Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'CMIP6 simulations'

Dans la plupart des études, on s'intéresse au changement climatique futur en analysant l'évolution du climat entre une référence actuelle fixée et une période future. Le réchauffement est de plus en plus fort au fil du 21ème siècle. Dans un contexte où les conditions climatiques sont toujours en train d'évoluer, les écosystèmes doivent continuellement s'adapter à des modifications diverses du climat. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, je propose d'analyser les projections climatiques sous un angle alternatif. Afin d’être caractéristique des représentations des populations urbaines et rurales, je définis et analyse des indicateurs liés à la vitesse des changements de température, de précipitations et de végétation. Un ensemble de simulations CMIP5 de 18 modèles de climat est sélectionné. La vitesse est représentée par des différences entre deux périodes successives de 20 ans. Cette notion de vitesse pourrait offrir de nouveaux outils pour interagir avec les communautés scientifiques travaillant sur les impacts et l'adaptation.Sans politiques d’atténuation du changement (scénario RCP8.5), le réchauffement global sera au moins deux fois plus rapide à la fin du siècle qu’actuellement, et même trois fois dans certaines régions. Près de la moitié des surfaces continentales, principalement les zones tropicales, seront touchées par des décalages significatifs de la distribution de la température entre deux périodes de 20 ans d’ici à 2060, i.e. au moins 4 fois plus qu’actuellement. Dans ces régions, des années extrêmement chaudes ayant un temps de retour de 50 ans deviendront habituelles en l’espace de 20 ans seulement. La fraction de la population mondiale étant exposée à ces changements pourrait atteindre environ 60% (i.e. 6 milliards de personnes et 7 fois plus qu’actuellement). Il suffit de relativement légères mesures d’atténuation (RCP6.0) pour que la vitesse du réchauffement ne dépasse pas les valeurs actuelles et que 3 fois moins de personnes soient exposées à des décalages significatifs de température.Les vitesses d’humidification et d’assèchement en termes de précipitations augmenteront de 30 à 40%. Leur répartition géographique deviendra plus stable spatialement et les tendances tendront à persister sur les mêmes régions, et ce malgré l’accélération du réchauffement global. Cette stabilisation résulte de la contribution grandissante des processus thermodynamiques par rapport à ceux contrôlés par la circulation générale. La combinaison de l’accélération des tendances et de leur persistance peut avoir un impact sur l’adaptation des sociétés et des écosystèmes, particulièrement sur le bassin méditerranéen, en Amérique centrale, en Inde et dans les régions arctiques. Une telle évolution est déjà visible actuellement, mais pourrait disparaître avec de fortes mesures d’atténuation (RCP2.6).Les changements de la végétation peuvent être des repères visuels du changement climatique. Dans les moyennes et hautes latitudes Nord, le cycle saisonnier des arbres et des herbacées suit la vitesse du réchauffement. Sans politiques d’atténuation, le début de la saison foliaire avance et sa durée augmente plus rapidement au fil du siècle. La couverture de la végétation se densifie quelque soit le scénario proportionnellement à l’augmentation de la température. Le cycle saisonnier des cultures des moyennes latitudes dépend directement de la température et celui des cultures tropicales de l’évolution des caractéristiques de la saison des pluies. Sous les autres latitudes, aucune évolution robuste du cycle saisonnier n’est projetée. La vitesse des changements de répartition de la végétation a déjà doublé entre 1880 et 1950 correspondant à un changement marqué de l'utilisation des sols. Elle est stable tout au long du siècle si la végétation interagit dynamiquement avec le climat dans les modèles, traduisant un ralentissement du changement de l'utilisation des sols et l'accélération des changements de végétation sous l'effet du changement climatique<br>In most climate studies, climate change is approached by focusing on the evolution between a fixed current baseline and a future period, emphasizing stronger warming as we move further over the 21st century. Under climate conditions that are continuously evolving, human and natural systems might have to constantly adapt to a changing climate. This thesis proposes an alternative approach to climate projections. Here, I consider and analyze indicators of the pace of changes relative to temperature, precipitation and vegetation in order to be relevant for both urban and rural populations. An ensemble of CMIP5 simulations from 18 climate models is selected. The pace is represented by differences between two subsequent 20-year periods. Considering the pace of change would be beneficial for climate impacts and adaptation analyses.The models predict that the warming rate strongly increases without any mitigation policies (RCP8.5 scenario). It is twice as high by the end of the century compared to the current period, and even three times higher in some regions. Significant shifts in temperature distributions between two subsequent 20-year periods are projected to involve almost half of all land surfaces and most tropical areas by 2060 onwards (i.e. at least four times as many regions than currently). In these regions, an extremely warm year with a return period of about 50 years would become quite common only 20 years later. The fraction of the world population exposed to such shifts might reach about 60% (6 billion people, i.e. seven times more than currently). Low mitigation measures (RCP6.0) allow the warming rate to be kept at current values, and reduce the fraction of the world population exposed to significant shifts of temperature distributions by one third.Under RCP8.5, rainfall moistening and drying rates both increase by 30-40% above current levels. As we move further over the century, their patterns become geographically stationary and the trends become persistent. The stabilization of the geographical rate patterns that occurs despite the acceleration of global warming can be physically explained: it results from the increasing contribution of thermodynamic processes compared to dynamic processes in the control of precipitation change. The combination of intensification and increasing persistence of precipitation rate patterns may affect the way human societies and ecosystems adapt to climate change, especially in the Mediterranean basin, Central America, South Asia and the Arctic. Such an evolution in precipitation has already become noticeable over the last few decades, but it could be reversed if strong mitigation policies were quickly implemented (RCP2.6).Changes in vegetation could be visual landmarks of climate change. In mid- and high-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the phenology of grass and trees follows the warming rate. Without any mitigation policies, the start of spring occurs earlier, and its duration is extended faster as we move over the century. The vegetation cover becomes denser, regardless of the selected pathway, in proportion to the temperature rise. The seasonal cycle of mid-latitude crops also depends on the temperature, and the seasonal cycle of tropical crops directly follows the features of the wet season. In all other latitudes, no robust evolution of the seasonal cycle is projected. The pace of change of vegetation cover since 1880 already doubled before 1950, mainly due to a strong change in land use. This pace is then projected to be stable over the entire 21st century if the vegetation dynamically interacts with the climate system in the models. This corresponds to a reduction of land-use change and to the acceleration of changes of vegetation cover under climate change

Hydro-climate extreme analysis helps understanding the process of spatio-temporal variation of extreme events due to climate change, and it is an important aspect in designing hydrological structures, forecasting floods and an effective decision making in the field of water resources design and management. The study evaluates extreme precipitation events over the Columbia River Basin (CRB), the fourth largest basin in the U.S., by simulating four CMIP5 global climate models (GCMs) for the historical period (1970-1999) and future period (2041-2070) under RCP85 GHG scenario. We estimated the intensity of extreme and average precipitation for both winter (DJF) and summer (JJA) seasons by using the GEV distribution and multi-model ensemble average over the domain of the Columbia River Basin. The four CMIP5 models performed very well at simulating precipitation extremes in the winter season. The CMIP5 climate models showed heterogeneous spatial pattern of summer extreme precipitation over the CRB for the future period. It was noticed that multi-model ensemble mean outperformed compared to the individual performance of climate models for both seasons. We have found that the multi-model ensemble shows a consistent and significant increase in the extreme precipitation events in the west of the Cascades Range, Coastal Ranges of Oregon and Washington State, the Canadian portion of the basin and over the Rocky Mountains. However, the mean precipitation is projected to decrease in both winter and summer seasons in the future period. The Columbia River is dominated by the glacial snowmelt, so the increase in the intensity of extreme precipitation and decrease in mean precipitation in the future period, as simulated by four CMIP5 models, is expected to aggravate the earlier snowmelt and contribute to the flooding in the low lying areas especially in the west of the Cascades Range. In addition, the climate change shift could have serious implications on transboundary water issues in between the United States and Canada. Therefore, adaptation strategies should be devised to cope the possible adverse effects of the changing the future climate so that it could have minimal influence on hydrology, agriculture, aquatic species, hydro-power generation, human health and other water related infrastructure.

Dans la plupart des études, on s'intéresse au changement climatique futur en analysant l'évolution du climat entre une référence actuelle fixée et une période future. Le réchauffement est de plus en plus fort au fil du 21ème siècle. Dans un contexte où les conditions climatiques sont toujours en train d'évoluer, les écosystèmes doivent continuellement s'adapter à des modifications diverses du climat. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, je propose d'analyser les projections climatiques sous un angle alternatif. Afin d’être caractéristique des représentations des populations urbaines et rurales, je définis et analyse des indicateurs liés à la vitesse des changements de température, de précipitations et de végétation. Un ensemble de simulations CMIP5 de 18 modèles de climat est sélectionné. La vitesse est représentée par des différences entre deux périodes successives de 20 ans. Cette notion de vitesse pourrait offrir de nouveaux outils pour interagir avec les communautés scientifiques travaillant sur les impacts et l'adaptation.Sans politiques d’atténuation du changement (scénario RCP8.5), le réchauffement global sera au moins deux fois plus rapide à la fin du siècle qu’actuellement, et même trois fois dans certaines régions. Près de la moitié des surfaces continentales, principalement les zones tropicales, seront touchées par des décalages significatifs de la distribution de la température entre deux périodes de 20 ans d’ici à 2060, i.e. au moins 4 fois plus qu’actuellement. Dans ces régions, des années extrêmement chaudes ayant un temps de retour de 50 ans deviendront habituelles en l’espace de 20 ans seulement. La fraction de la population mondiale étant exposée à ces changements pourrait atteindre environ 60% (i.e. 6 milliards de personnes et 7 fois plus qu’actuellement). Il suffit de relativement légères mesures d’atténuation (RCP6.0) pour que la vitesse du réchauffement ne dépasse pas les valeurs actuelles et que 3 fois moins de personnes soient exposées à des décalages significatifs de température.Les vitesses d’humidification et d’assèchement en termes de précipitations augmenteront de 30 à 40%. Leur répartition géographique deviendra plus stable spatialement et les tendances tendront à persister sur les mêmes régions, et ce malgré l’accélération du réchauffement global. Cette stabilisation résulte de la contribution grandissante des processus thermodynamiques par rapport à ceux contrôlés par la circulation générale. La combinaison de l’accélération des tendances et de leur persistance peut avoir un impact sur l’adaptation des sociétés et des écosystèmes, particulièrement sur le bassin méditerranéen, en Amérique centrale, en Inde et dans les régions arctiques. Une telle évolution est déjà visible actuellement, mais pourrait disparaître avec de fortes mesures d’atténuation (RCP2.6).Les changements de la végétation peuvent être des repères visuels du changement climatique. Dans les moyennes et hautes latitudes Nord, le cycle saisonnier des arbres et des herbacées suit la vitesse du réchauffement. Sans politiques d’atténuation, le début de la saison foliaire avance et sa durée augmente plus rapidement au fil du siècle. La couverture de la végétation se densifie quelque soit le scénario proportionnellement à l’augmentation de la température. Le cycle saisonnier des cultures des moyennes latitudes dépend directement de la température et celui des cultures tropicales de l’évolution des caractéristiques de la saison des pluies. Sous les autres latitudes, aucune évolution robuste du cycle saisonnier n’est projetée. La vitesse des changements de répartition de la végétation a déjà doublé entre 1880 et 1950 correspondant à un changement marqué de l'utilisation des sols. Elle est stable tout au long du siècle si la végétation interagit dynamiquement avec le climat dans les modèles, traduisant un ralentissement du changement de l'utilisation des sols et l'accélération des changements de végétation sous l'effet du changement climatique<br>In most climate studies, climate change is approached by focusing on the evolution between a fixed current baseline and a future period, emphasizing stronger warming as we move further over the 21st century. Under climate conditions that are continuously evolving, human and natural systems might have to constantly adapt to a changing climate. This thesis proposes an alternative approach to climate projections. Here, I consider and analyze indicators of the pace of changes relative to temperature, precipitation and vegetation in order to be relevant for both urban and rural populations. An ensemble of CMIP5 simulations from 18 climate models is selected. The pace is represented by differences between two subsequent 20-year periods. Considering the pace of change would be beneficial for climate impacts and adaptation analyses.The models predict that the warming rate strongly increases without any mitigation policies (RCP8.5 scenario). It is twice as high by the end of the century compared to the current period, and even three times higher in some regions. Significant shifts in temperature distributions between two subsequent 20-year periods are projected to involve almost half of all land surfaces and most tropical areas by 2060 onwards (i.e. at least four times as many regions than currently). In these regions, an extremely warm year with a return period of about 50 years would become quite common only 20 years later. The fraction of the world population exposed to such shifts might reach about 60% (6 billion people, i.e. seven times more than currently). Low mitigation measures (RCP6.0) allow the warming rate to be kept at current values, and reduce the fraction of the world population exposed to significant shifts of temperature distributions by one third.Under RCP8.5, rainfall moistening and drying rates both increase by 30-40% above current levels. As we move further over the century, their patterns become geographically stationary and the trends become persistent. The stabilization of the geographical rate patterns that occurs despite the acceleration of global warming can be physically explained: it results from the increasing contribution of thermodynamic processes compared to dynamic processes in the control of precipitation change. The combination of intensification and increasing persistence of precipitation rate patterns may affect the way human societies and ecosystems adapt to climate change, especially in the Mediterranean basin, Central America, South Asia and the Arctic. Such an evolution in precipitation has already become noticeable over the last few decades, but it could be reversed if strong mitigation policies were quickly implemented (RCP2.6).Changes in vegetation could be visual landmarks of climate change. In mid- and high-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, the phenology of grass and trees follows the warming rate. Without any mitigation policies, the start of spring occurs earlier, and its duration is extended faster as we move over the century. The vegetation cover becomes denser, regardless of the selected pathway, in proportion to the temperature rise. The seasonal cycle of mid-latitude crops also depends on the temperature, and the seasonal cycle of tropical crops directly follows the features of the wet season. In all other latitudes, no robust evolution of the seasonal cycle is projected. The pace of change of vegetation cover since 1880 already doubled before 1950, mainly due to a strong change in land use. This pace is then projected to be stable over the entire 21st century if the vegetation dynamically interacts with the climate system in the models. This corresponds to a reduction of land-use change and to the acceleration of changes of vegetation cover under climate change

La neige peut couvrir jusqu'à 40% des terres immergées de l'hémisphère Nord en hiver. De par son influence sur le bilan d'énergie en surface, elle constitue donc une source potentielle de variabilité et de prévisibilité climatique aux échelles mensuelles à saisonnières. Au-delà de ses effets locaux, la couverture neigeuse peut, à l'instar des surfaces océaniques, engendrer des téléconnexions et ainsi moduler le climat de régions plus lointaines. Cette thèse revisite plusieurs aspects des liens neige-climat en utilisant à la fois les jeux de données observées, les simulations réalisées pour le 4ème rapport du Groupe Intergouvernemental d'experts sur l'Evolution du Climat (GIEC), ainsi que le modèle atmosphérique ARPEGE-Climat pour réaliser des tests de sensibilité. L'influence de la neige eurasiatique/himalayenne sur la mousson indienne d'été, largement évoquée dans la littérature, est remise en cause par l'analyse des données observées étendues à la période 1967-2006. Toutefois, un prédicteur lié à la circulation atmosphérique de grande échelle sur le Pacifique Nord est proposé pour améliorer les prévisions saisonnières statistiques de la mousson indienne. L'influence des étendues de neige sibériennes en automne sur la variabilité atmosphérique hivernale de l'hémisphère Nord semble quant à elle plus robuste dans les observations. Si les modèles couplés du GIEC sont incapables de reproduire cette téléconnexion, les expériences de sensibilité réalisées avec ARPEGE-Climat confirment le mécanisme physique proposé dans la littérature, à condition que la perturbation en surface soit importante et que l'état moyen de la circulation extratropicale simulé soit suffisamment réaliste. Finalement, la prévisibilité de l'atmosphère associée à l'enneigement est quantifiée de façon plus systématique avec ARPEGE-Climat. Si les résultats montrent un impact mitigé sur la circulation de grande échelle, la relaxation/initialisation du modèle vers/avec des masses de neige plus réalistes permet une meilleure prévisibilité des températures de surface sur l'Europe et l'Amérique du Nord. La neige représente donc une source de prévisibilité climatique non négligeable à l'échelle locale et peut influencer à distance la circulation atmosphérique extratropicale. Les téléconnexions neige-climat doivent être cependant être confirmées dans les années qui viennent, et constituent encore un exercice difficile pour l'état de l'art des modèles de climat.

Les variations du rayonnement solaire en surface (SSR) peuvent avoir un impact significatif sur divers aspects du système climatique, et notamment sur le développement socio-économique d’un pays. Pour identifier les impacts possibles du changement climatique sur le rayonnement solaire en surface à l'échelle régionale (~ 50 km) en Afrique australe jusqu'à la fin du 21ème siècle, on a analysé les données mensuelles produites dans le cadre du projet CORDEX-Afrique sur la période 1979-2099. Ces données sont issues des sorties de 5 modèles régionaux de climat (RCM) forcés par 10 modèles globaux de climat (GCM) CMIP5, pour deux scénarios d’émissions, RCP4.5 et RCP8.5, en Afrique australe (SA) et sur une partie du SWIO (0-40°S ; 0- 60°E). Pour contribuer au projet futur proposé qui vise à approfondir l'étude des changements de SSR à l'échelle locale (~ 1 km de résolution horizontale) à l'île de la Réunion et à l'île Maurice, situées dans le Sud-ouest de l'océan Indien (SWIO), près du bord d’Est du domaine CORDEX-Afrique, des simulations climatiques ont été réalisées sur trois fenêtres temporelles de 10 ans : a) le passé 1996-2005 ; et b) le futur 2046-2055 et 2090-2099, en utilisant la version 4 du RCM RegCM (RegCM4), forcé par : 1) les réanalyses climatiques ERA-Interim (ERAINT) du centre européen pour les prévisions météorologiques à moyen terme (ECMWF) pour simuler un passé récent seulement ; et 2) deux GCMs (HadGEM2-ES et GFDL-ESM2M) de l’exercice CMIP5 de simulations du climat passé et futur pour le scénario d’émissions RCP8.5 à l’échelle régionale de 50km en Afrique australe et dans le sud-ouest de l’océan Indien (0-40°S ; 0- 100°E). L’analyse de l’impact du changement climatique sur le SSR sur la base de ces simulations reste cependant limitée, à cause de leur couverture temporelle (3 périodes de 10 ans) et du nombre de modèles (2 GCMs, 1 RCM) et de scénarios (1 RCP) utilisés. Il ressort de l’analyse des simulations de l’ensemble CORDEX-Afrique que : 1) sur la période passée récente, les GCMs forceurs surestiment généralement SSR d'environ 1 W/m2 en été austral (DJF : Décembre-Janvier-Février), et de 7,5 W/m2 en hiver austral (JJA : Juin-Juillet-Août), tandis que les RCMs, forcés par ces GCMs, sous-estiment SSR d'environ -32 W/m2 et de -14 W/m2 en été et en hiver, respectivement. 2) Les projections multi-modèles de changement de SSR simulées par les RCMs et leurs GCMs forceurs sont assez cohérentes. Les GCMs prévoient, en moyenne multi-modèles, une augmentation statistiquement significative de SSR d'environ 8 W/m2 en 2099 selon le scénario RCP4.5 et de 12 W/m2 en 2099 selon le scénario RCP8.5 sur le Centre de l’Afrique australe (SA-C), et une diminution de SSR, avec un degré de confiance élevé, d'environ -5 W/m2 en 2099 selon le scénario RCP4.5 et de -10 W/m2 en 2099 selon le scénario RCP8.5, pendant la saison DJF, en Afrique équatoriale (EA-E). Dans ces deux régions, les RCMs produisent, en moyenne multi-modèles, des tendances similaires (avec un degré de confiance élevé) à celles des GCMs, mais sur des zones d’extension spatiale plus faible que celle des GCMs. Cependant, pour la saison JJA, une augmentation de SSR, d'amplitude similaire dans les simulations GCMs et RCMs (~5 W/m2 en 2099 selon le scénario RCP4.5 et 10 W/m2 selon le scénario RCP8.5), est attendue dans la région EA-E. 3). Une diminution significative de la nébulosité (environ -6% en 2099) est attendue sur le continent sud-africain pour les GCMs comme pour les RCMs. 4) Le scénario RCP8.5 produit des changements d’amplitude supérieure de 2.5W/m2 pour les GCMs forceurs et de 5W/m2 pour les RCMs en 2099 à celle pour le scénario RCP4.5. 5). Comme pour les sorties du modèle RegCM4, les structures des biais ou des changements de SSR issu des RCMs du programme CORDEX-Afrique sont globalement corrélées avec celles de couverture nuageuse totale des RCMs. L’analyse des sorties du modèle RegCM4 indique que :<br>Changes in Surface Solar Radiation (SSR) have the potential to significantly impact diverse aspects of the climate system, and notably the socio-economic development of any nation. To identify the possible impacts of climate change on SSR at regional scales (~50 km) over Southern Africa and the South West Indian Ocean (SA-SWIO; 0-40°S ; 0- 100°E) up to the end of the 21st century, a slice downscaling experiment consisting of simulations covering three temporal windows: a) the present 1996-2005; b) the future 2046-2055 and 2090-2099 conducted with the Regional Climate Model (RCM) RegCM version 4, driven by the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) ERA-Interim reanalysis (ERAINT, only present) and 2 Global Climate Model (GCMs: HadGEM2-ES and GFDL-ESM2M) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) under RCP8.5 scenario, are performed and evaluated. Since the slice simulation is of limited temporal coverage, number of regional and driven global models and climate change forcings, mainly because of the limit of available computational resources, the study towards a comprehensive knowledge of SSR changes in context of climate change is thus extended: an ensemble consisting of outputs from 20 regional climate downscaling realisations based on 5 RCMs that participated in the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) program (CORDEX-Africa) along with their 10 driving GCMs from CMIP5 covering southern Africa (0-40°S; 0- 100°E) during the period of 1990-2099 is analyzed under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 up to 2099.The slice experiment indicates that 1) RegCM4 simulates present-day seasonal climatology, (surface air temperature, precipitation and SSR) quite well, but has a negative total cloud cover bias (about -20% in absolute percentage) when forced by the ERAINT and the two GCMs. 2) Internal variability of RegCM4-simulated annual means SSR (about 0.2 W/m2) is of one order smaller than the model bias compared with reference data. 3) RegCM4 simulates SSR changes in opposite signs when driven by the different GCMs under RCP8.5 scenario. 4) Electricity potential calculated using first-order estimation based on the RegCM simulations indicates a change less then 2% to 2099 with respect on present level.It is also found from the ensemble study that: 1) GCMs ensemble generally overestimates SSR by about 1 W/m2 in austral summer (December, January, and February, short as DJF) and 7.5 W/m2 in austral winter (June, July and August, short as JJA), while RCMs ensemble mean shows underestimations of SSR by about -32 W/m2 and -14 W/m2 in summer and winter seasons respectively when driven by GCMs. 2) Multi-model mean projections of SSR change patterns simulated by the GCMs and their embedded RCMs are fairly consistent. 3) GCMs project, in their multi-model means, a statistically significant increase of SSR of about 8 W/m2 in RCP4.5 and 12 W/m2 in RCP8.5 by 2099 over Centre Southern Africa (SA-C) and a highly confident decreasing SSR over Eastern Equatorial Africa (EA-E) of about -5 W/m2 in RCP4.5 and -10 W/m2 in RCP8.5 during the DJF season. RCMs simulate SSR change with statistical confidence over SA-C and EA-E area as well with a little spatial extension compared to GCMs. However, in the JJA season, an increase of SSR is found over EA-E of about 5 W/m2 by 2099 under RCP4.5 and 10 W/m2 under RCP8.5, of similar amplitudes in both the GCMs and RCMs simulations. 4) Significant cloudiness decrease (about -6 % to 2099) is found over continent of SA for GCMs and also shown in RCMs. 5) Larger SSR changes are found in the RCP8.5 scenario than in the RCP4.5 scenario in 2099, with about 2.5 W/m2 enhanced changes in GCMs and about 5 W/m2 in RCMs. 6) Either the biases or the changes pattern of SSR are overall correlated with the patterns of total cloud cover from RCMs in CORDEX-Africa program (for RegCM4 as well). The slice experiment indicates that

Several regions worldwide have seen significant trends in anthropogenic aerosol emissions during the period of detailed satellite observations since 2001. Over Europe (EUR) and North America (NAM) there were strong declines, over China increases then declines and over India, strong increases. Regional trends in model-simulated aerosol optical depth (AOD) and cloud radiative effects in both the Fifth and Sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Projects (CMIP5 and CMIP6) are broadly consistent with the ones from satellite retrievals in most parts of EUR, NAMand India. CMIP6 models better match satellite-derived AOD trend in western NAM(increasing) and eastern China (decreasing), where CMIP5 models failed, pointing to improved anthropogenic aerosol emissions. Drop concentration trends in both observations and models qualitatively match AOD trends. The result for solar cloud radiative effect in models, however, is due to compensating errors: Models fail to reproduce observed liquid water path trends and show, in turn, opposite trends in cloud fraction.

碩士<br>國立臺灣大學<br>大氣科學研究所<br>100<br>Decadal variability is an oscillation for more than ten years, usually appears in the ocean. In the Atlantic, AMO is the main multi-decadal variability. There are several decadal oscillations in the Pacific, which we call Pacific decadal variability (PDV). These decadal structures may impact on regional climate. IPCC will take decadal variability as an important issue and publish the result in the fifth assessment report (AR5). This study uses Rotated-EOF (REOF) method, analyzes decadal variability in observation data and CMIP5 models. In observation data, AMO structure appears in REOF1. Decadal variability of Nino region, north Pacific and Indian Ocean are the 2nd mode in REOF analysis. SPDO, PDO and decadal variability in central Pacific appear in REOF3. The rotated principal components (RPCs) also match with the previous study. In CMIP5 models, we use three different model experiment designs: (1) Pre-industrial, refer as the internal variability in models. (2) Historical run, with the observation record from 1850 to 2005. (3) RCP8.5 identifies a concentration pathway that approximately results in a radiative forcing of 8.5 W/m2 at year 2100. In the pre-industrial run, most of the CMIP5 models show the decadal variability of El-Nino region, but the AMO structure which consider as a nature mode in decadal variability, does not appear in model’s pre-industrual run. In the Historical run, decadal structure shows variety types in each model. In the model’s RCP8.5 run, main decadal structure shows large region in global, with an upward parabola time series. We use pattern correlation analysis, and choose the models which are similar with observation data. In this study, historical run in HadGEM2-CC models are similar with the observation data. On the analysis of variance, we separate total variance to three different time scales: annual, decadal and trend. We compute the ratio of the three time scales and the total variance. The smallest ratio of trend variance is model’s pre-industrial run, but most significant in RCP8.5 run which the mean is more than 80% in box-plot analysis. In variance map, decadal variance ratio is most significant in North Hemisphere Ocean in observation data; it can be simulated in some model’s historical run. In RCP8.5 run, the decadal variability ratio is less than 10% in most regions. We find that the total mass of CO2 in RCP8.5 run, ascending with a parabolic curve. We remove the linear trend of total mass of CO2, the residual forcing could project on decadal variability and affect the RPC performance. Keywords: Decadal variability, Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation, pacific decadal variability, rotated-EOF, pattern correlation

abstract: The Colorado River Basin (CRB) is the primary source of water in the southwestern United States. A key step to reduce the uncertainty of future streamflow projections in the CRB is to evaluate the performance of historical simulations of General Circulation Models (GCMs). In this study, this challenge is addressed by evaluating the ability of nineteen GCMs from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase Five (CMIP5) and four nested Regional Climate Models (RCMs) in reproducing the statistical properties of the hydrologic cycle and temperature in the CRB. To capture the transition from snow-dominated to semiarid regions, analyses are conducted by spatially averaging the climate variables in four nested sub-basins. Most models overestimate the mean annual precipitation (P) and underestimate the mean annual temperature (T) at all locations. While a group of models capture the mean annual runoff at all sub-basins with different strengths of the hydrological cycle, another set of models overestimate the mean annual runoff, due to a weak cycle in the evaporation channel. An abrupt increase in the mean annual T in observed and most of the simulated time series (~0.8 °C) is detected at all locations despite the lack of any statistically significant monotonic trends for both P and T. While all models simulate the seasonality of T quite well, the phasing of the seasonal cycle of P is fairly reproduced in just the upper, snow-dominated sub-basin. Model performances degrade in the larger sub-basins that include semiarid areas, because several GCMs are not able to capture the effect of the North American monsoon. Finally, the relative performances of the climate models in reproducing the climatologies of P and T are quantified to support future impact studies in the basin.<br>Dissertation/Thesis<br>Masters Thesis Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2018

Tese de mestrado em Ciências Geofísicas, apresentada à Universidade de Lisboa, através da Faculdade de Ciências, 2016<br>As ondas gravíticas geradas pelo vento na superfície do oceano são as mais energéticas do espectro, sendo responsáveis por mais de metade da energia presente em todas as ondas nesta superfície (Kinsman, 1965). São geradas pela transferência de momento do vento para a água e dominam o espectro de ondas oceânicas, ultrapassando a contribuição das marés, das “storm surges”, dos tsunamis, etc. (Munk, 1951). Pela sua prevalência no oceano e influência nas actividades humanas, o seu estudo deve ser aprofundado, e as potenciais alterações no seu regime devem ser tidas em conta. Porém, apesar da sua relevância, não existe ainda nenhum modelo teórico preciso de geração e crescimento das ondas, dado que os mecanismos presentes nestes fenómenos não são ainda totalmente compreendidos por forma a serem correctamente quantificados. Quando o vento sopra sobre a superfície do oceano, ondas são formadas pela transferência de momento no sentido da água. Esta perturbação inicial pode desenvolver-se se o vento continuar a soprar de forma constante, sendo que as ondas irão crescer até atingirem o seu nível de saturação. Os dois principais tipos de ondas à superfície do oceano são denominados “wind sea” ou apenas “sea”, e “swell”. As ondas de “sea” detêm alta frequência e curtos comprimentos de onda, estando directamente associadas ao campo de vento sobrejacente, crescendo rapidamente e depressa atingindo o nível de saturação. Por sua vez, as ondas de “swell”, com frequências mais baixas e comprimentos de onda maiores, crescem lentamente e podem propagar-se com velocidades de fase superiores à velocidade do vento, uma vez que também extraem energia de ondas com mais alta frequência, devido a interações não lineares entre as ondas. Estas ondas podem propagar-se por milhares de quilómetros (Barber and Ursell, 1948; Munk et al., 1963; Snodgrass et al., 1966) com muito ligeira atenuação (Ardhuin et al., 2009). Assim sendo, é possível assumir que existe uma ligação causal entre, por exemplo, um evento local de erosão costeira e uma tempestade que ocorreu “do outro lado” do mundo (em outro hemisfério). Este é apenas um dos factores interessantes que motivam a execução deste trabalho de análise das futuras alterações no clima de ondas global, uma vez que as alterações climáticas atmosféricas locais no vento podem propagar-se sob a forma de ondas à superfície do oceano, e gerar impactos a longas distâncias. Até recentemente, o impacto das alterações climáticas no clima de ondas futuro tinha recebido muito pouca atenção. Nos últimos anos, alguns estudos foram realizados, sob os auspícios do COWCLIP (Coordinated Ocean Wave Climate Project), utilizando um único modelo e um único cenário de concentração de gases de efeito estufa (CMIP3), recebendo atenção moderada por parte do IPCC-AR5 (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change - Fifth Assessment Report). No presente estudo, o impacto do aquecimento global no clima de ondas global é investigado, através de um “ensemble” composto por 2 membros (simulações do modelo de ondas WAM) de um conjunto maior, composto por 8 simulações dinâmicas e 20 simulações estatísticas, denominado GLOWAVES-2, e pertencente ao projecto COWCLIP. O (único) forçamento destas duas simulações (em termos de velocidade do vento e cobertura oceânica de gelo) provém do modelo climático EC-Earth, seguindo um cenário de elevadas emissões de gases de efeito estufa (RCP8.5). Ambas as simulações cobrem um período total de 130 anos (1971-2100), no entanto, para efeitos de análise comparativa, dois períodos mais curtos são utilizados como referência: o “clima presente” (PC20: média das duas simulações (PC20-1 e PC20-4); 1971-2000) e o “clima futuro” (projectado; FC21: média das duas simulações (FC21-1 e FC21-4); 2071-2100). O período de referência histórico (1971-2005) foi validado através da comparação com a reanálise ERA-Interim, do ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) e com dados observacionais de bóias, revelando que o modelo WAM, com forçamento do EC-Earth, é capaz de produzir cenários realistas do clima de ondas global no final do século XX, fornecendo a confiança necessária na capacidade de simular uma alteração climática igualmente credível até ao final do século XXI. Os resultados (alterações futuras no clima de ondas como projectado pelas simulações) são obtidos através da comparação entre as médias de PC20 e FC21, para quatro variáveis diferentes: (altura significativa; m), (período médio da onda; s), (direcção média da frente de onda; º), (potência das ondas; W/m, = , como em Young, 1999). Para complementar os resultados destas variáveis, os impactos da alteração climática no campo do vento ( ; velocidade do vento a 10 metros de altura; m/s) foram também analisados. Os resultados expõem médias a nível anual e sazonal (estações extremas de Inverno e Verão: DJF (Dezembro, Janeiro e Fevereiro) e JJA (Junho, Julho e Agosto)). Como forma de complemento, são também apresentadas as tendências lineares ao longo do período 2006-2100, para a altura significativa e para a potência (fluxo de energia) das ondas. Devido às alterações climáticas, as projecções indicam alterações estatisticamente significativas em todas as variáveis analisadas, que poderão referir-se a aumentos ou decréscimos na sua intensidade, gradiente espacial ou mudanças na localização geográfica de determinados valores. No que toca à altura significativa, , os aumentos nesta variável dominam as projecções, essencialmente a nível anual, e durante o período JJA (verificando-se em 73.93% do oceano global), sendo no Oceano Antárctico (“Southern Ocean”) que os maiores aumentos se verificam, estando esta situação directamente relacionada com uma intensificação projectada a nível da velocidade do vento ( ) na mesma área. A região onde os decréscimos projectados se mostram mais prevalecentes é no Oceano Atlântico Norte, em particular durante DJF. A tendência linear de altura significativa projectada durante o período 2006-2100 estabelece-se, a nível anual, em 0.41 cm/década. No que toca ao período médio, , são esperados aumentos nos seus valores anuais e sazonais em praticamente todo o oceano global, excepto no Atlântico Norte e Pacífico Oeste durante DJF, e em maior extensão no verão boreal (JJA), em 87.48% da área de oceano global, em média. Tendo em conta os resultados para esta variável e para a altura significativa, uma vez que a potência das ondas ( ) depende destes, é esperado que o seu comportamento não se diferencie muito dos anteriormente referidos. É efectivamente o que acontece nas projecções de , onde se verifica um padrão de alterações muito semelhante ao da altura significativa, uma vez que as diferenças de apresentam valores reduzidos. Aumentos projectados de potência das ondas (que se observam em 81.43% do oceano global) alcançam os 30% no sector Índico do Oceano Antárctico (a sudoeste da Austrália), durante o inverno austral (JJA), sendo que o valor médio de incremento a nível global para esta estação se situa nos 7.18%. A tendência linear de potência das ondas projectada durante o período 2006-2100 estabelece-se, a nível anual, em 0.36 cm/década. Relativamente à direcção média da frente de onda ( ), as projecções indicam a prevalência de rotações anti-horárias (contra os ponteiros do relógio) nas latitudes médias e altas de ambos os hemisférios, associadas ao deslocamento latitudinal positivo das tempestades para latitudes mais elevadas (Arblaster et al., 2011). Nas regiões tropicais e subtropicais, rotações positivas (no sentido dos ponteiros do relógio) são consistentes com uma maior contribuição de “swell” proveniente do Oceano Antárctico, especialmente durante o inverno austral (JJA), quando a sua “produção” é maior. A análise de EOFs (“Empirical Orthogonal Functions”) para os campos de e no Oceano Atlântico Norte, em termos de alterações entre o clima presente (PC20) e o projectado para o futuro (FC21), relevou que é esperado um ligeiro enfraquecimento dos principais centros de acção de ambos os campos (redução da variabilidade), a nível anual. A nível sazonal, comportamento similar foi detectado para a altura significativa, porém, a nível de potência, um ligeiro fortalecimento dos seus centros de acção é esperado, com um deslocamento latitudinal positivo associado, de cerca de 2º. No entanto, deslocamentos da posição dos valores climatológicos máximos para latitudes mais elevadas não se verificam para o Atlântico Norte, apenas em algumas regiões do Oceano Antárctico.<br>Ocean surface wind waves are of outmost relevance for practical and scientific reasons. On the one hand, waves have a direct impact in coastal erosion, but also in sediment transport and beach nourishment, in ship routing and ship design, as well as in coastal and offshore infrastructures, just to mention the most relevant. On the other hand waves are part of the climate system, and modulate most of the exchanges that take place at the atmosphere-ocean interface. In fact waves are the “ultimate” air-sea interaction process, clearly visible and noticeable. Up until recently, the impact of climate change in future wave climate had received very little attention. Some single model single scenario global wave climate projections, based on CMIP3 scenarios, were pursued and received some attention in the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change) AR5 (Fifth Assessment Report). In the present study the impact of a warmer climate in the global ocean future wave climate is investigated through a 2-member “coherent” ensemble of wave climate projections: single-model, single-forcing, and single-scenario. The two ensemble members were produced with the wave model WAM, forced with wind speed and ice coverage from EC-Earth projections, following the representative concentration pathway with a high emissions scenario 8.5 (RCP8.5). The ensemble historic period has been set for 1971 to 2005. The projected changes in the global ocean wave climate are analyzed for the 2071-2100 period. The ensemble historical period is evaluated trough the comparison with the European Centre for medium-range weather forecasts (ECMWF) ERA-Interim reanalysis, and buoy observations.

abstract: The numerical climate models have provided scientists, policy makers and the general public, crucial information for climate projections since mid-20th century. An international effort to compare and validate the simulations of all major climate models is organized by the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP), which has gone through several phases since 1995 with CMIP5 being the state of the art. In parallel, an organized effort to consolidate all observational data in the past century culminates in the creation of several "reanalysis" datasets that are considered the closest representation of the true observation. This study compared the climate variability and trend in the climate model simulations and observations on the timescales ranging from interannual to centennial. The analysis focused on the dynamic climate quantity of zonal-mean zonal wind and global atmospheric angular momentum (AAM), and incorporated multiple datasets from reanalysis and the most recent CMIP3 and CMIP5 archives. For the observation, the validation of AAM by the length-of-day (LOD) and the intercomparison of AAM revealed a good agreement among reanalyses on the interannual and the decadal-to-interdecadal timescales, respectively. But the most significant discrepancies among them are in the long-term mean and long-term trend. For the simulations, the CMIP5 models produced a significantly smaller bias and a narrower ensemble spread of the climatology and trend in the 20th century for AAM compared to CMIP3, while CMIP3 and CMIP5 simulations consistently produced a positive trend for the 20th and 21st century. Both CMIP3 and CMIP5 models produced a wide range of the magnitudes of decadal and interdecadal variability of wind component of AAM (MR) compared to observation. The ensemble means of CMIP3 and CMIP5 are not statistically distinguishable for either the 20th- or 21st-century runs. The in-house atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) simulations forced by the sea surface temperature (SST) taken from the CMIP5 simulations as lower boundary conditions were carried out. The zonal wind and MR in the CMIP5 simulations are well simulated in the AGCM simulations. This confirmed SST as an important mediator in regulating the global atmospheric changes due to GHG effect.<br>Dissertation/Thesis<br>Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering 2013