Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Climatic changes Indonesia'

Over the past century, glaciers throughout the tropics have predominately retreated. These small glaciers, which respond quickly to climate changes, are becoming increasingly important in understanding glacier-climate interactions. The glaciers on Mt. Jaya in Irian Jaya, Indonesia are the last remaining tropical glaciers in the Western Pacific region. Although considerable research exists investigating the climatic factors most affecting tropical glacier mass balance, extensive research on the Mt. Jaya glaciers has been lacking since the early 1970s. Using IKONOS satellite images, the ice extents of the Mt. Jaya glaciers in 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 were mapped. The mapping indicates that the recessional trend which began in the mid-19th century has continued. Between 1972 (Allison, 1974; Allison and Peterson, 1976) and 2000, the glaciers lost approximately 67.6% of their area, representing a reduction in surface ice area from 7.2 km2 to 2.35 km2. From 2000 to 2005, the glaciers lost an additional 0.54 km2, representing approximately 24% of the 2000 area. Rates of ice loss, calculated from area measurements for the Mt. Jaya glaciers in 1942, 1972, 1987, and 2005, indicate that ice loss on Mt. Jaya has increased during each subsequent period. Preliminary modeling, using 600 hPa atmospheric temperature, specific humidity, wind speeds, surface precipitation, and radiation values, acquired from the NCEP Reanalysis dataset, indicates that the only climate variable having a statistically-significant change with a magnitude great enough to strongly affect ice loss on these glaciers was an increase in the mean monthly atmospheric temperature of 0.24°C between 1972 and 1987. However, accelerated ice loss occurring from 1988-2005 without large observed changes in the weather variables indicates that a more complex explanation may be required. Small, though statistically-significant changes were found in regional precipitation, with precipitation decreasing from 1972-1987 and increasing from 1988-2005. While, individually, these changes were not of sufficient magnitude to have greatly affected ice loss on these glaciers, increased precipitation along with a rising freezing level may have resulted in a greater proportion of the glacier surface being affected by rain. This may account for the increased recession rate observed in the latter period.

Literature on the integration of cross-cutting issues, or policy integration, has given little attention to how policy-making processes allow for policy integration as well as present barriers. There is also little evidence of how sectoral ministries respond to crosscutting issues and in what way they are affected by pressure to address such issues, including those promoted by ‘competing’ agencies. Climate change presents a significant and important issue for integration into many areas of public policy. Many government ministries and departments are tasked with responding to climate change mitigation and adaptation objectives. Forestry is a key sector in building a response to climate change and so an investigation into how policy-makers and policy-making processes have responded to climate change can shed light on the integration of cross-cutting issues. The thesis reports on investigation into how the Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia, has responded to climate change and into the organisational arrangements developed in the response to climate change. The research developed an innovative framework for the analysis of policy integration, generating conclusions in relation to the policy process, organisational arrangements and the influence of key actors, including policy champions and boundary spanners.

This thesis analyses how the Indonesian government seeks to mainstream adaptation into its development planning agenda. It adopts a multi-sited case study approach to explore how adaptation policies were formulated and practiced at national, municipal, and community levels. It focusses on analysing multi-level coordination efforts across the different ministries and local governments, and identifying barriers to successful mainstreaming within a developing country context.

A policy mechanism known as REDD+ (‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, and enhancing forest carbon stocks and conservation’) is designed to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts and simultaneously support developing countries’ national development agendas. This is effected by providing REDD+ host countries with financial incentives to produce measurable reductions in carbon emissions beyond what would have occurred without REDD+. Indonesia is a key target of the REDD+ mechanism for several reasons, eg: (i) its forests support 10% of the world's remaining tropical rain forests and represent the fourth largest forest carbon stock globally, (ii) 80% of its GHG emissions result from deforestation and forest degradation, and (iii) it has the potential to reduce up to 120 million tons of CO2 per year. Consequently, to date Indonesia has received donor’s commitments of nearly US$2 billion for REDD+ development. Given this profile, Indonesia’s success in implementing REDD+ can contribute significantly to the efficacy of REDD+ globally. However, achieving this potential is undermined by a set of long-standing problems inherent within Indonesia’s forest institutions, including issues of corruption, coordination, uncertainty in the forests’ legal system, capacity to manage forests at multiple levels of government, and the use of forest concessions to consolidate political power. This thesis asks the primary research question: “How do REDD+ institutions effect governance reform within Indonesia’s existing national and sub-national forest institutions?” 'Institutionalism', in particular the concept of 'institutional interplay' is the main conceptual framework deployed and grounded in the context of the vertical interplay between the internationally-formulated REDD+ mechanism and Indonesia's forest institutions. Guided by the themes that emerged from the data collected, this research explored and expanded certain analytical approaches within the perspectives of institutionalism and governance, namely ‘historical institutionalism’, ‘clientelism’, 'critical juncture', ‘policy networks’ and ‘social learning’. This thesis adopted the ‘four paper route’ and employed mixed methods of data collection (ie interview, shadowing, and policy document review). It found that during the process of institutional interplay as REDD+ institutions deployed the principles of good governance, advanced a robust system of measurement, reporting and verification of reductions in carbon emission, attracted large funding, and involved a broad range and multi-scale of actors, the REDD+ mechanism produced 'collateral benefits'. The tangible form of these benefits was the production of new policy instruments, eg the 'national REDD+ strategy' (paper 2), 'one map initiative' (paper 3), and ‘village agreement’ (paper 4) through which a significant body of evidence showed the capability of REDD+ to effect governance reform within and beyond Indonesia's forestry sector. Paper 1, revealed how policy actors perceived REDD+ and as such provides the basis of these three papers. The positive results of institutional interplay that occurred were determined not only by the characteristic of REDD+ institutions themselves but also by the existence of domestic reformists and the national reform agenda.

Lack of urgency regarding climate change adaptation has caused limited actions to be applied in public asset management in Indonesia. In addition, the costs associated with adaptation of assets can be high in some cases. However, these costs will likely be even higher in the long-term, if responses are delayed. Furthermore, studies suggest adaptation to climate change will enable public assets to adjust to future changes, minimise negative impacts, take advantage of new opportunities and maintain sustainable services. Research in response to climate change, in assets or infrastructure in general, and public assets in particular, has been conducted in several developed countries, such as Australia and the United Kingdom. However, climate change adaptation (CCA) research related to public asset management (PAM) is considered lacking in Indonesia. This research aims to develop a framework for CCA for incorporation in PAM and apply the developed framework to Indonesia.

The IPCC's report in 2018 projects global warming will increase by 1.5oC in 2030, which makes contribution of each country to control their emissions becomes significant. This study seeks to investigate what entitlement human beings have over the absorptive capacity of the atmosphere as well as the harm it caused by elaborating the Entitlement Theory of Justice, thereto, finding out how the burden of climate change should be distributed according to the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) and the Equal per Capita Shares Principle (ECSP). Furthermore, this study seeks to investigate Indonesia's part in increasing the burden of climate change and whether Indonesia should be held responsible for its part by comparing data of Indonesia's emissions to some developed countries' emissions. Humanity has a collective ownership over the absorptive capacity of the atmosphere, which implies that every individual has equal share of this absorptive capacity. A violation of this equal share should be compensated. The PPP suggests countries, who has the most cumulative amount of emissions from the past to present, to compensate and bear the climate change burden. While, the ECSP suggests countries, who emit more than their equal share per capita, to bear the climate change burden and reduce their emissions. Indonesia, despites massive amounts of CO2 released by its deforestation and annual haze, contributes insignificant to climate change due to both its cumulative and per capita emissions are considerably low compared to developed countries and even lower than acountry with large population size such as China.

[EN] Climate change has occurred in Indonesia, for example, increasing the surface air temperature, including in the Upper Citarum watershed. This phenomenon leads to a lack of water in the dry season, which lowers agriculture production and remains a great obstacle for agricultural activity. Meanwhile, human activity has produced severe LULC changes within the Upper Citarum watershed. This occurs due to the demands of the ever-increasing population growth in the region. As a result, rice field and forested areas have been sacrificed to compensate the urban increment. The general objective of this dissertation is to understand and analyze the impact of climate and LULC changes on the hydrological process and their relationship with historical and future changes by using spatially distributed modeling on the Upper Citarum tropical catchment. The distributed model TETIS has been implemented to obtain the results of past and future scenarios on the water and sediment cycles. Annual historical bathymetries in the reservoir were used to calibrate and validate the sediment sub-model involving Miller's density evolution and trap efficiency of Brune's equation. Climate change has been considered under RCP 45 and RCP 85 trajectories. Meanwhile, to overcome the LULC problem, historical and future LULCs have been studied. LCM model was used to forecast the LULC in 2029. The forecasted results of LCM model show, on one hand, a continuation in the expansion of urban areas at the expense of the contiguous rice fields. The results determined that deforestation and urbanization were the most influential factors for the alteration of the hydrological and sedimentological processes in the Upper Citarum Catchment. Thus, it decreases evapotranspiration, increases water yield by increasing all its components; overland flow, interflow and baseflow. The changes in LULC are currently producing and will produce in the future, a relatively small increment of erosion rates, increasing the area exceeds Tsl erosion. Sediment yield will increase in 2029 as the result of erosion increment. Other LULC scenarios such as conservation, government plan and natural vegetation scenarios are expected to have an increment in total evapotranspiration, the water yield is expected to decrease. Flood regime, erosion and sedimentation are reduced dramatically. Hence, it leads to a massive increment of reservoir and hydropower lifetime signed by a very long period of the lifetime. Climate change alters the magnitude of water balance and can be identified from the shift of infiltration, overland flow, interflow, baseflow and water yield. Those increments finally change the flood regime, catchment erosion. RCP 85 trajectory gives a bigger impact compared to RCP 45 trajectory on hydrological and sediment cycle. . LULC change results a bigger impact on water balance, flood regime, erosion and sedimientation. The combination of climate and LULC change give a bigger impact on the flows of water balance, erosion, flood, sedimentation and will be catastrophic for the hydropower operation of the Saguling Dam.
[ES] El cambio climático ha afectado a Indonesia, por ejemplo, incrementando la temperatura del aire en la superficie, incluso en la cuenca del Upper Citarum. Este fenómeno conduce a la falta de agua en la estación seca, reduciendo la producción agrícola lo que es un gran obstáculo para su actividad. Además, la actividad humana ha producido cambios severos en LULC en la cuenca del Upper Citarum, Indonesia. Esto se debe al elevado crecimiento de la población en la región, por el que se han convertido campos de arroz y áreas boscosas en suelo urbano. De esta forma, el objetivo general de esta tesis es comprender y analizar el impacto de los cambios climáticos y LULC en el proceso hidrológico y su relación con los cambios históricos y futuros mediante el uso de modelos distribuidos espacialmente en la cuenca tropical del Upper Citarum. El modelo distribuido TETIS se ha implementado para obtener los resultados de escenarios pasados y futuros en los ciclos de agua y sedimentos. Se usaron batimetrías históricas anuales en el embalse para calibrar y validar el submodelo de sedimentos que involucra la evolución de la densidad de Miller y la eficiencia de retención de la ecuación de Brune. Con el fin de arrojar más luz sobre estos problemas, el escenario de cambio climático se ha implementado en base al modelo de cambio climático bajo las trayectorias RCP 45 y RCP 85. Además, para intentar resolver el problema LULC, también se ha implementado el LULC histórico y futuro. El modelo LCM se usó para pronosticar el LULC en 2029 y los resultados muestran, por un lado, una continuación en la expansión de las áreas urbanas a expensas de los arrozales contiguos. Los resultados determinaron que la deforestación y la urbanización fueron los factores más influyentes para la alteración de los procesos hidrológicos y sedimentológicos en la cuenca del Upper Citarum. Por lo tanto, disminuye la evapotranspiración, aumenta la producción de agua al aumentar todos sus componentes; escorrentía, interflujo y flujo base. Los cambios en LULC están produciendo y producirán, un incremento relativamente pequeño de las tasas de erosión, aumentando el área excede la erosión de Tsl. La producción de sedimentos aumentará en 2029 como resultado del incremento de la erosión. Se espera que otros escenarios de LULC como la conservación, el plan gubernamental y los escenarios de vegetación natural tengan un incremento en la evapotranspiración total, y se espera que la producción de agua disminuya. El régimen de inundación, la erosión y la sedimentación se reducen drásticamente. Por lo tanto, habrá un incremento de la vida útil del embalse y la energía hidroeléctrica. El cambio climático altera la magnitud del equilibrio hídrico y puede identificarse a partir del cambio de infiltración, escorrentía, interflujo, flujo base y producción de agua. Esos incrementos finalmente cambian el régimen de inundación y erosión de la cuenca. La trayectoria RCP 85 tiene un mayor impacto en comparación con la trayectoria RCP 45 en el ciclo hidrológico y de sedimentos. El cambio de LULC tiene un mayor impacto en el balance hídrico, el régimen de inundación, la erosión y la sedimentación. La combinación del cambio climático y LULC tiene un mayor impacto en los flujos de equilibrio hídrico, erosión, inundación, sedimentación y será catastrófico para la operación hidroeléctrica de la presa Saguling.
[CA] El canvi climàtic ha afectat Indonèsia, per exemple, incrementant la temperatura de l'aire en la superfície, inclús en la conca de l'Upper Citarum. Aquest fenomen conduïx a la falta d'aigua en l'estació seca, reduint la producció agrícola, el que és un gran obstacle per a la seua activitat. A més, l'activitat humana ha produït canvis severs en LULC en la conca de l'Upper Citarum, Indonèsia. Açò es deu a l'elevat creixement de la població en la regió, motiu pel qual s'han anat convertint camps d'arròs i àrees boscoses en sòl urbà. D'aquesta manera, l'objectiu general d'aquesta tesi és comprendre i analitzar l'impacte dels canvis climàtics i LULC en el procés hidrològic i la seua relació amb els canvis històrics i futurs per mitjà de l'ús de models distribuïts espacialment en la conca tropical de l'Upper Citarum. El model distribuït TETIS s'ha implementat per a obtindre els resultats d'escenaris passats i futurs en els cicles de l'aigua i sediments. Es van usar batimetries històriques anuals en l'embassament per a calibrar i validar el submodel de sediments que involucra l'evolució de la densitat de Miller i l'eficiència de retenció de l'equació de Brune. Amb la finalitat de donar més llum a aquests problemes, l'escenari de canvi climàtic s'ha implementat basant-se en el model de canvi climàtic davall les trajectòries RCP 45 i RCP 85. A més, per a intentar resoldre el problema LULC, també s'ha implementat el LULC històric i futur. El model LCM es va usar per a pronosticar el LULC en 2029 i els resultats mostren, d'una banda, una continuació en l'expansió de les àrees urbanes a costa dels arrossars contigus. Els resultats van determinar que la desforestació i la urbanització van ser els factors més influents per a l'alteració dels processos hidrològics i sedimentològics en la conca de l'Upper Citarum. Per tant, disminuïx l'evapotranspiració, augmenta la producció d'aigua en augmentar tots els seus components; escorrentia, interflux i flux base. Els canvis en LULC estan produint i produiran, un increment relativament xicotet de les taxes d'erosió, augmentant l'àrea excedix l'erosió de Tsl. La producció de sediments augmentarà en 2029 com a resultat de l'increment de l'erosió. S'espera que altres escenaris de LULC com la conservació, el pla governamental i els escenaris de vegetació natural tinguen un increment en l'evapotranspiració total, i s'espera que la producció d'aigua disminuïsca. El règim d'inundació, l'erosió i la sedimentació es reduïxen dràsticament. Per tant, hi haurà un increment de la vida útil de l'embassament i l'energia hidroelèctrica. El canvi climàtic altera la magnitud de l'equilibri hídric i pot identificar-se a partir del canvi d'infiltració, escorrentia, interflux, flux base i producció d'aigua. Eixos increments finalment canvien el règim d'inundació i erosió de la conca. La trajectòria RCP 85 té un major impacte en comparació amb la trajectòria RCP 45 en el cicle hidrològic i de sediments. El canvi de LULC té un major impacte en el balanç hídric, el règim d'inundació, l'erosió i la sedimentació. La combinació del canvi climàtic i LULC té un major impacte en els fluxos d'equilibri hídric, erosió, inundació, sedimentació i serà catastròfic per a l'operació hidroelèctrica de la presa Saguling.
thank the Directorate General of Higher Education of Indonesia (DIKTI), for granting me the opportunity to pursue PhD study and adventure in Europe. The authors are also thankful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the research projects TETISMED (CGL2014-58127-C3-3-R) and TETISCHANGE (RTI2018-093717-B-I00).
Siswanto, SY. (2020). Impact Evaluation of Future Climate and Land Use Scenarios on Water and Sediment Regime using Distributed Hydrological Modelling in a Tropical Rainforest Catchment in West Java (Indonesia) [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/153152
TESIS

Climate change impacts have been shown to increase the social, economic and ecological vulnerabilities of poor groups in coastal communities of Asian countries. Mangunharjo village in Semarang city, Indonesia, has been identified as vulnerable to sea level rise, coastal erosion, tidal inundation and flooding, and the well-being of residents is threatened due to loss of livelihoods. In order to secure their future, the community has to enhance its resilience to climate change impacts, however, additional factors are undermining thepotential of a resilient and prosperous village. As resilience theory carried out in practice could negatively affect already marginalized people if trade-offs are not identified, a complementing theory is needed. This study develops a novel joint framework of resilience theory and environmental justice for analyzing the potential of enhancin gthe community’s resilience. It also explores what is needed for the village in order to increase its resilience. The framework revealed to be successful in identifying root problems and highlighted deficiencies in current resilience strategies. Moreover, the incorporation of environmental justice broadened the perspective of what could weaken the resilience ofthe village. Hence, an environmental justice perspective complements resilience theory as it identifies potential trade-offs and analyzes whose resilience is enhanced. The framework is argued to be a useful tool to secure resilience of a social-ecological system of various scales, however, further research is needed onthe optimal linkages of the two theories.

付記する学位プログラム名: グローバル生存学大学院連携プログラム
京都大学
新制・課程博士
博士(工学)
甲第23163号
工博第4807号
京都大学大学院工学研究科社会基盤工学専攻
(主査)教授 立川 康人, 教授 田中 茂信, 准教授 佐山 敬洋
学位規則第4条第1項該当
Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering)
Kyoto University
DFAM

The purpose of this thesis is to explore how the unpredictability of climate change and natural disasters impact the risk perception of Swedish companies. The literature chapter that has been elaborated in this study describes theories that are associated with effects of climate change and natural disasters, risk management and knowledge. Further on, the research has been conducted with a qualitative method in order to gain a profounder understanding of the topic and how it influences the risk perception of Swedish companies. The study has further on been following a abductive research approach since the area of research was rather unexplored.  We present the results of our study by answering to the research questions in the conclusion chapter that have been derived from the analysis. Furthermore, the conclusion chapter involves that the risks perception of the studied companies differentiates depending on the level and type on knowledge that the companies hold.

Indonesia launched a sovereign green sukuk in 2018 to fund green projects that can contribute to addressing climate change and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This issuance also marked  the first sovereigngreen sukuk issuance in the world. Since then, Indonesia has issued five sovereign green sukuks and has mobilized 3.23 billion USD from these issuances. The money raised from these sovereign green sukuks has been directed to five eligible sectors: sustainable transportation, energy efficiency, renewable energy, waste toenergy and waste management, and resilience to climate change for disaster risk areas. This study aims to assess firstly how the money raised by the Indonesian sovereign green sukuk flows to the renewable energy powerplant projects. Secondly, this research also aims to identify what kind of barriers influence the flows of greensukuk money to the renewable energy power plant projects. A literature review is carried out to outline the barriers that have been known to exist in green bond and green sukuk financial flows from the previous research. Meanwhile, an exploratory single case study is employed to explore the flow of money and identify the barriersin Indonesia. The findings were analyzed using thematic analysis.   Results show that there are two key actors in implementing the flow of money: the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. The Ministry of Finance has a role as an issuer of the sovereigngreen sukuk. On the other hand, The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources has a role as the project ownerin the renewable energy sector. Therefore, it requires good coordination between them since each ministry hasdifferent responsibilities and priorities. Meanwhile, there are three frameworks that determine the mechanismof the flow of finance. Firstly, the state budget. Secondly, the Law No. 19/2008 concerning Sovereign Sukuk and its subordinate legislation, which is the Government Regulation No. 56/2011 concerning Project Financingthrough Sovereign Sukuk Issuance. Lastly, the Republic of Indonesia Green Bond and Green Sukuk Framework.The involvement of these frameworks shows that the implementation of the sovereign green sukuk must alignto the management of the state budget, must be compliant with the sovereign sukuk law and its subordinate legislation, and must follow the green principles according to the Republic of Indonesia Green Bond and Green Sukuk Framework. This study also shows two main barriers: the lack of coordination between ministries and the lack of capacity in some of the regional governments. The lack of coordination between ministries has affected the formulation of the impact report. Since the impact report is one of the key components in the sovereign green sukuk, the delay in delivering the impact report and the lack of quality in providing theinformation in the impact report can diminish the investor’s confidence. Meanwhile, the lack of capacity insome of the regional governments to manage and operate the renewable energy power plants funded by the green sukuk has led these projects could not give the impact as expected in reducing emission and achieving the SDGs target in the rural areas.   Based on these results, this study suggests these recommendations: (1) The Ministry of Finance should consider establishing a directorate dedicated to exclusively handling green finance; (2) The ministries that own the projects should raise their awareness in reporting the impact of the green projects; (3) The coordination between the ministries should be improved in ensuring solid implementation in the issuance, allocation, and reporting phase; (4) The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources should ensure that the plan to build renewable energypower plants from the green sukuk are well-planned and well-executed. (5) The regional governments should increase their technical and financial capacity to ensure the sustainability of the renewable energy power plantsthey manage.

Au cours des dernières décennies, l'Indonésie a connu des transformations spectaculaires des terres avec une expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile au détriment des forêts tropicales. L'Indonésie est actuellement l'une des régions ayant le plus haut taux de transformation de la surface terrestre dans le monde à cause de l'expansion des plantations de palmiers à huile et d'autres agricultures qui remplacent les forêts à grande échelle. Comme la végétation est un modificateur du climat près du sol, ces transformations à grande échelle ont des impacts majeurs sur les variables biophysiques de surface telles que la température de surface, l'albédo, les indices de végétation (NDVI), sur le bilan énergétique de surface et le partitionnement énergétique.Ce travail de thèse vise à quantifier les impacts des changements d’usage des terres en Indonésie sur les variables biophysiques de surface. Pour évaluer ces changements à l'échelle régionale, des données de télédétection sont nécessaires.Étant une variable clé de nombreuses fonctions écologiques, la température de surface (LST) est directement affectée par les changements de la couverture terrestre. Nous avons analysé la LST à partir de la bande thermique d'une image Landsat et produit une carte de température de surface avec une haute résolution (30m) pour les basses terres de la province de Jambi à Sumatra (Indonésie), une région qui a subi de grandes transformations au cours des dernières décennies. La comparaison des LST, albédo, NDVI et évapotranspiration (ET) entre sept différents types de couverture terrestre (forêts, zones urbaines, terres incultes, plantations de palmiers à huile jeunes et matures, plantations d'acacias et de caoutchouc) montre que les forêts ont des températures de surface inférieures à celles des autres types de couvert végétal, ce qui indique un effet de réchauffement local après la conversion des forêts vers des plantations. Les différences de LST atteignaient 10,1 ± 2,6 ºC (moyenne ± écart-type) entre les forêts et les terres déforestées. Les différences de températures de surface s'expliquent par un effet de refroidissement évaporatif des forêts, qui compense l'effet de réchauffement de l'albédo.Basé sur des différences observées dans les variables biophysiques entre les plantations de palmiers à huile jeunes et matures, nous avons analysé trois images Landsat couvrant une chronoséquence de plantations de palmiers à huile pour étudier la dynamique des variables biophysiques de surface pendant le cycle de rotation de 20-25 ans des plantations de palmiers à huile.Nos résultats montrent que les différences entre les plantations de palmiers à huile à différents stades du cycle de rotation du palmier à huile se reflètent dans les différences du bilan énergétique de surface, du partitionnement énergétique et des variables biophysiques. Au cours du cycle de rotation des plantations de palmiers à huile, les différences de température à la surface diminuent graduellement et se rapprochent de zéro autour du stade mature de la plantation de palmiers à huile de 10 ans. Parallèlement, le NDVI augmente et l'albédo diminue à proximité des valeurs typiques des forêts. Le bilan énergétique de surface et le partitionnement énergétique montrent des tendances de développement liés aux variables biophysiques et à l'âge des plantations de palmiers à huile. Les nouvelles plantations et les jeunes plantations (<5 ans) ont un rayonnement net plus faible que les plantations de palmiers à huile matures, mais ont des températures de surface plus élevées que les plantations de palmiers à huile matures. (Suite et fin du résumé dans la thèse)
Over the last decades, Indonesia has experienced dramatic land transformations with an expansion of oil palm plantations at the expense of tropical forests. Indonesia is currently one of the regions with the highest transformation rate of the land surface worldwide related to the expansion of oil palm plantations and other cash crops replacing forests on large scales. As vegetation is a modifier of the climate near the ground these large-scale land transformations have major impacts on surface biophysical variables such as land surface temperature (LST), albedo, vegetation indices (e.g. the normalized difference vegetation index, NDVI), on the surface energy balance and energy partitioning.Despite the large historic land transformation in Indonesia toward oil palm and other cash crops and governmental plans for future expansion, this is the first study so far to quantify the impacts of land transformation on biophysical variables in Indonesia. To assess such changes at regional scale remote sensing data are needed.As a key driver for many ecological functions, LST is directly affected by land cover changes.We analyze LST from the thermal band of a Landsat image and produce a high-resolution surface temperature map (30 m) for the lowlands of the Jambi province in Sumatra (Indonesia), a region which experienced large land transformation towards oil palm and other cash crops over the past decades. The comparison of LST, albedo, NDVI, and evapotranspiration (ET) between seven different land cover types (forest, urban areas, clear cut land, young and mature oil palm plantations, acacia and rubber plantations) shows that forests have lower surface temperatures than the other land cover types, indicating a local warming effect after forest conversion. LST differences were up to 10.1 ± 2.6 ºC (mean ± SD) between forest and clear-cut land. The differences in surface temperatures are explained by an evaporative cooling effect, which offsets an albedo warming effect.Young and mature oil palm plantations differenced in their biophysical. To study the development of surface biophysical variables during the 20 – 25 years rotation cycle of oil palm plantations, we used three Landsat images from the Jambi province in Sumatra/Indonesia covering a chronosequence of oil palm plantations.Our results show that differences between oil palm plantations in different stages of the oil palm rotation cycle are reflected in differences in the surface energy balance, energy partitioning and biophysical variables. During the oil palm plantation lifecycle the surface temperature differences to forest gradually decrease and approach zero around the mature oil palm plantation stage of 10 years. Concurrently, NDVI increases and the albedo decreases approaching typical values of forests. The surface energy balance and energy partitioning show a development patterns related to biophysical variables and the age of the oil palm plantations. Newly established and young plantations (< 5 years) have less net radiation available than mature oil palm plantations, yet have higher surface temperatures than mature oil palm plantations. The changes in biophysical variables, energy balance and energy partitioning during the oil palm rotation cycle can be explained by the previously identified evaporative cooling effect in which the albedo warming effect is offset. A main determinant in this mechanism is the vegetation cover during the different phases in the oil palm rotation cycle. NDVI as a proxy for vegetation cover showed a consistent inverse relation with the LST of different aged oil palm plantations, a trend that is also observed for different land use types in this study. (Last and final summary in the thesis)

The impact of the Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO), a major source of intraseasonal variability in the tropical atmosphere, on the Indonesia Seas is investigated using satellite-derived, reanalysis and mooring data. The MJO footprint on the Indonesian Seas is evident from the surface layer into the pycnocline. In the surface, MJO air-sea heat fluxes govern the intraseasonal sea surface temperature (SST) variations. Within the pycnocline, the MJO reduces the transfer of the Pacific water to the Indian Ocean, the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF). In addition to the ocean’s response, the oceanic feedback to the MJO is also examined. Warmer SST in the Indonesian Seas during the suppressed phase of the MJO promotes the MJO convective phase to propagate eastward over the maritime continent (MC). Intraseasonal SST variation accounts for 55 - 60% of the total non-seasonal SST variance across the Indonesian Seas. It is most energetic in Banda and Timor Seas, with its standard deviation varying between 0.4 – 0.5°C. Coupled to the MJO surface fluxes, the intraseasonal SST exhibits stronger variation in boreal winter than in summer. A slab ocean model indicates that MJO surface heat fluxes account for 69-78% of the intraseasonal SST variability. The SST increases by 1.1° - 2°C, on average, in response to intense surface heating and weak winds over the suppressed (dry) MJO phase, and then decreases by 1.8° - 2.1°C over the course of the ensuing MJO active phase that is characterized by enhanced convective cooling and westerly wind bursts. Intraseasonal variability is also significant in the Sulawesi Sea SST, but it is mostly derived from eddies and local winds. Over the period 1980 - 2012, we observe 86 significant MJO (Real-time Multi variate MJO index > 1) events occurring in the Indian Ocean, of which 51 events achieve eastward propagation (EP) over the MC, while 35 events attentuate in the eastern Indian Ocean, or show no propagation (NP) over the MC. Eastward propagation (EP) MJO events occur more frequently during La Niña years than during El Niño years. Analyses of SST across the Indonesian Seas during the suppressed phase of the MJO events indicate that the SST in Java, Banda, and Timor Seas attributed to the EP MJO events is warmer by 0.5oC that associated with the NP MJO events. The warmer SST corresponds with enhanced surface latent heat flux, sensible heat flux, and low-level moisture in the atmospheric boundary layer, driven by diurnal activity. The EP MJO events are more frequent during La Niña, as the SST response to MJO events is influenced by the thermocline depth: shallower thermocline during El Niño enables cooler subsurface water under the MJO forcing to reduce SST that then attenuates MJO activity, with deeper thermocline of La Niña having the opposite outcome. Moored velocity data in Makassar Strait between 2004 – August 2011 and August 2013 – August 2015 document substantial direct impacts of the MJO on the ITF, particularly with the surface layer (< 80 m ). A composite of the along-strait velocity within the surface layer for 10 MJO events observed during the observational period exhibits strong northward velocity within days, following the peak of MJO wind stress. The MJO forces both northward along-strait pressure gradient and the resultant of northward wind stress and turbulent stress at the base of the surface layer that, together with the seasonal forcing, maintain the reduction or even reversal of the ITF southward transport on timescales of 1-3 months during boreal winter.

Climate change and increasing variability will have especially profound adverse impacts upon the lives of rural communities in developing countries. However, households have differing asset bases and livelihood strategies, and therefore may have variable levels of vulnerability. Designing appropriate climate adaptation strategies must take these differences into account. This study examined the heterogeneity of vulnerability amongst rural communities in Lombok, Indonesia, and considers implications for climate adaptation policy interventions. Three villages, with differing natural resource bases, were selected as case studies: forest, rain-fed agriculture, and coastal fisheries and aquaculture. Based on a questionnaire survey (n=250), a household typology was generated. Cannon's (2008) vulnerability framework was applied to analyse the factors driving vulnerability for each household type in the villages. Interviews (n=72) with individuals from different household types were also employed to determine their perceptions about vulnerability and adaptation preferences. Participatory focus group discussions and social network mapping were also utilised to triangulate causes of vulnerability and dependencies between household types. Three main key conclusions emerged. First, although climate variability contributes to increased livelihood vulnerability, the degradation of traditional institutions through modernisation and social change was considered to be a more serious problem. In particular, traditional institutions are an important source of adaptive capacity for poorer households. Second, community structures are complex, with different household types depending on one another for support. Social cohesion and mutual assistance are important for maintaining livelihood activities both in difficult times and during normal daily situations. Third, current development programs do not account for this variability of household types, their adaptation needs or the linkages between them. As a result, wealthier households benefit more than poorer ones, and there is little evidence of 'trickle down' benefits from rich to poor. This inequality could potentially lead to maladaptation. These patterns were similar across all case study villages. However, the dynamic interactions among households types differed based on the strength of social cohesion and local institutions. Therefore adaptation policies must be better designed and be more egalitarian. Specifically they must restore and maintain traditional institutions and social capital. The 'vulnerability components framework' from Cannon (2008) was used to identify necessary intervention points for different household types. These components are interlinked to each other and enable understanding of what causes some people to be more at risk of a hazard than others.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosphy (PhD)
The climate evolution of the southern sub-equatorial tropics during marine isotope stage (MIS)5a/b and the Holocene is explored using geochemical tracers from speleothems on Flores island, Indonesia. Oxygen isotope measurements from two precisely-dated stalagmites reveal that the Australian-Indonesian monsoon increased during the Younger Dryas (YD) cooling event, when Atlantic meridional overturning circulation was relatively weak. Monsoon precipitation intensified even more rapidly from 11 to 7 ka ago, when the Indonesian continental shelf was flooded by global sea-level rise. Analysis of oxygen (δ18O) and hydrogen (δD) isotope ratios from speleothem fluid inclusions shows that inclusion-δ18O values vary in phase with speleothem calcite δ18O during the Holocene, confirming that calcite δ18O primarily reflects variations in the δ18O of meteoric rainfall. Cave drip-water temperatures, reconstructed from coupled measurements of δ18O in speleothem calcite and fluid inclusions, remained relatively constant through the Holocene but were significantly cooler during the YD, consistent with the high northern latitudes. To help confirm the stable isotope records, trace elements were used to reconstruct the position of the austral summer inter-tropical convergence zone and east Indonesian rainfall variability during the Holocene. Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios correlate significantly with one another, and with δ18O and δ13C, throughout the record suggesting that the trace element ratios were dominated by prior calcite precipitation, a process whereby degassing in the vadose zone during periods of low recharge causes deposition of calcite and disproportionate loss of Ca2+ ions (relative to Mg2+ and Sr2+) ‘upstream’ of the stalagmite. Comparison of speleothem δ18O time-series from Flores and Borneo shows that they vary in unison for much of the Holocene. However, there is an exception during the mid-Holocene when a distinct anomaly in δ18O in the Borneo record, possibly caused by a change in the circulation of the Australian-Indonesian summer monsoon (AISM) in response to a period of positive IOD-like conditions in the eastern Indian Ocean, occurred between the two regions. A stalagmite reconstruction of Indo-Pacific climate through the interval 84 - 91 ka shows that the lower-frequency oxygen isotope trend indicates that the AISM was largely controlled by local summer insolation during this time, while the carbon isotopes show a pattern that is closer linked with northern polar-latitude ice-core records. Most notably, an abrupt decrease in the temperature-controlled δ13C values at the MIS 5a/b transition occurs in parallel with GIS 21 in the GISP2 δ18O and CH4 records highlighting the strong connection between the IPWP and North Atlantic during the last glacial period.

This thesis examines climate-related risk behaviours among small-scale citrus farmers and their decision to adoption certified seedlings and use of agrochemical inputs in East Java, Indonesia. The analysis is important for understanding citrus farmers’ behaviours regarding climate change issues. Understanding farm households climate related behaviours is key to designing appropriate smallholder support and advisory services. Given the importance of climate change to rural agricultural communities in developing countries, governments, NGOs and international development agencies continue to make substantial efforts to improve the ability of small-scale farmers to adapt. Yet, too often, national adaptation policies and programs ignore insights from existing smallholder adaptation practices. Previous studies show that behavioural insights are critical in developing an understanding of climate risk management by farmers. An important aim of this thesis is to understanding climate-related influences on smallholders’ decisions. The research objectives are to: (i) understand the extent of perceptions of risk among small-scale citrus farmers related to a range of climate change events and to identify the drivers of their risk perception at aggregated and disaggregated levels; (ii) provide analytical insights into the adoption of certified citrus seedlings by small-scale farmers by analysing the extent to which they value the certification of citrus seedlings and the role of this factor in influencing the adoption of higher-yielding, climate-risk resilient and disease-free citrus varieties; and (iii) explore the extent of use of chemical inputs and the role of risk preferences, intrahousehold dynamics and social networks on the household expenditure spent on chemical inputs. The research uses data from a household survey of 500 citrus farmers with interviews of both the male and female household heads. The first research objective was analysed by employing seemingly unrelated regression models (SUR) and ordered logistic regression models (OLM), the second objective was estimated using a multinomial logit model, and the third objective employed joint modelling of risk, intrahousehold dynamics and spatial factors in a spatial regression model. Among the key contributions of this thesis is integrating the research on complex patterns of risk behaviours, from both the economics and psychology literatures, into climate research on risk perceptions through a straight-forward extension of current approaches to the analysis of the risk perception index. An important result is the disadvantage of using only the aggregate approach in analysing risk perception because it could underestimate and simplify the complex representation of climate risk behaviours. This study also presents empirical support for the use of information and communication technology based extension as an efficient extension tool to reach more farmers than in traditional methods. A second result highlights how farmers' beliefs about the yield and production risks of particular seedling types, along with risk preferences, were significantly related to farmers’ intentions to adopt particular seedling types. This study also found the relationship between climate-related variables (i.e. climate information source and climate extension) and farmers’ decisions to use certified seedlings. Lastly, this thesis finds that more risk-averse households tend to have lower spending on insecticides and the use of this input is also significantly associated with higher profit variability. A wife’s leadership could lead to a considerably lower expenditure for fungicides, but higher herbicide expenses; and a higher disagreement between spouses is associated with more insecticides and fungicides costs. The pattern of chemical inputs usage is spatially dependent on endogenous effects, while spatial disturbance effect existed for the use of chemical fertilisers and herbicides.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food & Wine, 2020

Community-based adaptation (CBA) aims to address local vulnerabilities and build the adaptive capacities of rural, remote and/or poor communities to plan for, and cope with, the impacts of future climate changes. Despite its growing popularity in international development, recent experience indicates that CBA interventions are rarely sustained past their project life cycle and often fail to reduce vulnerability. To address these challenges, calls have been made to embed CBA interventions into governance systems that engage stakeholder groups and institutions operating across multiple governance domains and scales, promote local accountability and are supported by leaders or institutional entrepreneurs. However, there is limited understanding as to how and to what extent such features of ‘emerging governance’ can foster more sustained and durable CBA in low-income nations. This thesis addresses this gap. To do so, this thesis assesses the features of governance associated with two CBA programmes implemented in rural and remote communities in Timor-Leste and Indonesia: the Mudansa Klimatica iha Ambiente Seguru (MAKA’AS) programme and the Climate Change Adaptation Project (CCAP). Specifically, the thesis focuses on the roles of networks and multi-scale interactions; accountability in local-level institutions and institutional entrepreneurship in generating more durable CBA in rural areas of low-income nations. Complex systems thinking is used to frame the analytical approach of this thesis and data is collected and assessed through a mixed-methods approach which combines social network analysis with more qualitative research forms of investigation. Three main conclusions emerge from the thesis. First, local participation and ownership of CBA interventions are critical for their durability as local participation helps to ensure activities are locally relevant and legitimate. Second, local participation is enhanced through greater stakeholder diversity and by engagement with private sector groups. Private sector groups are found to play a particularly important role in CBA governance by providing access to funds and resources needed to maintain CBA interventions and support behaviour change. The presence of the private sector is particularly important in areas where local government remains weak or lacks the will or mandate to participate in CBA interventions. To this end, emerging governance approaches can be effective in building more durable CBA because of their emphasis on engaging private and public sector actors and on building the general adaptive capacities of all of those involved in governance. However, numerous contextual challenges and the conceptual underpinnings of emerging governance make such approaches highly challenging in low-income nations like Timor-Leste and Indonesia. More specifically, this thesis finds that emerging governance approaches may be unrealistic in the context of low-income nations as they require both a well-developed private sector and/or private actors that are willing to go beyond or even contradict their own self-interest. In addition, the social and political shifts taking place in rural communities, and the uncertainties of climate change itself, combine to make governance goals and objectives ambiguous. Accordingly, this thesis argues that calls to embed CBA into multi-scale governance systems should be treated with strong caution; linking CBA with emerging forms of governance is challenging and not a panacea that should be expected. This thesis therefore calls for a shift away from project-based interventions supported by multi-scale governance towards a focus on local decision-making and support for cognate institutional structures that are already supporting rural development efforts in low-income nations.

The rise of emerging powers in our contemporary world has sparked significant research interest. While the rise of the main ‘emerging powers’ – which are collectively referred to as BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) – has attracted the attention of many scholars, the rest of the emerging powers are still very much understudied. There is a trend of generalisation in the study of emerging powers whereby countries such as Indonesia, South Africa and Turkey are overlooked because their material capabilities are less than those of the BRIC countries. The lack of sufficient academic investigation of countries outside BRIC has made our understanding of current power shifts incomplete, because despite their smaller size, these non-BRIC emerging powers are a substantial element of the international system. This thesis proposes the use of a ‘pivot state’ conceptual framework to characterise non-BRIC emerging powers. As explained in chapter 3, three criteria to identify pivot states are introduced: (1) attitude towards the international order, (2) performed role, and (3) nexus between regional and global contexts. Pivot states are able to maintain a level of influence at the global level by carving out niches for themselves in areas in which they possess expertise, resources and reputation and through which they typically operate within a multilateral and institutionalised setting. Pivot states’ behaviours are framed in the theoretical construction of pivoting behaviours: (1) soft-revisionist, (2) normative bridge-builder, and (3) accommodative regional leadership. An investigation of three countries (Indonesia, South Africa and Turkey) presented via three thematic case studies – (1) states of concern, (2) climate change and (3) global economic governance and the G20 in chapters 5, 6, and 7 tests for the presence in these states of pivoting behaviours. From the exploration in these chapters, it is concluded that the three countries have displayed some elements of pivot states’ behaviours although there are variations among them. Indonesia has been a relatively consistent pivot state. South Africa’s membership in BRICS and BASIC has shaped its foreign policy towards a closer relation to BRIC countries. Nevertheless, as demonstrated in this thesis, South Africa is trying to maintain its relations with other groupings / entities. Since the stagnation of the EU membership negotiation in 2009, Turkey has begun to diversify its foreign policy beyond its traditional alliance with Western countries. Nevertheless, since it found that alternatives to the West were not promising, such as the failure of Turkey’s Iranian nuclear policy, Turkey has been significantly retreating to the West. In order to understand the motivations behind the pivoting behaviours, the concept of analytic eclecticism, which combines rationalist and constructivist approaches, is applied. Rationalism provides an explanation that these countries decided to display pivoting behaviours as a rational choice between their constrained ability to compete for relative gains and their careful attitude towards the primacy of absolute gains which often disadvantaged them. On the other hand, constructivism saw the pivoting behaviours as a result of compromise between multiple identities, which grew in number due to domestic transformation and international interaction.

In dieser Studie wird ein neues Modul “CLM-Palm” für mehrjährige Nutzpflanzen zur Modellierung einer funktionellen Gruppe (plant functional type) für Ölpalmen im Rahmen des Community Land Models (CLM4.5) entwickelt, um die Auswirkungen der Transformation eines tropischen Waldes in eine Ölpalmenplantage auf die Kohlenstoff-, Wasser- und Energieflüsse zwischen Land und Atmosphäre zu quantifizieren. Um die Morphologie der Ölpalme möglichst detailgetreu darzustellen (das heißt, dass ungefähr 40 Phytomere einen mehrschichtigen Kronenraum formen), wird in dem Modul CLM-Palm eine phänologische und  physiologische Parametrisierung auf Skalen unterhalb des Kronraums eingeführt, so dass jedem Phytomer sein eigenes prognostisches Blattwachstum und seine Erntekapazität zugeordnet wird, während Stamm und Wurzeln gemeinsam genutzt werden. Das Modul CLM-Palm wurde ausschließlich für Ölpalmen getestet, ist aber auch für andere Palmarten (z. B. Kokospalmen) interessant.  Im ersten Kapitel dieser Arbeit werden Hintergrund und Motivation dieser Arbeit vorgestellt. In Kapitel 2 wird die Entwicklung des Haupt- bzw. Kernmodells beschrieben,  inklusive Phänologie und Allokationsfunktionen zur Simulation des Wachstums und des Ertrags der Palme PFT, wodurch die Basis zur Modellierung  der biophysikalischen und biogeochemicalischen Kreisläufe innerhalb dieser Monokultur bereitgestellt wird. Die neuen Parameter für die Phänologie und die Allokation wurden sorgfältig mit Feldmessungen des Blattflächenindexes (LAI), des Ertrags und der Nettoprimärproduktion (NPP) verschiedener Ölpalmenplantagen auf Sumatra (Indonesien) kalibriert und validiert. Die Validierung zeigte die Eignung von CLM-Palm zur adäquaten Vorhersage des mittleren Blattwachstums und Ertrags für verschiedene Standorte und repräsentiert in ausreichendem Maß die signifikante Variabilität bezüglich des Stickstoffs und Alters von Standort zu Standort.  In Kapitel 3 wird die weitere Modellentwicklung und die Implementierung eines Norman-Mehrschichtmodells für den Strahlungstransport vorgestellt, das an den  mehrschichtigen Kronenraum der Ölpalme angepasst ist. Dieses Norman-Mehrschichtmodell des Strahlungstransports zeigte im Vergleich zu dem in CLM4.5 implementierten Standardmodell (basierend auf großen Blättern) bei der Simulation der Licht-Photosynthese-Kurve leichte Verbesserungen und hat  lediglich marginale Vorteile gegenüber dem ebenfalls in CLM4.5 implementierten alternativen statistischen Mehrschichtmodell.  Dennoch liefert das Norman-Modell eine detailliertere und realistischere Repräsentation des Belaubungszustands wie etwa dem dynamischen LAI, der Blattwinkelverteilung in verschiedenen Höhen, und ein ausgewogeneres Profil der absorbierten photosynthetisch aktiven Strahlung (PAR). Die Validierung mit Hilfe der Eddy-Kovarianz Flussdaten zeigte die Stärke von CLM-Palm bei der Simulation der Kohlenstoffflüsse, offenbarte aber auch Abweichungen in der simulierten Evapotranspiration (ET), dem sensiblen und dem latenten Wärmefluss (H und LE). Eine Reihe von hydrologischen Messungen im Kronenraum wird in Kapitel 4 beschrieben. Dies beinhaltet eine Adaption des in CLM4.5 eingebauten Standardmodells für Niederschlag, Interzeption und Speicherfunktionen für die speziellen Merkmale eines Ölpalmen-Kronenraums. Die überarbeitete Hydrologie des Kronenraums behob die Probleme bei der Simulation der Wasserflüsse (ET und Transpiration im Kronenraum) und verbesserte die Energieaufteilung zwischen H und LE. Kapitel 5 dokumentiert die Implementierung eines neuen dynamischen Modells für Stickstoff (nitrogen, N) in CLM-Palm zur Verbesserung der Simulation der C- und N-Dynamik, insbesondere mit Bezug auf den N-Düngeeffekte in landwirtschaftlich genutzten Systemen. Das dynamische N-Modell durchbricht die Limitierung des Standardmodells in CLM4.5, mit fixierter C-N-Stöchiometrie und erlaubt die Variation des C:N-Verhältnisses in lebendem Gewebe in Abhängigkeit der N-Verfügbarkeit und dem N-Bedarf der Pflanze.  Eine Reihe von Tests bezüglich der Düngung zeigte beispielhaft die Vorteile des dynamischen N-Modells, wie zum Beispiel die Verbesserung des Netto-Ökosystemaustauschs (net ecosystem exchange, NEE), ein realistischeres C:N-Verhältnis im Blatt, eine verbesserte Repräsentation der Effizienz des Stickstoffeinsatzes (nitrogen-use efficiency, NUE), sowie der Effekte von Düngung auf Wachstum und Ertrag. Abschließend wird in Kapitel 6 eine Anwendungsstudie gezeigt, in der die zentralen Modellentwicklungen aus den vorangegangenen Kapiteln verwendet werden. Eine junge und eine  erntereife Ölpalmenplantage sowie ein Primärregenwald wurden simuliert und verglichen. Sie wiesen klare Unterschiede in den C-Flüssen und in den biophysikalischen Merkmalen (z.B. ET und Oberflächentemperatur) auf. Ölpalmenplantagen können durch Wachstumsentwicklung (im Alter von etwa 4 Jahren)  ebenso hohe und darüber hinausgehende C-Assimilation und Wassernutzungsraten erreichen wie Regenwälder, haben jedoch im Allgemeinen eine höhere Oberflächentemperatur als eine bewaldete Fläche – dies gilt auch für erntereife Plantagen. Eine Simulation des Übergangs, die zwei Rotationsperioden mit Neubepflanzungen alle 25 Jahre umspannt, zeigte dass der Anbau von Ölpalmen auf längeren Zeitskalen lediglich in etwa die Hälfte des ursprünglichen C-Speichers der bewaldeten Fläche vor dem Kahlschlag  rückspeichern kann. Das im Boden gespeicherte C nimmt in einer bewirtschafteten Plantage aufgrund des begrenzten Streurücklaufs langsam und graduell ab. Insgesamt reduziert die Umwandlung eines Regenwaldes in eine Ölpalmenplantage die langfristigen C-Speicher und die Kapazität der Fläche zur C-Sequestrierung und trägt potentiell zur Erwärmung der Landoberfläche bei – trotz des schnellen Wachstums und der hohen C-Assimilationsrate einer stark gedüngten Plantage. Zur Einschätzung der regionalen und globalen Effekte der Ausbreitung der Kultivierung von Ölpalmen auf die Austauschprozesse zwischen Land und Atmosphäre und auf das Klima ist es notwendig eine Upscaling-Studie durchzuführen.

This diploma thesis aims to illuminate the issue of global climate change, its progression and describes the components of the climate system. The thesis addresses the impact of greenhouse gases on the climate system, the phenomenon of global warming, and the consequences along with their manifestations in the nature itself. The paper includes one chapter solely dedicated to the characterisation of environmental protection in historical context, with emphasis on the climate protection. The chapter also mentions a number of key international agreements and conferences. The second part of the thesis is concerned with the Indonesian legislation on climate protection in Indonesia. It also describes the global-scale impacts of selected activities and mentions number of international agreements and Indonesian regulation seeking to tackle the issue of climate change.

Global climate change is one of the defining issues of the 21st century. The phenomenon of natural climate variation being pushed beyond normal ranges has been fueled largely by industrial activities and those which support them (i.e. land-use change and the over-exploitation of natural resources). The urgency is well established with reports demonstrating an increased occurrence of rare, highly damaging weather events, and shifts in the natural range of species. The necessity of action on climate change has resulted in the development of novel global initiatives designed to address the problem across global and regional scales. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is emblematic of this new wave of conservation strategy. It brings together parties which are often seen as opposed on environmental issues in collaborative environmental practise. This thesis explores the development of REDD+ as an effective and equitable solutions to this problem. REDD+ is a policy architecture designed for global deployment, the success of which will depend largely upon the engagement and involvement of local community groups. Community forest management (CFM) may inform the REDD+ design process, and enhance both land-use strategies by way of synergy. The pathway to that point is, however, uncertain and marred with potential pitfalls. This thesis uses the instructive and critical lens of political ecology to assess the potential for integrating greater CFM elements into the REDD+ policy structure. It explores how the narratives of CFM and REDD+ clash at discursive levels, while also identifying elements of each which may make them mutually beneficial. The thesis finds that much of the conflict between positions on REDD+ are the result of contrasting environmental understandings, some of which are informed by negative experiences with past environmental conservation initiatives. Greater community-centric attributes may assist in improving the local and regional acceptability of REDD+ projects by appealing to the “alternative” values of forest-dependent peoples. Some suggested policy modifications are made to improve the overall design of REDD+ to be inclusive of the concerns of forest user groups, and potential areas for future research projects are discussed.
Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2013-01-28 14:57:55.951

Play is often thought of as a light-hearted, jovial, leisurely activity we do ‘for fun’. But what happens when artists hijack these associations, and reframe the aesthetics of play? How can play (in all its various manifestations) be used in art to spotlight injustice, tell stories, and imagine a better world? Examining the practices of three contemporary artists from Indonesia – Tintin Wulia, and the artist duo of Tita Salina and Irwan Ahmett – this thesis examines how and why the artists use ideas of play for activist, interventionist and storytelling exercises. To understand the implications of using play in art, I propose an interpretive paradigm of the ‘play-response’: that is, the artists’ uses of play and performance-themed interventions as a response, dare and/or challenge to the issues confronting the world around them; using the actions of play to ‘talk back’ to authority, intervene in the status quo, and find new ways of seeing society. Works by the three artists are considered in three chapters, each dedicated to examining how activities of play are used to confront problems of the world. I analyse how the artists construct new ways of seeing issues that dominate their environment, deconstruct opaque stories by ‘playing with’ processes of reframing them, and reconstruct the possibilities of society by imagining the world as it could be. Through these acts of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction, play in art takes a variety of forms; some of which do not immediately appear to be ‘playful’, but are instead very serious modes of expression. Understanding the play-response as a distinct aesthetic ‘attitude’ and assertiveness made visible through art allows us to see how the artists have weaponised play to confront issues in the world.