Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'CO2ERR'

This work evaluates the reliability of VSP related slowness and slowness-polarization methods for local VTI and orthorhombic anisotropy parameter estimation that can be utilized as a seismic time-lapse tool for monitoring CO2 injection into geological formations. The uncertainties have been quantified through the inversion of several numerical and synthetic datasets and the results of this analysis were used to validate seismic anisotropy parameter estimation from VSP measurements at CO2CRC’s Otway geosequestration site in Victoria, Australia.

The CO2CRC Otway Project aims to demonstrate that CO2 can be safely stored in a depleted gas field and that an appropriate monitoring strategy can be deployed to verify its containment. The project commenced in 2005, with the baseline 3D seismic collected early in January 2008. CO2 was injected into depleted gas reservoir known as Waarre-C at Naylor field in April 2008. The first monitor survey was recorded in January 2009, shortly after the injection of 35,000 tonnes of CO2. Early predictions in the program suggested that the resulting time-lapse seismic effect will be very subtle because of the reservoir depth, small area, complexity, small amount of CO2/CH4 in 80/20 ratio injected and most of all partial saturation of the reservoir sand. The key challenge than presented to this research was how subtle exactly is the effect going to be? To answer that question I had to develop a workflow that will produce very accurate prediction of the elastic property changes in the reservoir caused by CO2 injection. Then the sensitivity of time-lapse seismic methodology in detecting subtle changes in the reservoir is investigated.The rock physics model I propose uses the “effective” grain bulk modulus (Kgrain) to represent the average mineralogy of the grains. The validity of this approach is confirmed by good agreement achieved between Vpsat core with Vpsat computed from the log data using the “effective” modulus. . The use of “effective” Kgrain was further justified by petrographic analysis. This has increased the modelling precision and changed the predicted time-lapse effect due to CO2 injection from 3% as an average over the reservoir sequence as previously computed to nearly 6%. The significance is that 6% change could be detected with high precision monitoring methodologies. The in-situ saturation type is homogeneous, according to the analysis path assumed in this thesis. If some patchiness exists in the reservoir it will be away from the wells and it would further elevate CO2 related seismic effect.The time-lapse seismic methodology at Otway site utilised very high survey density in order to increase sensitivity. On the negative side, weak sources and the change of the source type between the surveys resulted in non-repeatability greater or of the similar order as the time-lapse signal were expected to be. Hence the interpretation of the time-lapse P-wave seismic data assumed somewhat different path. I used the model-based post-stack seismic acoustic inversion in a similar way that history matching is used in reservoir simulation studies. I performed successive fluid substitutions, followed by the well ties and inversions. The objective was to look into the inversion error. Then the modelled fluid saturation case that result in minimal inversion error reflects the most likely state of the reservoir. Modelling using 35,000 tonnes of CO2/CH4 mix with 35% water saturation and 65% CO2/CH4 mix produced the smallest error when reinstating logs to the 2009 reservoir state.The time-lapse anomaly observed in the data exceeds predictions derived through the rock physics model, seismic modelling and simulation models. This is likely to be the case in general as the effect of CO2 onto a reservoir is difficult to predict. A “conservative” approach may result in an under-prediction of time-lapse seismic effects. Consequently, the predicted and measured seismic effects can be used as the lower and the upper bound of the time-lapse effects at Naylor field, respectively. The method presented here for analysis of a subtle time-lapse signal could be applied to the cases with similar challenges elsewhere.

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For all Brazilian municipalities, data of planted area, quantity produced, types of soil and soil use, for Rice, Beans, Wheat, Corn and Soybeans, was collected. With the aid of a Geographic information System (GIS) maps were drawn, and by cross-checking them, crop yields per type of soil in anthropized areas were obtained. From the expected yield on the application rate of fertilizer per level of availability of primary major nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) in the soil, recommended by Embrapa (WebAgritec), it was considered that each municipality, without area expansion as from its actual productivity value in 2011/12, would increase to the maximum xpected value related to the recommended application rate of fertilizers on the upper range of productivity. A period of ten years was considered for the rise of productivity level, which allowed a time horizon of the estimates from 2011/12 to 2061/62. The Fertilization Consumption, Application Rate and Efficiencies for the primary major nutrients, as well as the Balances of CO2eq, required for these new conditions, were projected. The horizon and the resulting volume of agricultural production were compared to the projections of MAPA (Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento and Outlook Fiesp 2023, whose horizon projections are 2021/22 and 20022/23 respectively. The potential volume of agricultural production via fertilization of these five cultures and the impact on the balance of CO2eq are then measured, thus culminating with the possibility of significant advances in this volume in terms of the number of harvests and the beneficial effect on the balance of CO2eq, allowing, due to the spared areas, significant postponement of emissions of CO2eq
Para todos os municípios Brasileiros foram coletados dados de área plantada, quantidade produzida, tipos de solos e uso do solo, para o Arroz, Feijão, Trigo, Milho e Soja. Com o auxílio de Sistema de Informações Geográficas (SIG), mapas foram elaborados, e a partir do cruzamento entre eles, produtividades por tipo de solo em áreas antropizadas foram obtidas. A partir das faixas de produtividades esperadas relativas às faixas de dosagem de adubação por nível de disponibilidade de macronutrientes primários (Nitrogênio, Fósforo e Potássio) no solo, recomendadas pela Embrapa (WebAgritec), considerou-se que cada município, sem nenhuma expansão de área, a partir de seu valor real de produtividade em 2011/12, aumentasse a mesma até o valor máximo esperado e correspondente à recomendação de dosagem de adubação relativa à faixa superior de produtividade. Considerou-se um período de dez anos para a subida de um patamar para outro de produtividade, o que permitiu um horizonte temporal das estimativas de 2011/12 até 2061/62. Projetaram-se os Consumos, Dosagens e Eficiências de Adubação, bem como os Balanços de CO2eq para os macronutrientes primários, necessários e resultantes destas novas condições. O horizonte e os volumes de produção agrícolas resultantes foram comparados com as projeções do MAPA 2021/22 e do Outlook Fiesp 2023. O potencial de volume de produção agrícola via fertilização destas cinco culturas e o impacto no balanço de CO2eq são então mensurados, culminando com a possibilidade de significativas antecipações deste volume em termos de número de safras e com o efeito benéfico no balanço de CO2eq, permitindo em virtude das áreas poupadas, postergação expressiva em termos de emissões de CO2eq

Currently, only 2.8% of total energy use in the world is renewable energy. As a climate target in 2020, the European Union has set a goal of increasing the renewable energy to 20%. Renewable energy includes biofuel such as pellets.   Pellets use has already increased significantly and several large production units have been built in recent years. To achieve a competitive pellet, production must be improved in terms of quality, environmental impact, and electricity consumption. Adding additives can improve pellets strength, reduce CO2eq emissions and reduce energy consumption.   The purpose is to investigate how different percentages of additive affect pellets to achieve a more sustainable and competitive biofuel.   In the quality analysis where sustainability and hardness were investigated, oxidized corn starch showed the best result where sustainability increased from 94.8% to 97.86%. The hardness varied greatly from pellets to pellets from the same sample. Since the hardness varied so widely, it was impossible to say which sample who had the highest hardness. On the other hand, it is concluded that the oxidized cornstarch samples received higher hardness than the zero sample.   In the environmental section, CO2equivalents for pellet production were investigated in Sweden, OECD member countries and non-OECD member countries in Europe. In Sweden and in OECD member countries, pellets production did not reduce the CO2eq emissions with any added additive. In non-OECD member countries, wheat starch was the best additive and reduced CO2eq emissions by 2.4%.   The energy consumption in the pellet press was also analyzed and the results showed that all additives reduced energy consumption. The best additive in this study was wheat starch, which reduced electricity consumption by 3.9%.

Carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery (CO2EOR) is a proven and available technology used to produce incremental oil from depleted fields. Although this technology has been used successfully onshore in North America and Europe, projects have maximised oil recovery and not CO2 storage. While the majority of onshore CO2EOR projects to date have used CO2 from natural sources, CO2EOR is now more and more being considered as a storage option for captured anthropogenic CO2. In the North Sea the lack of low cost CO2, in large volumes, has meant that no EOR projects have utilised CO2 as an injection fluid. However CO2EOR has the highest potential of all EOR techniques to maximise recovery from depleted UK oil fields. With the prospect of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) capturing large tonnages of CO2 from point source emission sites, the feasibility of CO2EOR deployment in the North Sea is high. This thesis primarily aims to address a number of discrete issues which assess the effectiveness of CO2EOR to both produce oil and store CO2. Given the fundamental shift in approach proposed in North Sea CO2EOR projects, the carbon balance of such projects is examined. Using a life cycle accounting approach on a theoretical North Sea field, we examine whether offshore CO2EOR can store more CO2 than onshore projects traditionally have, and whether CO2 storage can offset additional emissions produced through offshore operations and incremental oil production. Using two design scenarios which optimise oil production and CO2 storage, we find that that net GHG emissions were negative in both ‘oil optimised’ and ‘CO2 storage optimised’. However when emissions from transporting, refining and combusting the produced crude oil are incorporated into the life cycle calculations the ‘oil optimised scenario’ became a net emitter of GHG and highlights the importance of continuing CO2 import and injection after oil production has been maximised at a field. This is something that has not traditionally occurred. After assessing rates of flaring and venting of produced associated gas at UK oil fields it is found that the flaring or venting of reproduced CH4 and CO2 has a large control on emissions. Much like currently operating UK oil fields the rates of flaring and venting has a control on the carbon intensity of oil produced. Here values for the carbon intensity of oil produced through CO2EOR are presented. Carbon intensity values are found to be similar to levels of current UK oil production and significantly lower than other unconventional sources. As well as assessing the climate benefits of CO2EOR, a new assessment of CO2EOR potential in Residual Oil Zones (ROZ) is also made. ROZ resource, which is thought to add significant potential to both the oil reserves and CO2 storage potential in some US basins, is here identified in the North Sea for the first time. Based on the foundation of North Sea hydrodynamics study, this thesis identifies the Pierce field as a candidate ROZ field where hydrodynamic tilting of the oil water contact has naturally occurred leaving a zone of residual oil. To test the feasibility of CO2EOR in such a zone a methodology is presented and applied. Notably the study highlights that in this case study recoverable reserves from the ROZ may approach 20% of total field recoverable reserves and have the capability to store up to 11Mt of CO2. While highlighting the CO2EOR potential in the ROZ the thesis discusses the importance in expanding the analysis to quantify its importance on a basin scale. Discussion is also made on whether new resource identification is necessary in a mature basin like the North Sea. With CO2EOR being considered as a feasible option for storing captured anthropogenic CO2, it is important to assess the security of storage in CO2EOR. Using real geochemical and production data from a pilot CO2EOR development in Western Canada two approaches are used to assess the partitioning of CO2 between reservoir fluids through time. Using a number of correlations it is found that CO2 dissolution in oil is up to 7 times greater than in reservoir brine when saturations between the two fluids are equal. It is found that after two years of CO2 injection solubility trapping accounts for 26% of injected CO2. The finding that significantly more dissolution occurs in oil rather than brine indicates that CO2 storage in EOR is safer than in brine storage. However a number of factors such as the increase in oil/CO2 mobility due to CO2 injection is also discussed. The overall conclusion from the work is that CO2EOR in the North Sea has the potential to be an effective way of producing oil and storing CO2 in the North Sea. A number of design, operational and accounting factors are however essential to operate an exemplar CO2EOR project where low carbon intensity oil can be produced from a mature basin while storing large tonnages of captured anthropogenic CO2.

In recent years, there has been an increased attention to climate change and the effects it might have on human society. One of the main causes of climate change is increased carbon emissions due to different human activities and global scale industrialization. Various approaches exist to mitigate the effects of climate change. One of the largest sources of carbon emissions is the pro- duction of consumer goods. Therefore, by influencing the choices consumers make, we can help mitigate some of the effects of climate change due to carbon emissions.In this thesis, we focus on carbon emissions during the production phase of textile products. To be able to influence consumers in their choice of textile products, we must be able to provide them with detailed information on the emissions of individual products. Such information will allow consumers to compare the products and potentially influence them to choose environmen- tally friendly products. Such a product will hopefully push the market towards sustainable production.Our work focuses on providing methods that can be used to create a ma- chine learning model to predict the carbon emissions of textile products. We collaborate with IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute (IVL) to build an analytical model to calculate the emissions of textile products. Further- more, we leverage the analytical model to design and compare three machine learning models. We focus on building models that benefit from the knowl- edge of the analytical model while being scalable with regards to new data. Moreover, we introduce a method to use knowledge in the form of analyti- cal models to bootstrap a machine learning model when labelled data is not readily available. In this way, the machine learning model can benefit from the existing knowledge of the analytical model while being adaptable to new labelled data.Finally, we compare the three proposed models and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each model. We also mention the situations where each model performs best.
Intresset för klimatförändringar och dess potentiella effekter på samhället har ökat under de senaste åren. En av de främsta orsakerna till klimatförändringar är ökade koldioxidutsläpp till följd av en globaliserad ekonomi och mänskliga aktiviteter som exempelvis resande. En betydande andel av koldioxidutsläppen kommer från konsumtion av konsumentprodukter. Genom att påverka konsu- menternas val så kan en bidra till att minska koldioxidutsläppen och i sin tur mildra klimatförändringarna.I denna masteruppsats analyseras koldioxidutsläpp från produktion av tex- tiler. För att aktivt kunna påverka konsumenternas val så bör de presenteras med detaljerad information om den specifika textilproduktens miljöpåverkan. Denna information tillåter konsumenterna att jämföra produkter med avseende på miljöeffekter, vilket potentiellt kan få dem att prioritera miljövänligare al- ternativ. Förhoppningen är att denna lösning i förlängningen kommer att driva textilmarknaden mot en mer hållbar produktion.Syftet med denna rapport är att tillhandahålla maskininlärnings modeller som kan användas för att förutsäga koldioxidutsläpp från textilprodukter. I rap- porten så används en analytisk modell för att beräkna utsläpp från textilproduk- ter, denna modell är framtagen i samarbete IVL Swedish Environmental Rese- arch Institute (IVL). Den analytiska modellen används sedan i utformningen och jämförelsen av tre maskininlärningsmetoder. Dessa maskininlärningsal- goritmer är utformade för att kunna kombinera en analytisk modell med nya datapunkter på ett skalbart sätt. Således föreslår vi även att kunskap från en analytisk modell kan användas för att bootstrapa en maskininlärningsmodell. Detta är särskilt nyttigt då få annoterade datapunkter är tillgängliga. Denna metodik medför att modellen kan utnyttja den analytiska modellens kunskap och sedan anpassas till nya annoterade datapunkter.Slutligen så ställs de tre maskininlärningsmodellerna mot varandra i en diskussion om var och ens fördelar respektive nackdelar. Vi framhåller även i vilka typer av situationer de enskilda modellernas prestationer var optimala.

Purpose: The global concrete consumption amounts to 25 gigatons annually, making it the most widely used building material (Petek Gursel, et al. 2014). The continued increasing world population in connection with urbanization will lead to a greater demand for cement. The problem with the increased manufacturing process of cement is that carbon dioxide emissions in 2020 will account for 10-15 % of global CO2 emissions, compared with the values measured in 2016, which only reached 5-8 % (Habert & Ouellet-Plamondon, 2016). The aim of the thesis is to analyse stages in the manufacturing process of prefabricated concrete from an environmental point of view with consideration to CO2 emissions. This will later result in providing concrete improvement measures or alternatively only provide useful knowledge for the concrete industry’s future. The stages that will be analysed are transport, concrete, rebar (reinforcement) and cellular plastic production. Method: The methods chosen for the implementation of the thesis were Literature Studies and Interviews. The purpose of the literature study was to educate the authors on the subject and collect various results from current research. The interviews contributed to the necessary information to be able to carry out the analyses at work. Findings: The thesis has resulted in a total amount of CO2eq emissions in four different stages in the concrete manufacturing process. Cement proved to be the biggest contributing factor to CO2eq emissions. There are several different measures to reduce CO2eq emissions in the concrete manufacturing process. The measures discussed the most frequently concern the cement production, which is favourable for the concrete production as a whole. The discussion also highlights measures taken in action at a concrete factory level. Implications: This study shows that cement accounts for the majority of the total CO2 emissions for concrete production. Therefore, much focus placed on improving the cement production with consideration to CO2 emissions is necessary. This does not mean that less focus should aim on research for green transport, insulation production and steelmaking. All productions stages have potential for improvement. Hence, it is important to continue the research to reduce the total CO2 emissions in the production of prefabricated concrete elements. Limitations: The study was limited to the manufacturing process of prefabricated concrete. A specific project HUS F was analysed for CO2 emissions in four production stages; concrete, reinforcement, insulation materials and transport.
Syfte: Den globala betongkonsumtionen uppgår årligen till 25 gigaton vilket gör den till det mest använda byggnadsmaterialet (Petek, Masanet, Horvath & Stadel, 2014). Den fortsatt ökande världspopulationen i samband med urbaniseringen kommer att leda till en större efterfrågan av cement. Problemet med den ökade tillverkningsprocessen av cement är att koldioxidutsläppen år 2020 kommer att stå för 10-15 % av de globala CO2-utsläppen, jämfört med värdena uppmätta år 2016 på cirka 5–8 % (Habert & Ouellet-Plamondon, 2016). Målet med examensarbetet är att analysera skeden i tillverkningsprocessen av prefabricerad betong ur miljösynpunkt med avseende på CO2-utsläpp för att sedan kunna komma med konkreta förbättringsåtgärder alternativt enbart bidra med nyttig kunskap för betongindustrins framtid. Skedena som analyseras är transporter samt betong-, armering- och cellplasttillverkning. Metod: Metoderna som valdes för genomförandet av examensarbetet var Litteraturstudie samt Intervju. Litteraturstudien gjordes i syfte att fördjupa författarna i ämnet samt insamling av diverse resultat från aktuell forskning. Intervjuerna som genomfördes bidrog till nödvändig information för att kunna genomföra analyserna i arbetet. Resultat: Examensarbetet har resulterat i totala CO2-utsläpp i fyra olika skeden i betongtillverkningsprocessen. Cement visade sig vara den absolut största bidragande faktorn till CO2-utsläpp. Det finns flera olika åtgärder för att minska CO2-utsläppet i betongtillverkningsprocessen. De åtgärder som diskuteras flitigast berör cementtilllverkningen vilket är gynnsamt för betongtillverkningen som helhet. Diskussionen framhäver även åtgärder som kan vidtas på en betongfabriks nivå. Konsekvenser: Det konstaterades i denna studie att cement står för majoriteten av det totala CO2-utsläppet i betongproduktionen. Därför bör mycket fokus läggas vid förbättring av cementtillverkningsprocessen med avseende på CO2-utsläpp. Detta innebär inte att mindre fokus skall läggas vid forskning för miljövänligare transport, isolering- och stålproduktion. Samtliga områden bör förbättras och potential finns definitivt att hämta vid alla produktionsskeden. Begränsningar: Studien avgränsades till tillverkningsprocessen av prefabricerad betong. Ett specifikt projekt HUS F analyserades med avseende på CO2-utsläpp i fyra tillverkningsskeden; betong, armering, cellplast samt transport.

Products, throughout their life cycle from production to waste management, create emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). This leads to environmental impacts on the climate (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). The consumed products from households are increasing (World Wildlife Fund, 2008) and so is the waste generated from them (Avfall Sverige, n.d.). A more sustainable development generating from circular economy should be focused on to increases the reuse of products and by so reduce the amount of waste generated (Göteborgs Stad, n.d.a.) This study have examined if the use of Free Shops can help the city of Gothenburg to reach higher up the waste management hierarchy towards reuse and prevention, and if carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) can be avoided by using Free Shops.    Two Free Shops with the purpose to increase reuse in Gothenburg have been studied and their effect on GHG emissions, presented as CO2e, have been analysed. A Life Cycle Inventory Study (LCI) has been conducted on all, but two, different materials entering the Free Shops for four weeks, including the production, waste management, transportation and storage. The result of the study shows that a mean of 10 ton CO2e per Free Shop per year can be avoided when reusing at a Free Shop instead of buying new products. This equals leaving a low energy lamp on for approximately 590 years (World Wildlife Fund, 2009) based on a low energy lamp using 0,007 kWh (Eon, 2007). To examine if the Free Shops can reduce the amount of waste disposed of by households in Gothenburg the material entering the Free Shops was weight and analysed to estimate how it corresponded to the amount of waste disposed of. The result shows that the material entering a Free Shop only corresponds to 0.0025 percent of the household waste disposed of in the city. This indicates that Free Shops by themselves will not solve the problem with increasing amounts of waste and emissions from increasing production. However, they can help in a small scale.

20180625

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explore the environmental impact of e-commerce, considering the effects on CO2e emissions from transportation and implications on product packaging.  Method: The research approach used in the study is an exploratory single case study design. The research questions were answered by using both qualitative and quantitative methods and the data collection methods used were interviews and document analyses in combination with a literature review.  Findings: The study shows that there is no straightforward answer to whether e-commerce is a better option environmentally speaking or not since it very much depends on the context and circumstances. Regarding transportation, e-commerce and especially home delivery, emitted least CO2e emissions. It was also shown that electric cars were the most environmentally friendly option considering consumer trips. Regarding packaging, it was shown that e-commerce resulted in larger packages and thus more CO2e emissions and waste.  Originality: The study contributes to an understanding of the environmental implications of e-commerce, and therefore, it can support companies in their progress toward becoming a more sustainable business. Limitations/delimitations: The study is limited to one case company and focuses on domestic deliveries within Sweden. Returns of products will not be included in any calculations. Emissions resulting from producing more packaging material, or the transportation of packaging material before usage, are not considered.  Theoretical implications: The study contributes to existing research within the area since it covers a different context by studying a manufacturer and adds a new perspective by considering different fuels for consumer trips in the calculations.  Managerial implications: Based on the result of the study practical suggestions for companies to reduce their environmental impact are presented, for example, implement a standard packaging procedure and outsource logistics activities to 3PL companies.
Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka miljöeffekterna av e-handel, med beaktande av effekterna på CO2e utsläpp från transport och konsekvenser för produktförpackningar. Metod: Forskningsmetoden som används i studien är en undersökande design för enstaka fallstudier. Forskningsfrågorna kan besvaras med både kvalitativa och kvantitativa metoder och de datainsamlingsmetoder som använts är intervjuer och dokumentanalyser i kombination med en litteraturöversikt. Resultat: Studien visar att det inte finns något enkelt svar på om e-handel är ett bättre alternativ miljömässigt eller inte, eftersom det beror mycket på sammanhang och omständigheter. När det gäller transport, e-handel och särskilt hemleverans, släppte de ut minst CO2e utsläpp. Det visades också att elbilar var det mest miljövänliga alternativet med tanke på konsumentresor. När det gäller förpackningar visades det att e-handel resulterade i större paket och därmed mer CO2e utsläpp och avfall. Originalitet: Studien bidrar till en ökad förståelse för miljöpåverkan av e-handel, och kan därför stödja företag i deras framsteg mot att bli en mer hållbar verksamhet. Begränsningar: Studien är begränsad till ett fallföretag och fokuserar på inrikes leveranser inom Sverige. Retur av produkter ingår inte i några av beräkningarna. Utsläpp från produktion av mer förpackningsmaterial eller transport av förpackningsmaterial före användning beaktas inte. Teoretiska implikationer: Studien bidrar till befintlig forskning inom området eftersom den täcker ett annat sammanhang genom att studera en tillverkare och lägger till ett nytt perspektiv genom att beakta olika bränslen för konsumentresor i beräkningarna. Praktiska implikationer: Baserat på resultatet av studien presenteras praktiska förslag för företag för att minska sin miljöpåverkan, till exempel genom att implementera en standardiserad process för att paketering och lägga ut logistikaktiviteter till 3PL-företag.

This study assesses the primary drivers of CO2e footprint for three types of water damage resolution methods and identifies relevant focus areas to support a reduced environmental footprint from water damage restoration. To face the global challenge of climate change, mitigation actions need to be taken on a broad level, with the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from buildings being a key part. Although the number of environmental assessments of buildings is increasing, there is a lack of scientific literature quantifying the CO2e footprint of water damages, which makes it difficult for stakeholders in the industry to make sound decisions in order to combat climate change. In particular, this relates to the various methods that can be applied to resolve water damages. Therefore, this study conducts an attributional life cycle assessment of the CO2e footprint of three actual water damages, resolved using different methods requiring various degrees of material replacement. The study finds that both the total CO2e footprint and its main drivers vary significantly depending on the selected method. It further finds that the choice of method is crucial in order to reduce the CO2e footprint from water damage restoration, more specifically that a higher degree of material reuse, enabled by drying of damaged materials, appears to be preferred where applicable.
Denna studie undersöker de huvudsakliga faktorerna som påverkar det koldioxidavtryck som kan kopplas till tre typer av hanteringsmetoder av vattenskador, samt identifierar relevanta områden att fokusera på för att minska den miljömässiga effekten från vattenskadehantering. Flertalet åtgärder behöver genomföras för att möta utmaningen med klimatförändringar, och att minska växthusgaser kopplade till byggnader är att anse som en viktig del av detta. Trots att antalet miljöstudier relaterade till byggnader ökar är antalet vetenskapliga studier kopplade till CO2e från vattenskador begränsat, vilket gör det svårt för intressenter i industrin att fatta välgrundade beslut. I synnerhet är detta relaterat till de olika metoder som kan användas för att hantera skadorna. Av den anledningen genomför denna studie en livscykelanalys med bokföringsmetodik för att undersöka koldioxidavtrycket från tre faktiska vattenskador. Dessa har åtgärdats med olika hanteringssmetoder vilket medför en variation i den mängd material som behöver bytas ut. Studien konstaterar att både det totala avtrycket samt de huvudsakliga drivarna varierar betydligt beroende på vilken metod som använts. Vidare konstateras att valet av metod är avgörande för att kunna minska mängden CO2e från vattenskadehantering, mer specifikt att en högre grad av materialåteranvädning, möjliggjort av torkning av skadade delar, förefaller vara att föredra när det är tillämpbart.

The human effort to continuously improve their standard of living in conjunction with the rapid growth of world‟s population, the reckless and the wasteful misuse of energy reserves threaten to lead mankind in an energy deadlock. In an effort to realize the size of the waste of our planet‟s available energy resources, we only need to point out that people have spent the last century stocks of raw materials and energy, which were saved and produced during the lifetime of our planet. The management of the energy systems in a proper and best way is considered to be essential worldwide. In this project the energy system of Greece is studied. The power production systems used in different sectors of life were analyzed. The study emphasized in the electricity production from different sources. Lignite electricity power plants were first introduced in the country followed by the gas power plants and Renewable Energy Sources (RES) installations. The deregulation of electricity market formed the new energy scenery of the country. Electricity grid reinforcements with smart metering and energy storage proved to be necessary in order the RES to be fully penetrated to the national grid, so as Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions to be reduced as much as possible. The further expansion of RES could help to cope with the barriers of the country‟s electrification due to singularity of hundred islands that are not yet interconnected to the mainland. Analytical theory methods and numerical skills used to derive the appropriate data and results. Installed capacity of the power sources was verified as well as costs and polluted emissions per unit and type of sources involved. Weaknesses and abnormalities of the electric system were pointed out. Proved gains from the RES use were verified for ensuring the sustainability of the country‟s energy system

Studien genomfördes åt Volvo CE där syftet med arbetet var att ge medarbetarna på Volvo CE en inblick i olika materials livscykler genom att utvärdera tre plastsorter med ett referensmaterial i stål ur ett livscykelperspektiv. Målet var att hitta det mest lämpade materialet av de fyra alternativen som ur ett livscykelperspektiv har lägst klimatpåverkan samt redogöra vilka åtgärder som kan göras för att reducera klimatpåverkan ytterligare. Genom att använda återvunnen råvara, förnyelsebar energi samt förnyelsebart fordonsbränsle kan ett materials klimatpåverkan minska med upp till 87%. Det material som är bäst lämpat att använda ur ett livscykelperspektiv i dagens läge är Referensmaterialet stål men om återvunnen råvara av Material 1 håller för de givna konstruktionsegenskaperna bör det användas istället. Den dagen tillverkning av stål kan ske utan att fossila utsläpp genereras, kommer stål ha lägre klimatpåverkan än förnyelsebar bioplast.

Miljöförändringar har resulterat i att växthusgaser (GHG) har studerats. Från flertalet studier anses nyckelindikatorerna för klimatförändringarna vara de förändrade koncentrationerna av GHG, särskilt koldioxid (CO2). Utsläpp av flyktiga organiska ämnen (VOC), är ett annat ämne som studerats. VOC kan i närvaro av kväveoxider (NOx) och solljus bidra till bildandet av marknära ozon. VOC kan också ha en direkt negativ hälsoeffekt hos människan vid långvarig exponering. Syftet med studien är att redogöra för hur företag/industrier kan bidra till att uppnå det globala målet som innefattar effektivare resursanvändning genom att analysera ett industriföretags resursanvändning. För att analysera utsläpp av VOC kartläggs användningen av kemikalier, specifikt från förrådet hos företaget Volvo CE i Braås. För att genomföra livscykelanalysen skapas ett scenario för färgprodukterna som används i detaljmåleriet. Scenariot används för att ställa upp systemgränser för vad som ska täckas av analysen. Resultatet visar att det är vid användningen av färgprodukterna som mest utsläpp av CO2e förekommer.

Purpose: The world is supposed to aim for a maximal global warming of 1,5 degrees Celsius which means an ecological footprint of 1,3-ton CO2e/person, year. How much does a sustainable living situation affect the living area per person? With the help of a typical Swedish house and a lifecycle analysis the living area is put in relation to the 1,5-degree aim. The purpose of this report is to investigate how the fulfilling of the 1,5-degree aim will affect the living area per person.    Method: The research approach in the report is quantitative were a meta study and a case study compose the research strategy. The data collecting methods are a literature study and a document analysis. Lastly the report uses calculations and lifecycle analysis for analyzing and compiling the results.  Findings: The goal value for the facility sector should come down to 0.3217ton CO2e/person, year. The typical-house uses 0,6637 ton CO2e/person, year. The results show an unsustainable situation from today’s living situation. It would take between eight to twelve people in the typical house to reach the goal value for the facility sector.   Conclusion and recommendations:  

Individuals cannot understand their own effect of their living situation when it is measured in CO2e/square meter. Lifecycle analysis, energy-declarations and other things relevant for the living situation should be measured per person who uses the space to give perspective on the climate impact.  

A tangible goal value for a sector is extremely hard to define and mostly up to the contemplators’ value and logic. The breakdown of the sectors needs to become clearer and more consequent for a better possibility to compare. 

We got knowledge from Birkved, Brejnrod, Kalbar och Petersens (2017) report of how both the construction and consumption stages needs to change and how that isn’t nearly enough. Clearer instruments towards electricity from solar-, wind- and hydro power for real estate owners in all sizes is a recommendation.  

It is clear how both individuals and companies need to open their eyes for what it is going to take and how far it is to reach a sustainable situation. Which means that politics need to take a much harder grip on the situation. Such as the demand on the environment declaration should have a maximum value.   Limitations: The lifecycle analysis has missing parts of the transport stage and the entire production stage.   PRINCE’s version of how to divide the sectors is from 2014 but uses numbers from 2016 over Sweden’s total CO2e emissions.   The facility sector contains more categories than what is taken into account in the lifecycle analysis
Syfte: Världen ska eftersträva en maximal global uppvärmning på 1,5 grad och därmed ett maximalt ekologiskt fotavtryck på 1,3 ton CO2e/person, år. Hur mycket påverkas boarean per person om man vill ha ett hållbart boende? Med hjälp av ett svenskt typhus och en livscykelanalysberäkning sätts boarean i relation till 1,5-gradsmålet. Examensarbetets syfte är att undersöka hur uppfyllandet av 1,5-gradsmålet påverkar boarean per person.   Metod: Rapporten kommer genomföras med en kvantitativ forskningsansats där en metastudie och fallstudie utgör forskningsstrategin. Till dem används datainsamlingsmetoderna litteraturstudie och dokumentanalys. Slutligen sker bearbetning och dataanalys med hjälp av beräkningar och en livscykelanalys för att kunna sammanställa och jämföra resultat.  Resultat: Målvärdet för boendesektorn bör komma ner till 0,3217 ton CO2e/person, år. Typhuset gör av med 0,6637 ton CO2e/person, år. Resultatet visar på en ohållbar situation utifrån dagens boendeförhållande.  För att nå målet idag skulle det krävas att det bodde mellan åtta och tolv personer i det svenska nybyggda typhuset.  Slutsats och rekommendationer:  

En individ kan inte förestå sin påverkan av sitt boende då det mäts i CO2e/kvm. Livscykelanalyser, energideklarationer och andra relevanta saker för boendet bör mätas per person som nyttjar ytan för att kunna ge perspektiv på klimatpåverkan. 

Ett konkret målvärde för en sektor är extremt svårdefinierat. Sektorernas indelningar skulle behöva bli tydligare och mer konsekventa för bättre jämförelsemöjligheter.  

Från bland annat Birkved, Brejnrod, Kalbar och Petersens (2017) rapport blev vi upplysta om hur både byggkonstruktion och drift behöver förändras men att det inte är tillräckligt. Hårdare styrmedel för el från sol-, vind- och vattenkraft för fastighetsägare av alla storlekar är en rekommendation.  

Det är tydligt hur både individer och företag behöver få upp ögonen för vad som krävs och hur långt det är att nå dit. Vilket innebär att politiken behöver ta mycket hårdare tag. Exempelvis skulle kravet om en klimatdeklaration på skede A1-A3 också kunna innehålla ett maximalt värde.   Begränsningar:  Livscykelanalysen rymmer inte den del som innefattar transporter från bygg och installationsprocessen i transport (A4) och inget av bygg och installationsprocessen (A5). PRINCE:s sektorindelning över växthusgasutsläpp från 2014 används med siffror från Naturvårdsverket från 2016 över Sveriges totala CO2-utsläpp.  Boendesektorn innefattar fler utsläppsområden än vad som ingår i en livscykelanalys.

Det finns en oro kring konsekvenserna av ökade växthusgasutsläpp. Därför har bland annat EU:s medlemsländer tecknat avtal om att minska utsläppen. I Sverige har det lett till krav att från och med 2022 redovisa byggmaterials miljöpåverkan genom klimatdeklarationer. Byggsektorn har potential att minska klimatpåverkan. Byggnadsmaterial ger olika utsläpp av växthusgaser och valet av material är viktigt. Isoleringsmaterial med naturlig härkomst anses orsaka mindre utsläpp än konventionell isolering. Hampa är ett exempel på ett naturligt material som kan användas i småhusbebyggelse. Hampan kan bli en kolsänka då biomaterial binder kol. Tyvärr finns det idag mycket begränsad forskning på just hampfiberisolering i svenskt klimat.  Syftet med studien är att bidra med ökad kunskap inför valet av isoleringsmaterial i ett småhus, av modellen Eneryda av Rörvikshus, placerat i Växjö. I arbetet jämförs klimatpåverkan och kostnader för isoleringsmaterialen hamp-, cellulosa- och glasullsisolering genom en livscykelanalys (LCA) och en livscykelkostnad (LCC) i en vald husmodell. I studien undersöks skedena A-D, d.v.s. från vagga till grav. Resultatet visar att byggnaden isolerad med hampfiber orsakar det lägsta nettoutsläppet på 124 följt av cellulosa 132 och glasull 139 CO₂e/m². Kostnaden för byggnaden med isolering av hampfiber är 5467, cellulosa 4830 och glasull 4861 SEK/m²BOA. Genom att välja hampfiberisolering istället för glasull kan utsläppen för husmodellen Eneryda minskas med 12 % samtidigt som kostnaden ökar med 20 %. Att välja cellulosaisolering i stället för glasullsisolering ger en minskning av nettoutsläppen med 5 % och kostnaderna förblir detsamma.  Studiens känslighetsanalyser visar effekten av indata. Om råvaran till cellulosa byts ut från oanvänt papper till återvunnen råvara orsakar det att nettoutsläppen för byggnaden Eneryda minskar med 13 %. Det innebär att småhuset Eneryda isolerad med cellulosa från återvunnen produkt orsakar 15 % lägre utsläpp än glasullshuset - utan att påverka priset. Största påverkan på nettoutsläppen hade Enerydas värmesystem. Att använda bergvärme istället för Veab:s fjärrvärme ökade nettoutsläppen med 56 – 63 %. Slutligen ledde resultatet av studien till en diskussion om avsaknaden av en entydig definition och metod för användandet av biogent kol i klimatdeklarationer. Att exkludera biogent kol leder till att hampfiberisoleringen bidrar med högst utsläpp tätt följt av cellulosan och sist glasullsisoleringen som släpper ut minst. Studiens resultat påvisar vikten av vaksamhet och att Boverket borde blir tydligare kring det biogena kolet i klimatberäkningar. Enheten bör utvecklas mer av institut för standarder. Av resultaten framgår också vikten av att ta tidsaspekten av biomaterialets förnyelsetid i beaktande vid beräkningarna för att material som hampfiber binder kol snabbare än exempelvis trä.
The concern of climate change has influenced the building sector in Sweden to become more climate neutral. The choice of building materials affect the emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents [CO₂e]. The purpose of the study is to provide more basis for the choice of insulation material looking into the climate- and cost implication of hemp fibre, cellulose and stone wool insulation.  The study includes an accounting-LCA from cradle to grave (A – D) and an LCC. The study looks at the climate shell of a one-story single-family house, model Eneryda from Rörvikshus, in Växjö over the lifetime 50 years.  The result shows that Eneryda net emissions for hemp fiber insulation is 124 CO₂e/m²BOA and the cost is 5467 SEK/m2 BOA. The result of emissions for the hempfiber-model is 12% less and the cost is 20% higher than the glass wool-model. Cellulose insulation results in net emissions of 132 CO₂e/m² and a cost of 4830 SEK/m2 BOA. Cellulose results in 5% less emissions and nearly the same cost as the glass wool building.

Purpose –The purpose of this research is to increase knowledge about how a led fitting impacts the environment. To be able to fulfil the purpose, it has been broken down into four research questions: • RQ1: What is the environmental impact during transportation? • RQ2: What is the environmental impact during the use phase? • RQ3: What is the environmental impact during the end of life phase? • RQ4: How can the environmental impact be decreased? Method: The authors worked abductive in the relation between theories and empirical data. The authors conducted a case study at a Swedish company in Jönköping. The case study covers a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). The LCA includes four different stages; goal, scope & boundary definition, life-cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact assessment and interpretation. During the stages the authors carried out a pre study, interview, document study and calculations. To find out more information about the problem area a literature study was conducted. Theoretical material was received from books, peer review articles and reports. The literature study and the case study increased the authors knowledge to answer the research questions. Findings: The research findings indicate that transportation, Use- and end of life phase impact the environment in different amounts of greenhouse gases (CO2e). The transportation from production to customer stands for 0,16 kg CO2e, the use phase for 15,6 kg CO2e and end of life for 0,5 kg CO2e. The environmental impact can be decreased if companies both deal with the issue to make products more sustainable during the entire life cycle. The transportation’s environmental impact can be decreased through reduction of CO2 emission, which is the dominated greenhouse gases during road freight transportation. The use phase environmental impact can be decreased if adapting a more efficient consumption system. Another way to minimize the environmental impact is to offer and implement maintenance and repairing. The end of life environmental impact can be decreased by recycling or reuse the materials. Another way to lower the impact is to have a holistic perspective when choosing material. Lastly the impact can be decreased if companies, already in the design stage to think about the products last phase. Implications: The practical implications in this study is the case study. The case study contributed with knowledge about the environmental impact of a led fitting. The study has not contributed with any new theories. The study is based on a problem statement with already amount of existing theories and developed tools to calculate the environmental impact. Even if the study did not contribute theoretically, it strengthens already existing theories or statement from other researchers. Limitations: The research ability to generalize can be questioned since the research was limited to a single case study. This can affect the generalizability of the result. Keywords – Sustainability, Environmental impact, LCA, led fitting, Life cycle, use phase, end of life phase, transportation, Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)

Storage of CO2 in the subsurface is one of the options available to lower the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, a general priority in mitigating effects of climate change. In this frame, a number of challenges need to be solved to ensure a safe storage containment by avoiding wellbore failure, fault reactivation, leakage of CO2 along faults, caprock failure and microseismicity. Risks related to those issues can be successfully addressed with an accurate geomechanical characterization prior to injection. The effectiveness of geomechanical methods has been recognized in production of hydrocarbon reservoirs as well as in fluid storage (i.e. waste water and gas). The case study chosen for this thesis is the CO2CRC Otway Project, launched in 2005 in the state of Victoria (Australia) as first pilot study for CO2 storage in the southern hemisphere. As international partner of CO2CRC, the PROTECT Research Group was established in 2011 to develop a seismo-mechanical workflow able to predict deformation at sub-seismic level. The work presented in this thesis contributes to the workflow by providing a geomechanical characterization of the storage site. More specifically, finite element forward modelling is used to obtain a description of the 3D state of stress. A joint effort with partners from PROTECT Research group led to the setup of a geological model based on a detailed 3D seismic interpretation. In particular, it provides the geometry information needed to the buildup of the geomechanical model at the core of this thesis. The inclusion of all lithostratigraphic layers up to the ground surface results in a strengthened reliability of the geomechanical model that can be potentially implemented as a reference in future well planning. Wells logs and a literature review provide rock and fault properties to populate the model, regional stress data are used as boundary conditions for the model and stress measurements from the wells allow to calibrate the model. In situ local stress is analyzed following two different approaches, both using finite element techniques, to provide a comprehensive knowledge of effective and total stresses in the injection area. The response of the in situ stress field to changes in pore pressure due to CO2 injection in the reservoir is studied through a one-way flow and geomechanics coupled simulation. The computed effective stresses acting on the reservoir allow to assess caprock integrity and potential fault reactivation in relation to CO2 injection operations. Vertical rock displacements are also derived from the modelling to understand compaction of the reservoir and subsidence/uplift at ground surface level during the initial gas production and the subsequent CO2 injection phase. In addition, a parametric study estimates the pore pressure needed to cause fault reactivation for both numerical and analytical models, along with the corresponding maximum allowable daily injection rate. The second approach consists of a structural analysis describing the tectonic present-day in situ stress distribution at reservoir scale. Resolution of the model allows to identify perturbation in stress magnitudes within the reservoir level, related mainly to the presence of faults. Stability of faults is analyzed from a structural point of view, estimating the slip and dilation tendency of each fault under the computed stress conditions. Identification and modelling of the major tectonic stages allows the reconstruction of the geomechanical evolution of the injection site. Evidences from the implemented models show some discrepancies in the outcome. Possible sources of divergence between numerical and analytical approach are explored, as well as factors affecting stress modelling using the two different geomechanical simulators. Combination of results aims to analyze and understand the occurrence of local stress rotations and its causes. Finally, the temporal evolution of the fracture network is studied by correlating observed fractures and modelled states of stress. Finally, a comparison with previous geomechanical models for the CO2CRC Otway Project is conducted in terms of critical pore pressure for fault reactivation. Increasing availability of data used to constrain the models is reflected in an enhanced level of accuracy. However, those models are purely analytical and do not consider variability in rock properties, topographic effects, presence of faults and interaction between adjacent cells. The degree of complexity handled by the numerical model presented in this thesis contributes to increase the confidence on risk analysis results. To summarize, this thesis presents the first 3D geomechanical model of the CO2CRC Otway project, with the aim to provide a comprehensive geomechanical characterization of the storage site. Description of the 3D state of state and fault stability analysis, taking into account both total and effective stresses, have particular relevance for storage performance and future well planning. Besides this specific case study, the proposed workflow can be potentially applied to other injection sites for pre-injection geomechanical assessment. More generally, the same methodology could be followed for understanding state of stress and faults behavior in hydrocarbon and geothermal reservoirs.

This thesis deals with the partial evaluation of the life cycle of three kinds of power plants, particularly flint corn ( Zea mays L.) , reed canary grass ( Phalaris arundinacea L.) , Szarvazi I ( Agropyron elongatum L.) and their environmental impact during their cultivation. As an evaluation framework was used seedbed preparation time from the first year to the last harvest after ten years growing cycle. To calculate the emissions of greenhouse gases has been used software tool SimaPro . The aim was to find out how much greenhouse gas emissions (kg CO2eq per 1 kg of dry matter ) is created in the cultivation of selected power plants and compare that plant is from an environmental point of view the most environmentally friendly. The total emission load produced during the life cycle of corn is sown CO2eqv 0.199210 kg per 1 kg of dry matter , with reed rákosovité CO2eqv 0.182075 kg per 1 kg of dry matter. I Szarvasi is from an environmental point of view the most friendly CO2eqv produces 0.110232 kg per 1 kg of dry matter.

Tese de mestrado integrado, Engenharia da Energia e do Ambiente, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2021
Nos dias atuais, dado o aumento de concentração de gases de efeito estufa na atmosfera ao longo das últimas décadas, é cada vez maior a preocupação em reduzir as emissões de gases nocivos ou compensar essas emissões. O aumento da concentração de GEE na atmosfera é resultado de ações antropogénicas que, por sua vez, apresentam uma elevada dependência de combustíveis fósseis. Os meios de transporte trouxeram avanços imensuráveis para a humanidade em quase todos sectores. Contudo esses avanços tiveram como consequência as emissões de GEE com impactes ambientais negativos, de tal modo que, nos últimos anos, a indústria de transportes vem demonstrando avanços no sentido de promover uma mobilidade sustentável com benefícios tantos para o meio ambiente como para a população. O deslocamento de pessoas para o trabalho, estudos, compras, férias, etc., dependem dos meios de transportes para que possam ser realizados, principalmente pela distância que é percorrida. Dessa forma, é importante contabilizar as emissões associadas a esses deslocamentos para que se possa ter noção da sua dimensão e procurar soluções para essas emissões. Foi nesse âmbito que este estudo foi desenvolvido. A Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa tem o intuito de tornar o seu campus em um campus sustentável e um dos passos para que tal objetivo se torne realidade consiste em realizar um inventário total de emissões de GEE de todas as fontes e em todos os sectores. Este estudo é focado nas viagens a trabalho realizadas pelos 391 docentes e 171 investigadores que faziam parte dos recursos humanos no ano de 2019. Foram realizadas 2023 viagens sendo desse total, 810 viagens de carro, 304 viagens de táxi, 515 viagens de avião, 118 de autocarro, 226 de comboio, 39 de metro e 11 de ferry, deslocações responsáveis pela emissão de 319 toneladas de GEE no ano em questão e representando cerca de 0,568 toneladas de CO2eq por docente/investigador. As viagens aéreas representam 88,7% do total de emissões, o equivalente a 283 toneladas de GEE emitidos em 2019. Estas emissões correspondem a cerca de 10 a 15% das emissões de CO2eq previamente identificadas para a atividade da FCUL relativas às emissões do scope 1 e scope 2, para os anos anteriores.
Nowadays, given the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the past few decades, there is a growing concern about reducing harmful gas emissions or offsetting these emissions. The increase in GHG concentration in the atmosphere is the result of anthropogenic actions that, in turn, have a high dependence on fossil fuels. The means of transport have brought immeasurable advances for humanity in almost all sectors, yet these advances have had as negative consequence the GHG emissions with negative environmental impacts, so that in recent years the transport industry has shown advances in promoting sustainable mobility with benefits for both the environment and the population. The displacement of people to work, studies, shopping, vacation, etc., depend on the means of transport so that they can be carried out, mainly because the distance that is traveled. Thus, it is important to count the emissions associated with these displacements so that one can understand their size and seek solutions to these emissions. It was in this context that this study was developed, the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon aims to make its campus a sustainable campus and one of the steps for this goal to become a reality is to carry out a total inventory of GHG emissions from all sources and in all sectors. This study focuses only on the business trips made by the 391 professors and 171 researchers who were part of human resources in 2019. There were 2023 trips, of which 810 were journeys by car, 304 taxi journeys, 515 by plane, 118 by bus, 226 by train, 39 by metro and 11 by ferry, those trips were responsible for the emission of 319 tons of GHG in the year in question and representing about 0.568 tons of CO2eq per teacher/researcher. Air travel accounts for 88.7% of total emissions, equivalent to 283 tons of GHG emitted in 2019. These emissions correspond to about 10 to 15% of the CO2eq emissions previously identified for FCUL's activity for scope 1 and scope 2 emissions for previous years.

博士
國立臺灣大學
化學研究所
107
The scope of this thesis consists of two parts: (1) investigation of ligand effects on pentanickel string complexes, and (2) synthesis and characterization of novel heteronuclear metal string complexes containing dimolybdenum or dirhenium unit as the metal precursors. The first part is about the helically pentanuclear nickel string complexes. We employ the following four ligands to synthesis of (1) N-(p-tolyl-sulfonyl)pyridylnaphthyridyl diamine (H2Tspnda, L1), (2) N-(p-tolyl-sulfonyl)phenylpyridylnaphthyridyl diamine (H2Tsphpnda, L2) and the phenyl-substituted ligands of (3) N-(methyl-sulfonyl)pyridylnaphthyridyl diamine (H2Mspnda, L3) and (4) N-(methyl-sulfonyl)phenylpyridylnaphthyridyl diamine (H2Msphpnda, L4). We apply the following techniques to characterize the properties of these complexes: solid state X-ray single crystal diffraction (XRD), magnetic susceptibility (SQUID), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), cyclic voltammograms (CV), electron absorption spectra (UV-Vis and Near-IR), infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and element analysis (EA). The X-ray structure of one-electron-reduced [Ni5]9+ complexes [Ni5(Tspnda)4](PF6) 1, [Ni5(Tsphpnda)4](PF6) 3, [Ni5(Mspnda)4](PF6) 6 and [Ni5(Msphpnda)4](PF6) 9 show remarkably shorter Ni–Ni bond distance (2.2646(6) for 1, 2.2943(7) for 3, 2.2436(11) for 6 and 2.2322(8) Å for 9), indicative of a partial metal-metal bond interaction in the mixed-valence [Ni2]3+ (S = 3/2) unit. The most striking result is that the [Ni2]3+ site migrates from Ni(1)–Ni(2) to Ni(2)–Ni(3) when we replace p-tolyl-sulfonyl group with methyl-sulfonyl group. To investigate this result, we apply the magnetic susceptibility and EPR measurement to examine the magnetic properties of these four [Ni5]9+-core pentanickel strings and study the bonding nature of the mixed-valence [Ni2]3+ unit. The results of EPR measurements reflect the migration of mixed-valence site and the change of symmetry, which is confirmed by the spectral parameters of zero-field splitting (D and E values) in EPR simulation. Furthermore, cyclic voltammetry measurements show four reversible redox waves and display the lower potentials of the [Ni5]9+ complexes. The unusual lower potentials facilitate one-electron oxidation of these four complexes to [Ni5]10+-core forms: [Ni5(Tspnda)4(H2O)2](PF6)2 (2), [Ni5(Tsphpnda)4](PF6)2 (4), [Ni5(Mspnda)4](CF3SO3)2 (8) and [Ni5(Msphpnda)4](PF6)2 (11). Thus, we perform the oxidation reaction of these [Ni5]9+-core complexes to treat with [FeCp2](PF6). Surprisingly, the oxidized [Ni5]10+ counterparts behave differently: complex 2 exhibits an antiferromagnetic interaction with J = -13.59 cm-1 between the two terminal Ni ions, while the others (complexes 4, 8 and 11) display the diamagnetic property as all of the Ni2+ ions are in low-spin (S = 0) states. We present the following important findings in first part of the thesis : (1) For [Ni5]9+-core complexes, they present a rare example of the effect of crystal packing on the symmetric molecular structure yielding unsymmetric electronic distribution. (2) The magnetic susceptibility, EPR and Near-IR measurement confirm the spin state is S = 3/2 (a mixed-valence state) for these complexes. (3) For [Ni5]10+-core complexes, complexes 4, 8 and 11 are the first examples of all Ni2+ ions in null spin configuration for pentanickel chains. (3) Migration of mixed-valence sites from Ni(1)–Ni(2) to Ni(2)–Ni(3) when we replace p-tolyl-sulfonyl group with methyl-sulfonyl group. This finding shows roles of ligand played in bonding nature for the novel metal string complexes. The second part of the thesis is the synthesis and the characterization of the novel heteronuclear metals (molybdenum or rhenium) with other conventional metal ions (nickel, cobalt or ruthenium). We employ symmetrical tripyridyldiamine (H2tpda, L5) ligand and asymmetric ligands (L1 and L2) to explore their properties and potential application. For molybdenum complexes, we obtain the non-linear metal string complexes [NiMo2Ni(Tspnda)4] 14, [CoMo2Co(Tspnda)4] 15 and [Mo4(Tsphpnda)3(HTsphpnda)(OAc)] 18. Since the molybdenum complexes are air-sensitive especially at high temperature, we obtain low yield and non-linear metal complexes. However, we can synthesize the linear molybdenum-based metal string complexes [Mo4Ni(Tspnda)4](PF6)2 16 and [Mo4Ni(Tsphpnda)4](PF6)2 17. Even though the identities are supported by Mass and IR spectroscopy, but we are not able to obtain a good quality crystal form for X-ray diffraction measurement. On the other hand, the rhenium series complexes [Co2Re2(tpda)4Cl](PF6) 19 and [Co2Re2(tpda)4(NCS)](PF6) 20 present a linear metal chain with four pyridine ring hanging out from the metal string complexes. We treat with the ruthenium salt [Ru(COD)Cl2]n to synthesize [Co2Re2Ru(tpda)4Cl2](PF6)2 21, but we could not obtain good quality of crystal for crystal structure determination to explore the bonding nature and their properties. Overall, these extended metal-atom chain (EMAC) impersonate electric wires and we expect them to serve as molecular wires and switches in the manufacture of electronic devices because of their exotic physical and chemical properties.

The generation of solid waste is a natural consequence of human life. Its rate has increase rapidly along the years, mostly due to the population growth, urbanization process coupled to industrialization and economic development. The uncontrolled disposal of solid waste in unsuitable sites, dump sites, has poses a threat to public health and the environment. In this regard Global efforts has been made to rethink municipal solid waste management toward sustainability. Middle- and low-income countries, such as Brazil, should seize the opportunity and centre efforts in the development and strengthen of an inclusive municipal solid waste management, supported by an innovative public policy where all government levels are integrated and focused on resource recovery and recycling through the organization and strengthening of waste pickers, in order to act directly in the income improvement of a marginalized portion of society as a result of the revenue generated by recovered and recycled materials sales, as well as reduce the CO2eq emissions consequent from the disposal of solid waste, among others, hence moving these countries towards the achievement of the SDG goals. In this regard, a well managed inclusive municipal solid waste system requires a reliable data source to support decision makers in the design of public policies with effective actions in the field, otherwise innovative and modern public policies will be filled with fruitless actions, thus, wasting the aptitude of the municipal solid waste management system in help middle- and low-income countries to successfully carry out the SDGs goals. Nevertheless, the estimation methods are a valuable tool for decision makers in middle- and low income countries to outrun the lack of solid waste information and doing so, increase the effectiveness of public polices towards a sustainable and inclusive municipal solid waste system, focused on mitigate negative impacts in the environmental sphere and potentiate the positive outcomes in the public health and human development sphere in these countries. This research proposed an estimate method based on the nominal income which is able to provide a reliable estimate of the residential solid waste generation, as well as its spatial distribution in the municipal level and within the municipal boundaries. The proposed approach has the ability to differentiate spatial distribution of the residential solid waste generation, weighting not just the number of people living in a determined space, but also the purchase power of those people, providing a more accurate view of the issue, which benefits decision makers to design and plan their polices and actions.
Graduate

Doctoral Thesis in Civil Engineering
The expansion and quality increase of road infrastructures in developed countries during the last decades is shifting the attention towards their preservation rather than to new construction. Pavements are the most costly road asset. Therefore, their preservation management optimization is important in order to meet quality and safety demands within available budgets that are becoming increasingly limited. More recently, environmental aspects related to the pavements life-cycle have been raising concerns that must be addressed. The present thesis describes the development of an optimization methodology that intends to be a decision support tool for road administrations. In fact, this work emerged within the scope of a highway administration related project, so it has a character of applied research. The developed methodology is capable of suggesting pavement preservation plans at the network level for a certain time period. It considers aspects related to pavement quality, administration costs, as well as user and environmental costs. Genetic algorithms are employed to optimize problems with two or three con icting objectives, either simultaneously or at distinct phases in order to deal with pairs of objectives at di erent levels. Data selection and ltering and the development of Markov based prediction models are also included in the thesis. The methodology is exible, so that other prediction models with better adjustment to the problem to be solved can be implemented. Similarly, preservation operations and the respective costs and e ects on the pavement are also adjustable. The use of European-level standardized performance indicators and the consideration of user costs and costs related to CO2 emissions in a multi-objective optimization are the main di erences of this methodology to existent ones. The methodology is applied in two distinct case studies that complement each other, allowing to demonstrate the features and adaptability of the methodology. The rst case study relies on historical data from an American database, while the second one is based on data provided by a Portuguese highway administration. In the rst case, preservation plans for a group of geographically separated pavement sections are de ned, regarding administration costs and pavement quality at rst, and user and environmental costs at last. The second case study is focused on a pavement segment that is divided in several dozens of adjacent sections. This allows the suggestion of preservation plans indicating the relative segment area that should be a ected with a speci c treatment in a speci c year, in order to meet quality constraints while optimizing administration costs and pavement quality for the analysis period.
O grande desenvolvimento verificado na expansão e na qualidade das infraestruturas rodoviárias nas últimas décadas em países desenvolvidos, faz com que cada vez seja dada mais atenção à sua preservação do que à nova construção. Os pavimentos rodoviários são o ativo mais dispendioso das estradas, pelo que é de extrema importância otimizar a gestão da sua conservação de modo a cumprir com critérios de qualidade e segurança dentro dos limites orçamentais que tendem a ser cada vez mais restritos. Mais recentemente, questões ambientais associadas ao ciclo de vida dos pavimentos rodoviários têm levantado preocupações que devem ser abordadas. Esta tese descreve o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia de otimização que pretende constituir uma ferramenta de apoio à decisão para administrações rodoviárias. De facto, este trabalho surgiu no âmbito de um projeto associado a uma concessionária de auto-estradas, pelo que tem um caracter de investigação aplicada. A metodologia desenvolvida é capaz de sugerir planos de conservação de pavimentos ao nível da rede para um determinado período de tempo, tendo em conta aspetos relacionados com a qualidade do pavimento, custos para as concessionárias, bem como custos para os utentes da estrada e para o ambiente. A metodologia usa algoritmos genéticos para otimizar problemas com dois ou três objetivos conflituantes, quer em simultâneo, quer em fases distintas de modo a lidar com pares de objetivos em diferentes níveis. A tese inclui ainda uma etapa de seleção e tratamento de dados, bem como de desenvolvimento de modelos de previsão baseados em cadeias de Markov. A metodologia é exigível e pode ser alimentada com outros modelos de previsão que melhor se ajustem ao problema em causa. De igual modo, também as operações de conservação, respetivos custos e efeitos no pavimento são ajustáveis. O uso de indicadores de desempenho uniformizados ao nível Europeu, e a inclusão de custos para os utilizadores das estradas e de custos associados a emissões de CO2 numa otimização multi-objectivo são as principais diferenças desta metodologia para outras já existentes na literatura. A metodologia é aplicada a dois casos de estudo distintos que se complementam e permitem demonstrar as funcionalidades e flexibilidade da metodologia. O primeiro caso de estudo baseia-se em dados históricos de uma base de dados Americana, e o segundo em dados fornecidos por uma concessionária de autoestradas Portuguesa. No primeiro caso, são definidos planos de conservação para um conjunto de secções de pavimento separadas geograficamente, tendo em conta custos para a administração e qualidade do pavimento, primeiramente, e custos ambientais e para o utilizador, por último. O segundo caso de estudo foca-se numa extensão de pavimento dividida em várias dezenas de secções adjacentes, permitindo assim definir planos de conservação que indicam percentagens dessa extensão que deverão receber um determinado tratamento em determinado ano, de modo a otimizar a qualidade e os custos para a concessionária, cumprindo com as restrições de qualidade para todo o período de análise.
This research work was nanced by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Government of Portugal and by the European Social Fund of the European Union (ESF/EU) through the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) with the Ph.D. grant SFRH/BD/85984/2012.

This study centered on a novel thermoelectric generator (TEG) integrated into the built environment. Designed by Watts Thermoelectric LLC, the TEG is essentially a novel assembly of thermoelectric modules whose required temperature differential is supplied by hot and cold streams of water flowing through the TEG. Per its recommended operating conditions, the TEG nominally generates 83 Watts of electrical power. In its default configuration in the built environment, solar-thermal energy serves as the TEG’s hot stream source and geothermal energy serves as its cold stream source. Two systems-level, thermodynamic analyses were performed, which were based on the TEG’s upcoming characterization testing, scheduled to occur later in 2011 in Detroit, Michigan. The first analysis considered the TEG coupled with a solar collector system. A numerical model of the coupled system was constructed in order to estimate the system’s annual energetic performance. It was determined numerically that over the course of a sample year, the solar collector system could deliver 39.73 megawatt-hours (MWh) of thermal energy to the TEG. The TEG converted that thermal energy into a net of 266.5 kilowatt-hours of electricity in that year. The second analysis focused on the TEG itself during operation with the purpose of providing a preliminary thermodynamic characterization of the TEG. Using experimental data, this analysis found the TEG’s operating efficiency to be 1.72%. Next, the annual emissions that would be avoided by implementing the zero-emission TEG were considered. The emission factor of Michigan’s electric grid, RFCM, was calculated to be 0.830 tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e) per MWh, and with the TEG’s annual energy output, it was concluded that 0.221 tons CO2e would be avoided each year with the TEG. It is important to note that the TEG can be linearly scaled up by including additional modules. Thus, these benefits can be multiplied through the incorporation of more TEG units. Finally, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of the TEG integrated into the built environment with the solar-thermal hot source and passive ground-based cold source was considered. The LCOE of the system was estimated to be approximately $8,404/MWh, which is substantially greater than current generation technologies. Note that this calculation was based on one particular configuration with a particular and narrow set of assumptions, and is not intended to be a general conclusion about TEG systems overall. It was concluded that while solar-thermal energy systems can sustain the TEG, they are capital-intensive and therefore not economically suitable for the TEG given the assumptions of this analysis. In the end, because of the large costs associated with the solar-thermal system, waste heat recovery is proposed as a potentially more cost-effective provider of the TEG’s hot stream source.
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