type and partner ethnicity had significant relationships with self-disclosure. Higher collectivism was related to increased self-disclosure across all relationship types. Acculturation was related to self-disclosure only in the context of partner ethnicity and friendships, while ethnic identity did not demonstrate a general relationship with self-disclosure. Potential explanations for these results are discussed.

Durant des siècles, la religion a été considérée comme une entité extrêmement influente. Lentement et progressivement, les gouvernements ont pris la relève et gagné en puissance. De nos jours, quelques grandes entreprises prennent le relais (Cohen, 1988). Cependant, la recherche montre que les entreprises qui ne gèrent pas leur pouvoir de manière socialement responsable sont sanctionnées par la société (Davis, 1973). Pour cette raison, les PDG sont amenés à faire un usage intelligent et productif de leurs ressources, par le biais de la responsabilité sociale. La RSE est un phénomène important par le moyen duquel les employés acquièrent, par identification à l'entreprise, une identité sociale. Cette identification génère elle-même des comportements de citoyenneté organisationnelle (OCB). Il est nécessaire de procéder à une étude approfondie de ces comportements influencés par la RSE, en tenant compte de l'approche psychologique individualiste ou collectiviste de l'employé. Nous présentons ici un modèle optimal, testé empiriquement. Les résultats de cette recherche suggèrent aux entreprises d'utiliser intelligemment leurs activités opérationnelles pour répondre à un large éventail de besoins
Ages ago, religion was an entity which was deemed as influentially powerful. Slowly and gradually, governments became the entities even with greater power to influence the circumstances. And now, some big corporations have taken over that power (Cohen, 1988) . Nevertheless, when power comes, along lingers responsibility. Research shows that businesses which do not handle their power in socially responsible manner, the society deprives it of that power (Davis, 1973). For this reason, CEO's now make intelligent use of their resources in order to be productive as well as socially responsible, in short they exhibit Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR is such a powerful phenomenon which enables an employee to derive his/her social identity by identifying with the firm. Employees view their self as a depiction of their firm, when their firm behaves in a socially responsible manner. This resulting identification tends to generate organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). A need resides to conduct an deep study of employee behavior influenced by CSR while considering the individualist or collectivist psychological approach of the employee. This research plays its role in configuring the resulting behavioral patterns generated from the considerate behavior of the firm. We bring forward an optimal model, which is empirically tested. The findings support this research suggesting firms to cleverly utilize its operational activities to meet a broader range of needs

Collectivism and individualism are culturally-related psychological structures which have been used to distinguish people within and across various societies. From a review of the literature, it is argued that the most salient feature of individualism is valuing personal independence, which includes self-knowledge, uniqueness, privacy, clear communication, and competitiveness. Collectivism is associated with a strong sense of duty to group, relatedness to others, seeking others' advice, harmony, and working with the group. The purpose of the thesis is to explore how collectivist and individualist attributes affect the way people respond to Likert-type questionnaires. In the first study, a new measurement tool for individualism and collectivism was developed to address critical methodological issues in this field of cross-cultural psychology. This new measure the “Auckland Individualism and Collectivism Scale” defined three dimensions of individualism: (a) Responsibility (acknowledging one's responsibility for one's actions), (b) Uniqueness (distinction of the self from the other) and (c) Compete (striving for personal goals is one's prime interest); and two dimensions of collectivism: (d) Advice (seeking advice from people close to one, before taking decisions), and (e) Harmony (seeking to avoid conflict). The AICS avoids the need for measuring horizontal and vertical dimensions of collectivism and individualism, and the confounding effect of familialism on the collectivism-individualism constructs. The second study investigated the relationship between collectivism and individualism and various response sets that have been reported relating to the way in which individuals respond to Likert-type scales. Using structural equation modelling, the Collectivism-Individualism Model of Response Bias was developed. This model suggests two types of response sets: (a) the Impression-Response Bias which includes response sets such as social desirability and context, that affect the first four stages of responding to questions, namely receiving and retrieving data and making decisions; and (b) the Expression-Response Bias which includes response sets such as the extreme response set and the neutral response set that relate to the application of the responses, namely the actual answer chosen by the respondent. Collectivism is negatively correlated with context and with self deception enhancement whereas individualism is positively correlated with context and self deception enhancement and impression management. Context is positively correlated with extreme response set and negatively correlated with neutral response set. The Collectivism-Individualism Model of Response Bias suggests that collectivist and individualist attributes directly affect the Impression-Response Bias response sets and indirectly affect the Expression-Response Bias response sets. It was concluded that attributes of collectivism and individualism affect the decision made by the respondents and therefore lead to different responses to Likert-type questionnaires. Nevertheless, the effect of collectivism and individualism on the magnitude of the responses would be limited as it is mediated by the Impression-Response Bias response set.
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Thesis (M.S.)--University of Kentucky, 2003.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 68 p. Includes abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 59-65).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2008.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xii, 162 p. : ill. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-85).

This correlational study examined the influences of paternalistic leadership behavior (PL) and organizational collectivism (measured at the employee level) on employee reported LMX, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) in two types of organizations (family-owned firms and multinational organizations) in Turkey. Survey data were collected from (N = 154) employees in family-owned and (N = 159) employees in multinational firms (MNCs). Employees in family-owned firms reported significantly higher levels of PL, organizational collectivism, LMX, and OCBs. Further examination revealed additional differences by organization type, with the family-owned sample showing no significant relationships between study variables and OCBs, in contrast to positive relationships in the MNC sample. Education level was negatively related to PL, LMX, and job satisfaction in the family-owned sample, while the MNC sample showed positive relationships with education and all 5 study variables (PL, organizational collectivism, LMX, job satisfaction and OCBs). Organizational collectivism was found to have a moderating effect on the relationships between LMX and job satisfaction and job satisfaction and OCBs in the multinational sample, while no effect was found in the family-owned sample. For the LMX -- job satisfaction relationship, at low levels of LMX, organizational collectivism has no effect on job satisfaction, while when LMX was high, greater organizational collectivism was associated with greater job satisfaction. For the job satisfaction -- OCB relationship, at low levels of job satisfaction, the organizational level of collectivism greatly influenced OCB frequency (higher collectivism was associated with higher OCBs), while little difference was evident when job satisfaction was high. The implications of these findings for both theory and future research are discussed.

The goal of this two-part study was to investigate the associative logic, or connotative meaning, of certain values to Canadian Anglophone and Francophone male middle managers in the public and private sectors. Past value-ranking studies of Canadian managers and university students have tended to explain value-ranking differences between these ethnolinguistic groups in terms of individualism and collectivism. Specifically, Francophones have been described as more collectivist (e.g. more concerned with affiliation and family concerns) and Anglophones as more individualist (e.g. more achievement-oriented in the business world). In the present study, this individualist-collectivist explanation served as a testable hypothesis, rather than as an ex post facto explanation. This was done using a modified version of Triandis' (1972) antecedent-consequent method. Subjects gave associations to 21 work and personal values, reporting antecedents (what leads to) and consequents (what results from) for each value. In Study 1, 86 Anglophone and 82 Francophone managers provided antecedents and consequents to the values in a free-response questionnaire. In Study 2, a different but comparable group of 80 Anglophone and 94 Francophone managers completed a multiple-choice questionnaire based on high-frequency responses given in Study 1. These four groups were simultaneously matched on age, years work experience, SES, fathers' SES and quality of "other-ethnic" contact. Chi-square results indicated that for 36 out of 42 value comparisons (21 antecedents and 21 consequents) or 86% of the value stimuli, no replicated significant differences (across Study 1 and 2) were found in the number of individualist-collectivist responses given by Anglophone and Francophone managers. Moreover, a Pearson's correlation calculated on the overall frequency of individualist and collectivist responses across the value set showed that the two managerial groups had a similar individualist-collectivist understanding (r =.92, p .01). It was thus concluded that, in general, Anglophone and Francophone managers in this study shared a similar individualist-collectivist understanding of most of the 21 values. This overall similarity was discussed primarily in terms of the social change that has occurred in Quebec over the past 15 years, such as the greater presence of Francophones in business schools and in the ranks of management. With growing similarity in managerial experience, Anglophone and Francophone managers may have become more similar in their individualist-collectivist understanding, compared with 10 to 15 years ago, when value-ranking studies observed group differences.

The purpose of this study was to explore individual variables affecting preferences for natural or managed landscapes. Environmental attitudes and value systems of student participants (N = 147) were assessed using the revised New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale and the Scenarios for the Measurement of Collectivism and Individualism (SMCI) scale, respectively. In addition, feminist orientation was assessed using the Attitudes toward Woman scale (AWS). The hypothesis that proenvironmental attitudes would be positively correlated with a preference for natural landscapes was supported. However, hypotheses that alignment with collectivist values would correlate positively with a preference for natural landscapes and that a feminist orientation would be positively correlated with a preference for natural landscapes were not supported. Demographic variables are discussed with respect to landscape preference. Caveats of the individualism-collectivism variable are also discussed.

Researchers have long been concerned in documenting the nature of associations between parenting styles and academic achievement in adolescents. Social learning theory has shown how domains such as individualism, collectivism, and ethnicity are associated with parent behavior. Research suggests compatibility between individualism and authoritative parenting and collectivism with authoritarian parenting styles, which could have critical implications in the relationship between parenting styles and academic achievement. Despite the robust research on parenting styles, no research has investigated the moderating roles of individualism and collectivism. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the associations between parenting style and academic achievement and whether some of the associations were moderated by ethnicity, individualism, and collectivism. The sample consisted of 225 parents who were recruited via an online newsletter sent by school personnel. Parenting styles were measured by the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire while individualism and collectivism variables were measured by the Self-Construal Scale. Correlation coefficients calculated the associations between parenting styles and academic achievement, while the regression analyses addressed the moderator hypotheses. Authoritative parenting had a significant positive correlation with GPA, while both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles had a significant negative correlation with GPA. Within the moderator hypotheses, neither ethnicity nor individualism and collectivism served as a significant moderator between parenting styles and GPA. These findings may inform parents and educators of the importance of parenting styles on education, beyond the explanatory power of ethnicity or value system.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) with no cure (Hall, 2011). A variety of treatments exist to help with symptoms and one therapy is applied behavior analysis (ABA) (Virues-Ortega, 2010). ABA works by providing rewarding stimuli, specifically verbal praise, to encourage positive behavior. Most of the current research related to autism and ABA has been done in the US or other western countries (Hall, 2011), but studies show that verbal praise motivates people differently in different cultures (Henderlong & Lepper, 2002). One of these differences occurs between individualist and collectivist cultures. The current study will manipulate verbal praise administered in ABA therapy in two different countries, the United States, an individualist culture, and South Korea, a collectivist culture. There will be two types of ABA interventions: type A, with individualist-focused verbal praise and type B, with collectivist-focused verbal praise. Thirty children from each country will receive type A and 40 from each country will receive type B. The results would likely confirm the hypotheses which are: 1) that children with an individualist upbringing will have a greater improvement in symptoms with intervention type A than children with a collectivist upbringing, and 2) that children with a collectivist upbringing will have greater symptom improvement with intervention type B than children with an individualist upbringing. Further directions regarding the development of treatments for children with autism are discussed. This research will help to provide insight into the importance of considering culture when treating children with autism.

The main aim of this thesis was to examine the role of individualism and collectivism as situational group norms on intrinsic motivation. A further aim was to examine the effect of individual differences in individualist and collectivist orientations on the effect of autonomous motivation on intention and behaviour. This research integrated the concept of self-determined and intrinsic motivation as postulated in Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985a, 2000,2002), individualism and collectivism as group norms from a Social Identity Theory perspective (Tajfel 1974,1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1979; McAuliffe et al, 2003), independence and interdependence as individual differences in self-construals from Self-Systems Theory (Markus & Kitayama, 1991b), and constructs from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985). After reviewing the literature in Chapter 1, it was hypothesised that individualist and collectivist group norms could be situationally induced and would interact with the environmental contingencies that that support intrinsic motivation in predicting people's levels of intrinsic motivation. It was also hypothesised that individualist and collectivist orientations at an individual difference level would change the relationship between autonomous motivation and intentional behaviour. Chapter 2 presents the development of a methodological tool to manipulate individualist and collectivist group norms. Two studies employing a minimal group paradigm investigated the effect of individualist or collectivist group norms on evaluation of employees behaviour, group tolerance, relatedness, and identification in group members from individualist (British) or collectivist (Chinese and Greeks) cultural backgrounds. Chapters 3 and 4 tackle the main aim of this thesis and the results of three studies provide evidence that when the group norm is individualist group members experience higher levels of intrinsic motivation when they exercise personal choice over a target activity, whereas when the group norm is collectivist group members experience higher intrinsic motivation when a significant other makes a choice for them or provides personal choice. Chapter 5 brings the level of analysis from the group to the individual. This is achieved in a study investigating the moderating effects of independent (individualist) and interdependent (collectivist) self-construals on the effect of autonomous motivation on intentions and actual physical activity behaviour. In the concluding chapter, Chapter 6, the theoretical and practical implications of the research are discussed and directions for future research provided.

Research has consistently demonstrated the influences of cultural orientation (Individualism/collectivism) on emotional expression when interacting with in-groups and out-groups members in face-to-face communication (e.g., Eid & Diener, 2001; Matsumoto et al., 2008; Safdar et al., 2009). The purpose of the proposed study is to investigate whether the same pattern exists in virtual communication, especially in instant text messaging. Using a mixed design, an online self-report questionnaire measuring Individualism/Collectivism and intensity of emotional expression of both positive and negative emotions will be given to a sample of 788 college students. Several universal effects are predicted, including greater emotion expression toward in-groups versus out-groups, greater overall expressivity for people with a high individualism score, and greater expressivity for positive emotions than negative emotions. It is further predicted that people with high individualism score will express more negative emotions to their in-groups, while people with high collectivism score will express more positive emotions. Lastly, it is predicted that when interacting with out-groups, people with a high individualism score will express more positive emotions, while people with high collectivism score will express more negative emotions. Implications for cultural orientation and emotion expression are discussed.

People agree that forgiveness is a virtue in essentially all countries. However, different cultures have different ideas about how willing one should forgive and under what circumstances. Although the study occurred in the USA, I recruited both foreign-extraction and Virginia born-and-raised female college students (N=102) to participate a six-hour REACH forgiveness intervention, promoting their forgiveness through psychoeducational groups. In my thesis, I investigated whether students of foreign extraction and Virginia-born students would respond similarly to the intervention. I operationalized culture in two ways—by country and by individual self-reported self-construal. I measured forgiveness using two measures—decisional forgiveness and emotional forgiveness. I found that the six-hour REACH forgiveness intervention enhanced participants’ forgiveness regardless of their culture background. But foreign students who were functioning in a US university did not respond differently than Virginia-born students. The similar findings also applied to participants who perceived themselves differently in Collectivism and Individualism.

It is unclear whether parental autonomy support is related to positive outcomes for adolescents in collectivist and hierarchical societies, where values of deference to authority and putting the community's needs above oneself are encouraged. The current study examined the relations of specific autonomy supportive behaviors to adolescent outcomes in Ghana, a country described as collectivist and hierarchical, and compared findings to the US which has been described as individualist and egalitarian. In addition, it examined whether adolescents' self-construals influenced the relation of specific types of autonomy support with outcomes. A mixed-methods design was used. Participants in the quantitative portion of the study were 401 seventh and eighth graders from Ghana (N = 156) and the US (N = 245). Participants in the qualitative portion were 8 Ghanaian parents. Factor analyses indicated two distinct types of autonomy support: perspective-taking and allowance of decision-making. Perspective-taking was found to be a valid measure of parents' autonomy support in both countries, however allowance of decision-making was valid only in the US and not in Ghana. Additionally, in the US, perspective-taking was a unique predictor (over allowance of decision-making) of positive outcomes. Results also suggested that adolescents' self-construal significantly moderated the relationship between autonomy support and outcomes such that the more independent adolescents' self-construal, the stronger the relation of decision-making to autonomous motivation and other measures of well-being. Results are discussed in terms of how parents can provide autonomy support in ways congruent with the cultural context in which they live.

The goal of the study was to understand the nature of the relationship among self construal, family functioning and sibling number in terms of gender. Five hundred twenthy-nine high school students participated in the study. Participants were selected from seven general public high schools in Ankara. Data was gathered via Personal Information Questionnaire, Autonomous-Related Self in the Family Scale (Kagitç
ibagi, 2007a) and Family Assessment Device (Epstein, Balwin &
Bishop 1983). Results of the study indicated that, for both genders, relational selfconstruals had significant correlations with healthy family functioning. It was also evidenced that autonomous self-construal scores of males were significantly higher than females and related self construal scores of females were significantly higher than males. Furthermore the family functioning dimensions that families tend to be v healthy or unhealthy were displayed. All findings were dicussed in line with the relevant literature.

Although the Job Demands-Resources Model (JD-R) is the dominant theoretical framework used to understand the relationship between workplace factors and employee well-being, the cross-cultural generalizability of this model has seldom been directly tested. Therefore, this study examined whether and to what extent relationships between: 1) job demands (i.e., organizational constraints) and strain (i.e., job satisfaction, and turnover intentions) and 2) job resources (i.e., job control, participation in decision-making, direct supervisor support, senior leader support, and clear goals and performance feedback) and strain were moderated by cultural dimensions (i.e., individualism-collectivism and uncertainty avoidance). Survey data from workers in 28 countries were used to examine these questions. Results revealed that culture-level individualism-collectivism and uncertainty avoidance independently and significantly moderated some job demands-strain and job resources-strain outcomes relationships. Specifically, job control and senior leaders support was consistently and more strongly, negatively related to strain in more individualistic cultures, and participation in decision-making was more strongly, negatively related to strain in more collectivistic cultures when using cultural scores from both Hofstede and GLOBE taxonomies. In contrast, although I also uncovered some significant moderating effects of culture-level uncertainty avoidance on job demands-strain and job resources-strain relationships, the results from these analyses were often in the opposite pattern when GLOBE versus Hofstede cultural scores were used. Overall, the present study sheds light on the generalizability versus specificity of the JD-R model across cultural contexts.

Sambandet mellan kultur och personlighet har studerats i stor utsträckning och tidigare forskning har visat på en koppling mellan kulturdimensionen individualism-kollektivism och personlighetsdimensionen idiocentrism-allocentrism. Den föreliggande studien undersöker förhållandet mellan individualism-kollektivism och idiocentrism-allocentrism bland internationella studenter i Sverige. 215 internationella studenter (M = 23 år, åldersintervall 19-44, 120 kvinnor, 94 män, 1 annat) gavs definitioner av individualistiska och kollektivistiska kulturer och ombads att bedöma sin ursprungskultur. De uppmanades sedan att uppskatta sig själva utifrån 22 frågor avsedda att mäta idiocentrism-allocentrism. Slutligen uppmanades de att ange sitt huvudskäl till att studera utomlands genom att välja ett av sju alternativ i en flervalsfråga. Data analyserades med one-way ANOVA's och oberoende t-tester. Resultaten visade på ett samband mellan kulturell bakgrund och idiocentrism-allocentrism i den förväntade riktningen. Vidare demonstrerade resultaten inte en koppling mellan geografisk bakgrund och idiocentrism-allocentrism. Slutligen visade resultaten varken en koppling mellan huvudorsaken till utlandsstudier och idiocentrism-allocentrism, eller mellan huvudorsaken till utlandsstudier och kulturell bakgrund. Av dessa resultat drogs slutsatsen att när det gäller individualism-kollektivism och idiocentrism-allocentrism så påverkar kultur personlighet. Resultaten tyder vidare på att det kanske inte är lämpligt att likställa geografiska enheter som nationer med kultur, då subkulturell mångfald kan påträffas inom dessa enheter. Slutligen tyder resultaten på att internationella studenter skiljer sig åt för gällande skäl till utlandsstudier oavsett personlighet och kulturell bakgrund, även om vidare forskning krävs gällande internationella studenters motivation.
The association between culture and personality has been widely studied and previous research has shown an association between the culture dimension of individualism-collectivism and the personality dimension of idiocentrism-allocentrism. The present study investigates the relationship between individualism-collectivism and idiocentrism-allocentrism among international students in Sweden. 215 international students (M = 23 years, age range 19-44, 120 women, 94 men, 1 other) were given definitions of individualist and collectivist cultures and asked to assess their culture of origin. They were then asked to rate themselves on 22 items intended to measure idiocentrism-allocentrism. Finally, they were asked to state their main reason for studying abroad by choosing one of seven options given in a multiple-choice item. One-way ANOVA's and independent t-tests were carried out for data analysis. The results showed an association between cultural background and idiocentrism-allocentrism in the expected direction. Further, the results did not demonstrate an association between geographical background and idiocentrism-allocentrism. Finally, the results did not demonstrate an association between main reason for studying abroad and idiocentrism-allocentrism, nor between main reason for studying abroad and cultural background. It was concluded that in the case of individualism-collectivism and idiocentrism-allocentrism, culture does influence personality. Further, the results suggest that it may not be appropriate to equate geographical entities such as nations with culture as cultural diversity may be found within such entities. Finally, the results indicate that international students differ in their reasons for studying abroad regardless of personality and cultural background, although further research regarding the motivation of international students is needed.

Background: Non-medical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD) refers to the use of prescription drugs which are traditionally utilized to manage pain or treat psychiatric problems but without a doctor’s prescription. In 2010, an investigation by the Substance Use and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) revealed that 5.3% of young adults (18 to 25-year-olds) in the United States reported past-month NMUPD. NMUPD has become a growing concern owing to associations with consequences such as college dropout, poor academic achievement, and health jeopardizing behaviors. College students' NMUPD has been well documented in the United States. Limited studies, however, have been conducted among college students in China. The purposes of this study are to examine the prevalence and motives of NMUPD among college students in China, and to assess its relationship with stress (i.e., perceived stress and traumatic events), mental health problems (depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)), utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and protective factors (i.e., resilience and future orientation). Methods: In Jan-April 2017, online data were collected using SONA system from a total of 720 undergraduates at Beijing Normal University (BNU) and University of Macau (UM) with an average age of 19.65. All participants reported their nonmedical use of prescription drugs (i.e., opioids, sedatives, stimulants, and anxiolytics) in their lifetime and the past three months, stress, mental health, utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and protective factors. Spearman’s rank-order corrections and logistic regression were employed for statistical analyses. Results: Findings indicate that 41.2% of Chinese students reported taking prescription drugs without a doctor’s prescription. The most commonly misused prescription drugs were opioids (40.5% lifetime use, 31.8% past-three-months use), followed by sedatives (1.8% lifetime, 0.8% past 3 months), anxiolytics (0.9% lifetime,0 .3% past three months), and stimulants (0.2% lifetime, 0% past three months). Bivariate analyses suggest significantly positive correlations of lifetime NMUPD with mental health problems (anxiety and PTSD), cultural orientation (individualism and collectivism), and utilization of healthcare (frequency of healthcare use, time spent for healthcare, and money spent for healthcare). Similar results were found in terms of past-three-month NMUPD. The results of logistic regressions indicate the significant association of lifetime NMUPD with individualism of cultural orientation, and frequency of healthcare use. Specially, individualism, frequency of healthcare use, and time spent for healthcare were found to be associated with lifetime opioid misuse, and depression was significantly associated with sedative misuse. Resilience was negatively associated with lifetime sedative misuse. Frequency of healthcare use was also found to be positively associated with past-three-month opioid misuse. Conclusion: Utilization of healthcare, cultural orientation, and mental health problems appear to be the factors associated with NMUPD among college students at BNU and UM. More discussion is needed in Chinese society about regulation of prescription drug use. Future culturally-tailored prevention intervention programs may be beneficial to reduce the risk of NMUPD among Chinese college students.

The present study investigated the construct of characterising societies as being either individualistic or collectivist as topics of research in the field of cross cultural tolerance. Using scenarios to describe behaviours typically encountered in New Zealand society, participants from individualist and collectivist cultures were asked to rate behaviours as to how much they understood and accepted the actions described. The participants’ responses were also analysed using attitude measures to seek if similarity in attitudes was a more informative approach to determine why one individual does or does not accept certain behaviours. The study found that although there were general cultural differences between the two groups, individual attitudes went further in explaining possible reasons why acceptance and tolerance of other's behaviours may occur. The findings were then discussed in terms of how they were relevant to both biculturalism and multiculturalism in New Zealand.

The significance of relationships on economic actions and employee behaviour makes it critical for employers to understand the dynamics of employment through mutual obligations (Rousseau, 1990; Guest, 2004b). The psychological contract affords a broad platform to study the employment relationship (Thomas et al., 2010), and is an important tool for organisational success (McDermott et al., 2013). The literature review contained in this study indicates the differences in contracting environments due to the prevailing cultural orientation. However, there is a dearth of research in collectivistic culture, to which this study will add. The literature also makes a distinction between perceptions of breach and violation. While perceptions of breach of the psychological contract is the perception that the employer has not met all obligations and promises, violation is the emotional and affective state following breach (Morrison & Robinson, 1997) and results in negative or deviant behaviours (Chiu & Peng, 2008). Both breach and violation perceptions negatively affect employee behaviours and attitudes in the workplace (Aggarwal & Bhargava, 2014). This research assumed a constructivist paradigm and builds understanding of the outcomes of breach and violation of the psychological contract on employees’ working life in a collectivistic environment. Primary data collection was by in-depth semi-structured, one on one interviews with five employees of a state-subsidised organisation in East London, making use of convenience sampling. Follow up interviews were conducted, resulting in 7ₑ/₄ hours of interviewing time. Cultural orientation was ascertained through the use of a questionnaire. The findings of this study confirmed that the type of psychological contract entered into influences the outcomes of perceptions of breach and violation. Both dimensions of collectivism, namely institutional and in-group, were practised in this environment, which also impacted on both the individual’s experience and outcomes for the organisation. The latter was influenced by commitment to organisational goals and supervisory or collegial relationships. Most notable of the results is the effect of expectations of transitional justice on experience of the psychological contract. Practical implications and recommendations for future research are made. This research is presented in three sections; firstly the research is presented in the format of an academic paper and includes a concise summary of literature and research method. The second section is an expanded literature review of the psychological contract and its influencing factors, as well as the outcomes of breach and violation. The last section describes and justifies in detail the design of the research and the research procedure followed.
Alternate name: Van der Merwe, Somine

This study, presented in article format, contributed to the development of the science and practice of positive psychology / psychofortology, specifically in the South African multi-cultural context, through (i) a first phase exploration of the validity of several scales, mainly developed in a 'western' context, for applicability of measurement of facets of psychological well-being in the South African (multicultural) context (manuscript I), (ii) an exploration of patterns of psychological wellbeing and satisfaction with life in cultural context (manuscript 2), and (iii) a review of the state of the art of the applicability of knowledge (theory and experimental findings) from the domain of positive psychology, for use in practice to enhance the quality of life for people (manuscript 3). For purposes of this study "cultural context" referred to relatively individualist and relatively collectivist cultural orientations as manifested in shared patterns of behavioural readiness, assumptions, attitudes, beliefs, self-definitions, norms, values, historical background and language groupings. The aim of the first study I article was to do a first phase screening of psychometric properties of several scales measuring facets of psychological wellbeing in a South African context. Most of these scales were developed in a western context, and measure facets of cognitive, affective, conative, social, and spiritual psychological well-being. Data were gathered in two projects including 731 participants from different cultural contexts in the North West Province. The FORTproject (FORT = Clarifying the nature of psychological strengths; -=strength) included a convenience sample of 384 mainly white students and adults from the Potchefstroom area, and a convenience sample of 130 mainly black students from the Mafikeng area. The POWIRS-project (POWIRS = Profiles of Obese Women with the Insulin Resistance Syndrome) included 102 black and 1 15 white adult women. Reliability and validity of scales for use in a South African context were reported. Results indicated that the reliability and validity of scales varied from acceptable to totally unacceptable for use in specific subgroups. It was concluded that the most promising scales for use in all groups were the Affectometer 2 (AFM), the Fortitude Questionnaire (FORQ) (except the FORQ-S), the Cognitive Appraisal Questionnaire (CAQ), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) (the latter measuring pathology), and to some extent the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC). This second study I article explored the patterns of psychological well-being and satisfaction with life in relatively more individualist and relatively more collectivist cultural contexts in South Africa. Secondary factor analyses were conducted on data obtained in four cross-sectional studies, comprising 1,909 participants. Questionnaires varied in studies, and measured facets of affective, cognitive, physical, spiritual, interpersonal and social well-being. Similarities and differences in patterns of psychological well-being and satisfaction with life were found. Satisfaction with life clusters with intra-psychological well-being in relatively more individualist cultural groups, and with inter-personal factors in relatively more collectivist African groups. Implications for models of psychological well-being and interventions to enhance psychological well-being were indicated. The aim of the third study I article was to review and evaluate the practical applicability of scientific knowledge from the domain of positive psychology / psychofortology, with specific reference to assessment, interventions, lifespan development and application in various contexts. It was shown that knowledge in the scientific domain of positive psychology has great relevance for, and application possibilities on individual, community and public policy levels. Applications were found as far as evaluation (assessment) and interventions are concerned in various life contexts (such as education, psychotherapy, health promotion, work), and in various phases of life (from childhood through adolescence and adulthood to old age). Several specific, empirically validated, strategies for enhancement of facets of psychological well-being were highlighted. It was pointed out that an advantage of positive psychology is that it has the theory, research evidence, and techniques to bring benefit to many people on the total mental health continuum, and not only, but also, to the minority who have a problem or are at risk of developing problems. A main conclusion across the different studies reported in this thesis (articles 1-3), was that cultural contexts and variables certainly need to be taken into account in research and practice of positive psychology. Despite the major developments in the scientific domain of positive psychology / psychofortology, its theories and applications have mainly been developed and explored in a western context, and further research is necessary, specifically in the African context. Several recommendations for future research were made.
Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Cultures, subcultures, and individuals occupy different positions in the low-context/individualistic and the high-context/collectivistic spectrum, and they shift due to factors such as urbanization, economic development and cultural globalization. In this study, I examine Sérgio Buarque de Holanda's theory of the cordial man and how it illustrates qualities of the high-context Brazilian culture. Within the framework of grounded theory, these qualities are evaluated from the perspective of intergenerational dyads--fathers and sons--that have been exposed to an urbanized and globalized environment in order to determine whether and how a shift from high-context to low-context is occurring. The participants were interviewed to explore perception of self, upbringing, decision-making process within the family, father and son relationships, intrafamilial communication, ways to influence and be influenced, history of conflict, and urbanization and globalization. Their responses revealed the extent to which their values were individualistic or group-oriented and if the cordial man behavior was also present in the intimacy of their homes. In sum, I reach three conclusions: technological and cultural globalization propagates low-context values and behaviors; sons are in a transitional state, in which individual goals are relevant enough to challenge parental expectations, but still cause guilt when pursued; and, the cordial man still exists in the urban and globalized world. Implications for families, family therapists, counselors and mediators are discussed.

The dissertation consists of an introduction and three empirical articles. The introduction gives the theoretical background, integrates the three articles, and elaborates on future research questions. The first article investigates the important decision in the lives of German and Indian university students to identify the important areas of decision making. The second article examines the structure of real life decision making and reveals the underlying factors of five major decision areas. The third article investigates the similarities and differences on decision making between German and Indian students using prior qualitative findings in a large quantitative survey.

Empati samt hur man förhåller sig till andra och sig själv är en viktig faktor för gott polisarbete och kommunikation med medborgare. Den här studien har genom en webbenkät baserad på Basic Empathy Scale-Adults (BES-A) och Culture Orientation Scale (COS) tillfrågat 141 polisstudenter från samtliga svenska lärosäten som bedriver polisutbildning om deras självuppskattade empati (affektiv/kognitiv) och kulturella orientering (individualism/kollektivism). Resultatet visade att majoriteten hade medelhög empati och högre kognitiv empati än affektiv empati enligt BES-A. Generellt hade polisstudenterna medelpoäng på COS. Även individualism gav medelpoäng, medan kollektivism gav höga poäng. Tvåvägs-ANOVA visade att kvinnor hade signifikant högre empati än män.
Empathy as well as how to relate to others and oneself is an important factor for good police work and communication with citizens. Through a web survey, based on the Basic Empathy Scale-Adults (BES-A) and the Culture Orientation Scale (COS), this study asked 141 police students from all Swedish universities who conduct police education about their self-perceived empathy (affective/cognitive) and cultural orientation (individualism/collectivism). The result showed that the majority had moderate empathy and higher cognitive empathy than affective empathy according to BES-A. In general, the police students had average points at COS. Individualism also gave average points, while collectivism gave high points. Two-way ANOVA showed that women had significant higher empathy than men.

La psychopathie est caractérisée par diverses manifestations affectives et comportementales qui peuvent se traduire en contexte relationnel par un manque d’empathie à l’égard d’autrui, de la manipulation, ou encore de l’exploitation. À ce jour, les études sur la psychopathie se sont principalement intéressées aux comportements antisociaux, tandis que la capacité éventuelle à adopter des comportements prosociaux a peu été explorée. Pourtant, bien qu’observée chez environ 10% de la population carcérale, la psychopathie se retrouve également chez des individus de la population générale. Dans le but de mieux comprendre ce qui pouvait distinguer les psychopathes adaptés à la vie en société de ceux impliqués dans des activités criminelles, quelques chercheurs ont tenté d’étudier la relation entre l’endossement de traits psychopathiques et la capacité à coopérer chez des individus non incarcérés. Toutefois, les résultats sont inconsistants d’une étude à l’autre. Jusqu’à présent, aucune recherche n’a exploré l’effet modérateur d’une tierce variable, qui pourrait éventuellement expliquer cette divergence dans les données. Or, certains traits culturels, notamment l’individualisme et le collectivisme, sont conceptuellement reliés à la fois aux traits psychopathiques et à la coopération sociale. L’objectif de cette thèse était donc de vérifier la relation entre les traits psychopathiques et l’adoption de comportements coopératifs chez des individus de la population générale, tout en considérant l’effet des traits individualistes ou collectivistes de chacun. Il était attendu: 1) que les traits psychopathiques soient prédicteurs de choix non coopératifs, et 2) que cette relation diffère en fonction des attitudes individualistes ou collectivistes rapportées par les participants. Le recrutement a été effectué sur la scène internationale via les réseaux sociaux, les sites de petites annonces et certains départements universitaires. Un total de 134 personnes a complété l’entièreté de l’étude. Chacun a effectué dans un ordre aléatoire les tests suivants : l’Échelle de Psychopathie de Levenson, les Scenarios for the measurement of collectivism and individualism, ainsi qu’une simulation itérative du dilemme du prisonnier comprenant 12 essais. Une régression hiérarchique a été effectuée, et n’a pas permis de confirmer les hypothèses. Diverses analyses exploratoires ont également été tentées, notamment des régressions logistiques et des analyses de contrastes. Il s’est avéré que les traits psychopathiques n’étaient pas significativement prédicteurs des choix de coopération au dilemme du prisonnier, et que les traits culturels endossés n’avaient pas non plus d’impact significatif sur cette relation. Une discussion approfondie a été menée afin d’expliquer ces résultats et de les replacer dans le contexte de la littérature scientifique actuelle. Notamment, un retour a été effectué sur la conceptualisation des traits psychopathiques et de leurs manifestations dans la population générale, ainsi que sur la recherche en contexte interculturel. Une deuxième expérience a été conduite auprès d’un nouvel échantillon, apportant des corrections aux failles méthodologiques identifiées lors de l’étude internationale. Cette deuxième expérience s’est concentrée sur la relation entre les traits psychopathiques et la coopération sociale, sans tenir compte des traits culturels. Pour améliorer le devis de recherche, seuls des hommes ont été recrutés, la taille d’échantillonnage a été augmentée, et le recrutement n’a pas été conduit sur la scène internationale afin de limiter la variabilité au sein des participants. Également, un questionnaire mesurant la présence d’indices de traits psychopathiques à l’enfance et à l’adolescence a été ajouté. L’objectif de cette deuxième expérience était d’explorer une nouvelle fois la relation entre les traits psychopathiques et l’adoption de comportements coopératifs chez des individus de la population générale. Il était attendu que les traits psychopathiques soient prédicteurs de choix non coopératifs. Plus spécifiquement, l’hypothèse était que plus les individus rapporteraient de traits psychopathiques à l’âge adulte et de traits psychopathiques présents dès l’enfance, moins ils auraient tendance à coopérer. Le recrutement a été effectué via les réseaux sociaux. Un total de 150 hommes a complété l’entièreté de l’étude. Chacun a effectué dans un ordre aléatoire les tests suivants : l’Échelle de Psychopathie de Levenson, l’Échelle des Indicateurs de Psychopathie à l’Enfance et à l’Adolescence (Childhood and Adolescent Taxon Scale-Self Report), ainsi qu’une simulation itérative du dilemme du prisonnier comprenant 12 essais. Des régressions multiples de type standard et hiérarchique ont été effectuées. Les hypothèses étaient partiellement confirmées. Les indices infantiles de psychopathie étaient prédicteurs des décisions effectuées au dilemme du prisonnier, toutefois la relation n’allait pas dans le sens attendu. Statistiquement, les données indiquaient que plus le score sur l’Échelle des Indicateurs de Psychopathie à l’Enfance et à l’Adolescence était élevé, plus les individus coopéraient au dilemme du prisonnier. Des nuances quant à cette interprétation ont été amenées en Discussion. Ensuite, les traits psychopathiques à l’âge adulte, mesurés par les scores obtenus à l’Échelle de Psychopathie de Levenson, ne permettaient pas à eux seuls de prédire les décisions au dilemme du prisonnier. Les traits psychopathiques à l’âge adulte étaient prédicteurs du comportement de coopération uniquement lorsque considérés conjointement avec la mesure des indicateurs de traits psychopathiques à l’enfance. Le pourcentage de variance des comportements coopératifs qui était expliqué par le modèle était faible. Également, la valeur prédictive des traits psychopathiques adultes était entièrement attribuable aux traits relevant du Facteur 1 (interpersonnel et affectif). La relation allait cette fois dans le sens attendu : plus le score était élevé sur l’Échelle de Psychopathie de Levenson, moins les participants coopéraient au dilemme du prisonnier. Ces résultats ont été interprétés lors d’une nouvelle Discussion, qui a permis en lumière les similitudes et les différences entre les deux expériences menées dans le cadre de la thèse. Également, des questionnements entourant la validité du concept de psychopathie dans la population générale ont été étayés. Sur la base de l’entièreté de la thèse, des recommandations pour les recherches futures ont été formulées.
Psychopathy is characterized by various emotional and behavioural manifestations that include a lack of empathy towards others, manipulation and exploitation. To date, studies of psychopathy have focused primarily on antisocial behaviours, while little attention has been paid to the potential for prosocial behaviours. Although generally observed in about 10% of the carceral population, psychopathy is also found in the general population. In order to better understand what might distinguish psychopaths adapted to life in society from those involved in criminal activities, some researchers have attempted to study the relationship between psychopathic traits and the ability to cooperate in non-incarcerated individuals. However, the results are inconsistent from one study to another. To date, no research has explored the moderating effect of a third variable, that could potentially explain this discrepancy in data. For example, some cultural traits, such as individualism versus collectivism, are conceptually linked to both psychopathic traits and social cooperation. The objective of the thesis was to verify the relationship between psychopathic traits and cooperative behaviours among individuals in the general population, while taking into account the effect of participants individualistic or collectivist traits. It was expected that: 1) psychopathic traits would predict uncooperative choices; and 2) this relationship would differ according to the individualistic or collectivist attitudes reported by participants. Recruitment was conducted on the international scene via social networks, classified advertisement sites and some university departments. A total of 134 participants completed the entire study. They completed the following tests in random order: the Levenson Scale of Psychopathy, the Scenarios for the measurement of collectivism and individualism, and an iterative simulation of the prisoner's dilemma involving 12 trials. A hierarchical regression was conducted and did not confirm the hypotheses. Various exploratory analyses were also attempted, including logistic regressions and contrast analyses. Psychopathic traits were not significantly predictive of cooperative choices in the prisoner's dilemma, nor did the cultural traits have a significant impact on this relationship. An in-depth discussion was conducted to explain these results and to place them in the context of the current scientific literature. More specifically, the Discussion focused on the conceptualization of psychopathic traits and their manifestations in the general population, as well as on research in an intercultural context. A second experiment was conducted with a new sample, correcting the methodological flaws identified in the international study. This second experiment focused on the relationship between psychopathic traits and social cooperation, without considering cultural traits. To improve the research design, only males were recruited, the sample size was increased, and recruitment was not conducted internationally in order to limit variability among participants. Also, a questionnaire measuring the presence of clues to psychopathic traits in childhood and adolescence was added. The objective of this second experiment was to further explore the relationship between psychopathic traits and the adoption of cooperative behaviours in individuals from the general population. Psychopathic traits were expected to be predictors of uncooperative choices. More specifically, the hypothesis was that the more individuals report psychopathic traits in adulthood and psychopathic traits present in childhood, the less likely they are to be cooperative. Recruitment was conducted via social networks. A total of 150 men completed the entire study. Each completed the following tests in random order: the Levenson Psychopathy Scale, the Childhood and Adolescent Taxon Scale-Self Report, and an iterative simulation of the prisoner's dilemma involving 12 trials. Standard and hierarchical multiple regressions were performed. The hypotheses were partially confirmed. Childhood psychopathy indices were predictive of decisions made in the prisoner's dilemma, however the direction of the relationship was not as expected. The results indicated that the higher the score on the Childhood and Adolescent Taxon Scale-Self Report, the more cooperative the individuals were to the prisoner's dilemma. Second, psychopathic traits in adulthood, as measured by scores on the Levenson Psychopathy Scale, alone did not predict decisions about the prisoner's dilemma. Adult psychopathic traits were predictive of cooperative behaviour only when considered in conjunction with measures of childhood psychopathic trait indicators. The percentage of variance in cooperative behaviour that was explained by the model was small. Also, the predictive value of adult psychopathic traits was entirely attributable to Factor 1 traits (interpersonal and emotional). This time, the relationship was as expected: the higher the score on Levenson's Psychopathy Scale, the less cooperative participants were to the prisoner's dilemma. These results were interpreted in a new Discussion, which shed light on the similarities and differences between the two experiments carried out in the framework of the thesis. Also, questions surrounding the validity of the concept of psychopathy in the general population were supported. Based on the entire thesis, recommendations for future research were formulated.

Decades of research have described East Asian cultures as collectivistic, often characterized by ingroup relationships that are harmonious and cooperative. I propose an alternative account of East Asian Collectivism—the Harm-in-Harmony Theory. Specifically, I propose that East Asian culture can be better understood as a tension between high levels of cooperation and competition within groups. The co-existence of cooperation and competition drives competition covert. To cope with covert competition, people in East Asia develop a heightened threat-detection system—ingroup vigilance—a cognitive tendency to perceive ingroup members as hostile and threatening. The Harm-in-Harmony theory provides an alternative account for a number of cross-cultural differences (i.e., East Asians being more responsive and attentive to others) that have previously been explained through harmonious interdependence. This work contributes to a more balanced view of collectivism, revealing its interpersonal tensions in the forms of covert competition and ingroup vigilance.

M.A.
The primary objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between Locus of Control, Individualism/Collectivism and Sense of Coherence between two groups of participants by using three measures. The study will also investigate the significance of the relationship between Locus of Control and the Individualism/Collectivism, and between Sense of Coherence and Locus of Control. The motivation for the study stems from a question regarding how cultural perceptual style interacts with personality traits to influence a person's Sense of Coherence. A further question faced by all South Africans, regards how one adapts to the cultural changes being experienced in the country, while at the same time maintaining a sense of self·identity. While there are many possible questions, this study will focus on investigating the interaction between the three constructs of Sense of Coherence. Locus of Control, and Individualism/Collectivism. The three core constructs of Sense of Coherence. Locus of Control, and Individualism/Collectivism are defined as follows: • Antonovsky (1987) defines Sense of Coherence as a global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive. enduring though dynamic feeling of confidence as a function of one's sense of comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness. • Locus of Control refers to a generalised disposition. acquired from past experience, to believe that rewards either are, or are not, controllable by a person's own efforts. Such that those who are externally oriented hold the view that their success is due to factors outside their control such as chance and luck while internally oriented persons attribute success to their personal effort and ability. • Individualism and Collectivism are cultural perceptual styles which indicate whether individuals acts largely for their self interests, or in regard for collective group harmony.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which men and women in a group internalize group feedback, and what mechanisms might underlie this internalization. Task/gender congruence, perceived contribution, and collectivism were all proposed contributors to gender differences in feedback internalization, and the consequent relationship between self- and collective-efficacy beliefs. Participants completed a brainstorming class and were given false group feedback. Results indicated that there were gender differences in response to the task-oriented condition. Also, perceived contribution moderated the relationship between feedback and self-efficacy, and between self-efficacy and collective-efficacy.

This study arose from the experience of difficulties in individuating incorporating tensions in the self-group, self-other, and self-self relational dimensions. This situation initiated the questions: What does individuation mean in collectivist cultures? Can selfexpression occur in a different way to opposing public opinion? Can one conceptualise experiential dialectics to facilitate their resolution in practice? The literature initiated the questions: How do Western theories on individuation incorporate 'culture'? Does a relationship between the socio-cultural context and the process of self-expression exist? Conclusions were: - that the socio-cultural context influences this experience directly by influencing the process of self-expression via defining what is experienced as narcissistic, altruistic, or individualistic behaviour, and indirectly by the theories which reflect its norms; - that the relationship between experience, and theory and personal epistemologies potentially initiate tensions, and facilitate their resolution; - that a theory of individuation in collectivist cultures is lacking. A way of interpreting 'individuation' was discussed.
Psychology
M.A. (Psychology)

Motivated by recent academic inquiry into the distinction between relational collectivism and group collectivism that characterize different cultures, I empirically investigate the differential effects of relational and group collectivism on social motivation across cultures. The present research contextualizes motivation in social interactions and illustrates the influences of different types of interaction partners on social motivation through self-construal. To unpackage the psychological process in which social motivation is elicited, I develop a two-step theoretical model: In the first step, I examine how different types of interaction partners activate the individual, relational and collective aspects of the self construal. The second step of my model investigates how the activated self-construal shapes individuals' social motivations toward their interaction partners.

Empirical studies were conducted in an individualist culture (US) and a collective culture (Singapore). Results from the studies identified both culturally specific and culturally universal patterns in self-construal activation. Interacting with a friend elicits relational self across both cultures. When interacting with a stranger, members of individualist cultures activated their collective and relational selves whereas members of collectivist cultures activated their individual self. Another interesting finding is that interacting with an ingroup member evokes the relational aspect of the self-construal in collectivist cultures, but it elicits the collective aspect of the self-construal in individualist cultures. An outgroup member evokes the collective aspect of the self-construal across both cultures. The studies also examined the link between the activated self-construal and its motivational consequence, and established the mediating effect of self-construal between interaction partner and social motivation. Applying the two-step model to both individualist and collectivist cultures, I demonstrate that individualist and collectivist cultures vary in the self-construal activation process in response to different types of interaction partners, but once certain aspect of the self is activated, it is likely to lead to the same social motivations across the two cultures.

Dissertation