Academic literature on the topic 'Civil liability (France)'
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Journal articles on the topic "Civil liability (France)":
1
Korotkih, A. "LEGAL REGULATION OF LEGAL LIABILITY OF CIVIL SERVANTS IN THE EU MEMBER STATES." Social Law, no. 2 (April 26, 2019): 52–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.37440/soclaw.2019.02.07.
Abstract:
The article deals with the disclosure in general of the features of the legal regulation of the legal liability of civil servants in individual Member States of the European Union, namely in France, Italy, Spain and Romania. Attention is drawn to the fact that in the states under consideration, the civil liability of civil servants is regulated: at the same time by general (labor) and special (on public service) legislation; exclusively by administrative and civil law, namely in the states in which the relevant subjects are not traditionally regarded as subjects of labor law. In the conclusions, the author formulates the final thought about the prospect of Ukraine's borrowing from the experience of regulating the legal liability of civil servants in the EU Member States.
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Taylor, Simon. "Extending the Frontiers of Tort Law: Liability for Ecological Harm in the French Civil Code." Journal of European Tort Law 9, no. 1 (May 3, 2018): 81–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jetl-2018-0102.
Abstract:
AbstractIn August 2016 the French Parliament adopted legislation introducing civil liability for ecological harm into the civil code. Since tort law is traditionally concerned with the compensation of harm to individuals, the recognition of ecological harm as a basis of liability extends the boundaries of tort by requiring an alternative approach to what constitutes harm, who will have standing to bring claims and what remedies are appropriate. Through a discussion of the French reform, this article analyses the issues raised in adapting civil liability to deal with ecological harm and considers how French law seeks to overcome the challenges that these issues present. The article also reflects on whether the new civil code provisions are likely to provide an attractive model for reform in other legal systems by considering the extent to which they may represent an effective additional source of environmental protection in France and prove financially sustainable.
3
Lee, Dong-Jin. "Hospital’s Organizational Duty: Civil and Criminal Liability." Wonkwang University Legal Research Institute 28 (December 31, 2022): 31–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.22397/bml.2022.28.31.
Abstract:
As more and more medical service is provided by hospital, a new basis of medical liability, hospital’s organizational duty, has arisen. Hospital typically differentiates various parts of medical service and allocates them to different departments. The division of labor enhances the efficiency and professionality of the service and enables a service which could not have been provided otherwise. It poses, however, new risk that nobody in the organization has a comprehensive understanding of and control over the process. Patients might be unattended by anybody at some point of the process. This risk should be coped with or compensated by the new duty to organize the structure and cooperation in the hospital adequately. In many jurisdictions including Germany, France, the United States and South Korea, this new duty has been acknowledged by legislation and more importantly by jurisprudence. All those show similar landscapes: Hospital’s organizational duty has a function to enlarge hospital’s (civil) liability and/or concentrate medical (civil) liability to the hospital so as to provide the victim, the patient, a better way to be compensated and to preserve the rapport between the attending physician and the patient. It also has a function to lessen the burden of proof from the patient’s side, especially in the context of hospital contagion. It poses a new problem of the influence of the existence and weight of hospital’s own liability for the defective organization upon the individual physician’s medical liability. Last, but not least, there is the problem of the implication of the existence of organizational duty upon the medical criminal liability. This issue has not been addressed thus far perhaps because there are few cases in criminal justice practice. It’s theoretical importance can hardly be exaggerated, though, as it shows dramatically the structural transposition of modern medical service provision and its possible influence on the overall regime of modern medical liability. South Korea has already a few cases that show this issue can arise anytime in practice.
4
Rosembuj, Flavia, Matthias Berger, Karen Aitchison, Amel Al-Shajlawi, Bob Martens, Els Empereur, Bruno Kern, and Dominique Vienne. "Environmental Risks on Acquiring a Company in Possession of Contaminated Land." European Energy and Environmental Law Review 8, Issue 7 (July 1, 1999): 201–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eelr1999030.
Abstract:
Environmental risks on the acquisition of a company in possession of contaminated land; the possible transmission of liabilities from a subsidiary company to a parent company; a comparative study of Belgium, France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, examining the legal framework and the corporate liability regime in each; conclusion that there is an increasing view that soil protection is more likely to be best regulated by effective administrative law than by a system of civil liability.
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Beran, Karel, and David Elischer. "Has ‘Strict Liability’ Given Way to a General ‘Duty to Compensate Harm’ in Czech Law?" Review of Central and East European Law 44, no. 1 (March 28, 2019): 58–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15730352-04401003.
Abstract:
According to the new Civil Code, adopted in the Czech Republic in 2012 (“2012 Civil Code”), ‘strict liability’ (or ‘no-fault liability’) is no longer considered ‘liability’ in the traditional sense of the term. The declared concept of the Civil Code is based on the premise that the notion of ‘liability’ should be limited only to cases where a person can be held liable based on their culpability (fault). All other cases, denoted by the doctrine as the opposite to ‘fault-based liability’ (or more accurately, liability based on culpable conduct), that is, ‘no-fault’ or ‘strict’ liability, are – in actual fact – no longer conceived or designated by the Civil Code as ‘liability’ (in Czech: odpovědnost). They are rather constructed as a legal duty to compensate harm. This begs the question whether unlawfulness can be considered a prerequisite for the duty to compensate harm. The authors argue that the answer to this question depends on what the unlawfulness relates to – whether an unlawful act or an unlawful state of affairs. Their argument builds on the premise that unlawful acts are linked to an individual’s conduct, where both the reason and the will of the individual are present and, as a result, such unlawful acts are based on the individual’s culpability (fault). On the other hand, what is typical of an unlawful state of affairs is that the law has been violated, not because someone acted contrary to it, but rather because the rights of the aggrieved party were infringed. The authors conclude that an unlawful state of affairs is a general legal fact which covers all cases of ‘strict’ (or ‘no-fault’) liability and even a breach of contractual obligations. The authors develop their premise not only within Czech law, but also through comparison with other jurisdictions (France, Germany, and Austria), and analyze the potential of and limits to such approach.
6
ABOLHASANI, Hamid, Alireza Enteziri, and Saeed Shariati. "A Comparative Study of the Multiplicity of Causes in Civil Liability in Cyberspace in Iranian and Russian Law." Право и политика, no. 7 (July 2023): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0706.2023.7.40945.
Abstract:
One of the new manifestations of civil responsibility is the harmful behavior of a person or persons in the context of cyberspace, which ultimately leads to material and moral harm in this cyberspace. This research, which is prepared and organized in a descriptive-analytical way, the topics discussed have been centered around the answer to the question that basically, how is the civil liability for multiple reasons realized in the virtual space and what are the points of commonality and difference between the laws of Iran and the laws of Russia in this regard. The results and findings of the research in this regard confirm that in Iranian law, considering that there is no specific mechanism for the occurrence of civil liability in the virtual space, relying on the general and traditional doctrines of civil liability, with regard to the element of fault, responsibility can be held and imposed it equally or jointly on several grounds, but in Russian law, there is a separate mechanism regarding financial and moral civil responsibility in cyberspace, which due to the strict approach of this country towards cyberspace, assigns a kind of responsibility even in the assumption of no fault, it will impose civil responsibility on the perpetrator of the damage, while in the case of multiple causes, like in some other European countries such as Germany and France, joint and several liability has been given a higher price.
7
Nästega°rd, Emil. "The Tort Liability of CRAs in Europe and the Need for a Harmonized Proximity Requirement at the Union Level." European Business Law Review 31, Issue 5 (September 1, 2020): 799–818. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eulr2020030.
Abstract:
The union-wide civil liability regime for credit rating agencies relies on the national private laws of the Member State to a large extent. To prevent credit rating agencies from shopping for the most restrictive national private laws it is important that the Member States find common ground with respect to the interpretation and application and of central liability elements, such as the proximity requirement. This article focuses on identifying proximity requirements in the national tort laws of England, France, Germany and Sweden and commonalities regarding their application and interpretation. Such commonalities can form the basis for a harmonized interpretation and application of the proximity requirement in CRA liability cases. Pure economic loss, rating agencies, proximity requirement, tort liability, European private law, harmonization
8
Hornyák, Zsófia, and Roland Lindt. "Liability rules protecting waste management in the light of the right to a healthy environment." Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Law = Agrár- és Környezetjog 18, no. 35 (December 18, 2023): 31–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.21029/jael.2023.35.31.
Abstract:
Some European countries use a complex system of liability to protect the environment through civil, criminal, and administrative law. The purpose of this work is to present and evaluate the constitutional background of the complex liability system protecting the order of waste management in Hungary, in addition to examining the constitutional provisions of three Western European countries – namely France, Spain and Germany – in relation to the topic. Paying particular attention to how the Constitution of the given country regulates the right to a healthy environment.
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Boskovic, Olivera. "A RESPONSABILIDADE CIVIL DAS EMPRESAS GIGANTES DA INTERNET." Law, State and Telecommunications Review 12, no. 1 (March 16, 2020): 159–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.26512/lstr.v12i1.30003.
Abstract:
Objective ”“ The article offers an original contribution to the debate about the application of substantive law and the eligible jurisdiction that should judge the liabilities disputes between the so-called Internet giants' enterprises and the users.
Methodology/approach/design ”“ The article brings a bibliographical and case law review of both France and the European Union about International Private Law applicable to the liability violations made by the so-called Internet giants' enterprises.
Findings ”“ The article shows a legal theory central problem, which is the best way to define both the substantive law and the jurisdiction that should judge transfrontier liabilities in legal cases. The best solution would be to apply the so-called focus theory, i.e. the application of the substantive law and the jurisdiction following the local where the damage happens. Notwithstanding, this general application of the focus theory could impose limits on the future substantive reparation that the courts may grant to the victims. Besides, such general application collides with the traditional forum selection clauses that the giant Internet firms usually use to demand that the judgment of liability lawsuits solely by the United States courts.
Practical implications ”“ The article is an important introduction to the choice of substantive law and jurisdiction applicable to the liability lawsuits filed against the giant Internet enterprises. This debate has a clear practical application that will become more important as the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) enters in force and prescribes its transfrontier application.
Originality/value ”“ The article enlightens a very important legal debate about the European Union Law that has some regulations (Rome I, Rome II, and Brussels I) to prescribe what substantive law and which jurisdiction may be of use to judge civil liability violations. This legal debate will grow in importance since the GDPR will give motives to a whole lot of new lawsuits about data protection.
10
Sage, Yves-Louis. "Reinforcing the Rights of the Victim in the French Law on Civil Liability." Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 28, no. 3 (June 1, 1998): 543. http://dx.doi.org/10.26686/vuwlr.v28i3.6060.
Abstract:
In the last century the system of civil liability in French law has moved from being fault based to a system of guarantee, motivated by the desire to provide indemnity to victims. This shift occurred in the common law of France and has been complemented by significant legislative intervention. In this article Dr Sage explains the role and operation of the legislative methods of reinforcing the rights of victims and, in particular, the operation of the guarantee systems established by the state for road accident victims, for the victims of hunting accidents, of criminal injuries, of acts of terrorism, and for persons who have received transfusions of blood contaminated by the AIDS virus.
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Civil liability (France)":
1
Vianna, Goncalves Raphael. "Exploitation offshore d'hydrocarbures et responsabilité civile : droit comparé : Brésil, France et Etats-Unis." Thesis, Paris 1, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA010271.
Abstract:
La situation actuelle des règles relatives à la responsabilité civile de l'entrepreneur pour les dommages environnementaux provoqués par l’exploitation offshore d’hydrocarbure et le transport de ce produit par des navires pétroliers, démontre que le législateur a été de plus en plus concerné par la question de la santé environnementale. Cependant, il y a beaucoup de lacunes dans les lois nationales qui peuvent entraîner une incertitude juridique considérable pour l'entrepreneur et en même temps, ne pas fournir une protection adéquate à l'environnement et à l’homme. L’étude comparée des systèmes juridiques démontre qu’il est extrêmement important que les pays qui sont exposés aux périls des marées noires, notamment ceux qui exploitent des hydrocarbures dans la mer, disposent d’un fonds spécial d’indemnisation pour garantir et faciliter la restauration de l’environnement et le payement des indemnisations aux victimes. Outre la protection de l’environnement et des droits des citoyens, le fonds offre aussi la possibilité d’application des cas exceptés et de la limitation de responsabilité. Le fonds serait utilisé pour couvrir les préjudices au-delà de la limite de responsabilité de l’entrepreneur ou dans les cas où la responsabilité de celui-ci est écartée par un cas exceptéThe current situation of the rules governing the liability of the entrepreneur for environmental damage caused by offshore oil exploration and by the transportation of this product by oil tankers, shows that the legislator is more concerned with environmental health issues. However, there are many gaps in national legislations that can lead to considerable legal uncertainty for the responsible parties. While, at the same time it does not provide adequate protection for the environment and to human beings. The comparative study of legals systems shows the importance that countries that are exposed to the dangers of oil spills, especially those exploiting oil in the sea, to have a special indemnisation fund to guarantee and facilitate environmental restoration and payment of compensation to victims. Besides protecting the environment and citizens' rights, the fund also offers the possibility of applying the defenses of liability and limitation of liability. The funds would be used to cover the losses beyond the limit of liability of the responsible partie or when the responsibility for the accident is ruled out by a liability defense cause
2
Cely, Rodriguez Adriana Maria. "Les fondements de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants des sociétés : étude franco-colombienne." Thesis, Paris 2, 2011. http://www.theses.fr/2011PA020039/document.
Abstract:
Sans aborder une étude comparative qui amènerait à utiliser des méthodes strictes de comparaison, ce travail explique l’état actuel du système juridique français et fait des commentaires sur celui de l’actuel ordre juridique colombien. Quels avantages pourrait-il y avoir à aborder une étude du droit français touché par de commentaires en droit colombien ? L’objectif de cette approche est purement académique. Il s’agit d’informer le juriste colombien sur les aspects individuels existants dans un ordre juridique étranger qui est, depuis la fondation de l’Etat Nation colombien, un guide et une base d’inspiration. Les deux Nations sont proches sur le plan juridique. Le droit de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés n’échappe pas à cette réalité. La responsabilité civile des dirigeants reste fondée sur la faute, mais elle a connu certaines adaptations. S’agissant des professionnels de la gestion sociétaire, la responsabilité civile est accrue, la gamme des fautes s’alourdit. Le professionnel est traité par le droit d’une façon plus stricte que le simple particulier. L’existence d’une responsabilité civile professionnelle est revendiquée dans le cadre de cette étude. Le système actuellement existant dans chacun des deux pays s’est vu par ailleurs complété par des nouvelles sources, justifiées par la mondialisation, telles que les principes proposés par la doctrine anglo-saxonne du gouvernement d’entreprise. A côté des sources internes du droit de la responsabilité civile, les fondements théoriques de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés est alimenté par des sources internationales, dont l’influence accrue prend ses marques dans un phénomène mondial qui veut que les échanges ne s’arrêtent plus à l’économie ou les finances mais touchent aussi le droitWithout addressing a full comparative approach that would lead to use stricter methods for comparison, this work explains the current state of the French legal system and comments on that of the current Colombian laws. What benefit is there be to conduct a study of French law affected by Colombian law comments? The objective is purely academic. It has been done to inform the Colombian jurist on individual aspects existing in a foreign legal system which has been a guide and a base of inspiration for the Colombian nation-state since its foundation.The two nations are close on the legal dimension. The law of civil liability of corporate directors does not escape this fact. The Civil liability of officers remains based on the fault, but it has experienced some adaptations. With regard to professionals of the management of companies, the liability is increased; the range of errors has gone up.The professional is treated by the law in a manner more stringent than the common individual. The existence of professional indemnity is claimed in this study.The current system existing in both countries was also complemented by new sources, justified by globalization, such as the principles proposed by the doctrine of Anglo-Saxon corporate governance. In addition to internal sources of civil liability law, the theoretical foundations of the civil liability for corporate executives is fed by international sources, thus the stronger influence makes its marks within a global phenomenon which seeks that the trade does not stop only at the economy or finance levels, but also at the Legal
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Cérèze, Constance. "La responsabilité des parents du fait de leurs enfants du XVIe au XIXe siècle." Thesis, Paris 2, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013PA020025.
Abstract:
L’histoire de la responsabilité des parents du fait de leur enfant entre le XVIe et le XIXe siècle est l’histoire de l’acceptation progressive de cette institution originale durant l’Ancien Régime, sa reconnaissance officielle par le Code civil en 1804, puis sa remise en cause dans les trente dernières années du XIXe siècle. La difficulté à admettre la responsabilité des parents du fait de leur enfant réside essentiellement dans la tradition pénale qui est à l’origine du droit de la responsabilité civile. La responsabilité pénale des enfants ainsi que celle de leurs parents pour un fait commis par eux sont vigoureusement combattues au moment où commence le sujet de cette étude alors pourtant que certaines coutumes admettent déjà la responsabilité civile des parents. Au cours de l’Epoque Moderne, la formulation d’un principe général de responsabilité pour faute, l’acceptation plus large du lien de causalité entre la faute de l’auteur et son dommage et la morale de l’éducation qui souligne le lien entre l’éducation des enfants et leur comportement social, sont autant de facteurs qui poussent à admettre le principe de responsabilité des parents pour faute personnelle. Le principe est confirmé par le Code civil qui en dispose dans son article 1384 alinéa 4. Soutien et sanction d’une puissance paternelle forte, application particulière du principe quasi-délictuel selon lequel chacun est responsable du dommage causé par son imprudence ou sa négligence, la responsabilité civile des parents pour faute personnelle connaît alors son apogée. La remise en cause d’une puissance paternelle forte d’une part et de la responsabilité pour faute d’autre part a conduit à une remise en cause de la responsabilité des parents à la fin du XIXe siècleThe history of parents’s responsibility between the XVIth and the XIXth century is the history of the progressive acceptance of this institution during the three centuries before the French Revolution, its official recognition by the civil Code in 1804 and its denial at the end of XIXth century. The difficult admission of the responsability of the parents for their children is due to the penal law which is the origin of the civil liability. At the time when our study begins the penal law refuses to charge the children below a certain age and to charge the parents for something done by their children. Despite of that some local custums admit the civil liability of the parents for their children. During the three centuries before the French Revolution this responsability is progressivly accepted due to the better formulation of a general principle charging everybody to pay the consequences of their failures, to the wider allowance of the link between the fault commited and the loss resulting form this fault and at last to the moral of education enhancing the link between the parent’s education and the children behaviour. The responsability of the parents for their children is definitly recognized by the civil Code in 1804. At this stage this principle is the warantie and punishment of the strong paternal power. It is also its specific application of the law charging everybody to pay the consequences of his fault, even the fault in what he has simply neglected or failed to do. The first part of the XIXth Century is the summit of this institution. Both the rejection of a strong paternal power and of the objective fault has caused the rejection of our institution at the end of the XIXth Century
4
Ferhaoui, Boualem. "Le dirigeant de société : statut et responsabilité. Droit français et droit algérien." Thesis, Bordeaux, 2020. http://www.theses.fr/2020BORD0093.
Abstract:
La loi n’a pas défini d’une manière explicite la notion du dirigeant de société. Afin d’identifier les personnes au sein de la société ayant la qualité du dirigeant de société, la doctrine et la jurisprudence se sont saisis de la question, et deux critères d’identification sont adoptés, à savoir l’exercice de deux pouvoirs de gestion et de représentation dans la société. Ces deux critères permettent également de distinguer la notion du dirigeant de société de quelques notions voisine à l’image du chef d’entreprise et de l’employeur.Le mutisme législatif quant à la définition de la notion du dirigeant de société exclut l’existence d’un véritable statut juridique unitaire du dirigeant de société, alors qu'au contraire, il en existe une pluralité de statuts en raison de la différence de traitement réservé par la loi aux dirigeants de sociétés de formes sociales différentes. Pour appréhender la condition du dirigeant de société, la doctrine et la jurisprudence ont procédé à la qualification du lien unissant le dirigeant et la société qu’il dirige. Ainsi, l’évolution du statut de dirigeant de société se trouvait au centre d’une évolution globale du droit des sociétés. En effet, le dirigeant de société est considéré pendant plus d’un siècle comme mandataire de la société, en raison de l’analyse contractualiste de la société, pour être ensuite qualifié d’organe de la société, suite à l’essor de la théorie institutionnaliste de la société. Cependant, ces analyses si elles permettent dans une large mesure d’appréhender la condition du dirigeant de société, elles empêchent une analyse objective et unitaire de la condition du dirigeant de société. Ainsi, une nouvelle acception développée en doctrine appuyée par la jurisprudence analyse la condition du dirigeant de société à partir de la spécificité de ses fonctions, en qualifiant le dirigeant de société d’un véritable professionnel.À l’instar de la question du statut juridique du dirigeant de société, la nature de sa responsabilité civile a suscité une controverse en doctrine, entretenue par la jurisprudence qui n’a pas tranché la question d’une manière péremptoire. En effet, si pour les tenants de la théorie dirigeant-mandataire la responsabilité civile du dirigeant de société envers la société et les associés est de nature contractuelle, les tenants de la théorie de l’organe qui nient tout lien contractuel entre le dirigeant et la société ou les associés qualifient cette responsabilité de délictuelle. Cependant, la professionnalisation des fonctions sociales a conduit à l’adoption d’un régime de responsabilité typique, qui prend en considération la spécificité des fonctions du dirigeant de société. Ainsi, la responsabilité du dirigeant de société ne peut être qualifiée que de professionnelle.La spécificité de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de société, se manifeste également dans ses fonctions. En effet, si traditionnellement la responsabilité civile a comme objectif principal l’indemnisation des victimes d’actes dommageables. La responsabilité civile des dirigeants de société, joue un triple rôle. Elle assure en premier lieu l’indemnisation des victimes d’actes dommageables des dirigeants de société (la fonction réparatrice), mais elle sanctionne également les comportements fautifs du dirigeant de société (la fonction répressive), tout en définissant en négative les normes de comportement auxquelles les dirigeants de sociétés sont astreints (la fonction normative)The law has not provided an accurate definition of the notion of a company manager. In an attempt to determine who within the company has the status of company manager, doctrine and case law have tackled the issue, and two criteria for such determination have been adopted, namely the performance of two powers of management and representation in the company. These two criteria also allow us to distinguish the concept of the company manager from a few related concepts such as the head of the company and the employer.The legislative vacuum regarding the definition of the notion of company manager excludes the existence of a true unified legal status of the company manager, whereas, on the contrary, there is a plurality of statutes due to the different treatment reserved by law for managers of companies of different corporate forms. In an attempt to assess the status of the company manager, the doctrine and case law have defined the link between the manager and the company he or she manages. Thus, the development of the status of the company manager was at the heart of an overall development in company law. Indeed, for more than a century, the company manager has been considered as the company's representative, due to the contractual analysis of the company, before being qualified as a company body, following the development of the institutionalist theory of the company. However, although these analyses enable the condition of company managers to be assessed to a large extent, they prevent an objective and unified analysis of the condition of company managers. Thus, a new concept has been developed in doctrine and endorsed by case law examines the status of the company manager on the basis of the specific nature of his or her functions, by describing the company manager as a true professional.As with the issue of the legal status of the company manager, the nature of his or her civil liability has been the subject of controversy in doctrine, sustained by case law that has not settled the issue conclusively. Indeed, while for the proponents of the director-representative theory, the civil liability of the company manager towards the company and the partners is contractual in nature, the proponents of the body theory, who deny any contractual link between the manager and the company or the partners, qualify this liability as tortious. However, the professionalization of corporate functions has led to the adoption of a typical liability regime, which considers the specific nature of the functions of the company manager. Thus, the liability of the company manager can only be referred to as professional.The specific nature of the civil liability of company manager is also apparent in his or her functions. Indeed, while conventionally civil liability has as its main objective the compensation of victims of harmful acts. The civil liability of a company manager fulfils a triple role. In the first instance, it provides compensation to victims of harmful acts committed by the company manager (the reparative function), but it also sanctions the wrongful behavior of the company manager (the repressive function), while defining in negative terms the standards of behavior to which the company manager is bound (the normative function)
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Stancu, Radu. "L'évolution de la responsabilité civile dans la phase précontractuelle : comparaison entre le droit civil français et le droit civil roumain à la lumière du droit européen." Thesis, Strasbourg, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015STRAA025/document.
Abstract:
La thèse a pour but l’analyse de l’évolution récente du droit civil français et roumain de la responsabilité civile au cours de la période précontractuelle. Nous avons privilégié une approche comparative entre les deux droits nationaux à la lumière des droits européens. Au cours de la période précontractuelle les parties sont libres de négocier comme elles le veulent, mais sans causer un dommage à leur partenaire. Il y a un lien qui se crée entre les parties et qui ne peut être rompu que conformément au principe de la bonne foi. Nous avons pu constater que le fondement de la responsabilité est assez controversé et varie d’un ordre juridique à l’autre. En effet, la responsabilité civile balance entre sécurité juridique, autonomie privée et liberté contractuelle. En résumé, la phase précontractuelle a connu de profondes transformations au cours de son évolution. À l’heure de l’harmonisation européenne, voire de la globalisation, les droits français et roumain subissent des modifications afin de clarifier des règles de plus en plus compliquées et notamment celles relatives à la responsabilité civile précontractuelleThe thesis finds its main purpose in the study of the recent evolution of French and Romanian civil law of liability during the pre-contractual period. We favored a comparative approach between national rights, in the light of European laws. During the pre-contractual period, the parties are free to negotiate as they please, as long as they do not cause damage to their partner. A bond is created between the parties and it can only be broken in accordance with the principle of good faith. We noted that the basis of liability is fairly controversial and varies from one legal system to another. Indeed, the civil liability is balances between legal security, private autonomy and freedom of contract. In summary, the pre-contractual phase has experienced profound transformations in its evolution. At the time of European harmonization, or even globalization, French and Romanian law undergo modifications in order to clarify the most complicated rules, in particular those relating to pre- contractual civil liability
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Dubois, Charlotte. "Responsabilité civile et responsabilité pénale : à la recherche d'une cohérence perdue." Thesis, Paris 2, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA020066.
Abstract:
La responsabilité civile est traditionnellement attachée à la réparation des préjudices individuels. Pour sa part, le droit pénal est présenté comme la branche du droit qui assure la protection de l’intérêt général par la sanction de comportements attentatoires à un socle commun de valeurs sociales. Cette distinction de finalités justifie une hiérarchie des disciplines qui se traduit par une primauté accordée au droit pénal. Pourtant, on se propose de démontrer que le législateur, au même titre que le juge d’ailleurs, semble s’engager dans une direction contestable en considérant qu’il y a une différence de degré entre droit civil et droit pénal là où existe en réalité une différence de nature. De ce postulat inexact naît une confusion généralisée qui conduit chaque discipline à s’approprier les considérations de l’autre : le droit civil devient punitif tandis que, dans le même temps, le droit pénal accorde une place sans cesse accrue à la réparation du préjudice. Ce mouvement nous semble porteur d’un double danger : en premier lieu, le droit pénal délaisse sa fonction protectrice de l’intérêt général lorsqu’il s’attache à réparer des préjudices purement individuels ; en second lieu, le droit civil punitif, délié des garanties fondamentales dont est assortie la matière répressive, peut se révéler être une menace pour les libertés individuelles. Ce mouvement croisé des deux disciplines met en péril la cohérence de leurs régimes respectifs : leurs influences réciproques doivent être révélées afin de mieux cerner les faiblesses du droit de la responsabilité et de proposer des remèdes en vue d’assurer un agencement cohérent et complémentaire des responsabilités civile et pénaleStudying two separate disciplines, such as Civil and Criminal liability, it would not be expected to find any interactions between them: Civil Law repairs the damage caused to private interests; while Criminal Law punishes, thereby ensuring public interests. These differences in purpose justify a hierarchy of disciplines resulting in the supremacy of Criminal Law over Civil Law. However, it will be shown that the legislature and the judge are going in the wrong direction by considering that there is a difference of degree between Civil Law and Criminal Law where there is actually a difference in nature. This incorrect assumption has given rise to a widespread confusion where each discipline takes ownership of the considerations of the other: Civil Law becomes punitive, while, at the same time, Criminal Law becomes increasingly compensatory. The present work aims to denounce a double danger: first, Criminal Law abandons its protective function of public interests when it attempts to repair purely individual damages; second, a punitive Civil Law, detached from the fundamental safeguards that are attached to criminal matters, may prove to be a threat to individual freedoms. This cross-movement between the two disciplines jeopardizes the consistency of their respective systems: reciprocal influences must be revealed in order to better understand the weaknesses of legal liability and to propose remedies that ensure a consistent and complementary arrangement of legal rules
7
Chu, Huu Thang. "Effets du contrat d'entreprise : comparaison franco-vietnamienne." Thesis, Paris 2, 2017. http://www.theses.fr/2017PA020033/document.
Abstract:
La thèse examine la comparaison des effets du contrat d’entreprise en droit français et en droit vietnamien. Au sein des contrats spéciaux, dans un monde d’économie de services accrue, le contrat d’entreprise joue désormais un rôle majeur. Ses multiples facettes pourraient d’emblée permettre de dresser une liste de métiers. Elle serait haute en couleur, puisque la plupart des prestations de services peuvent se couler dans le moule juridique du contrat d’entreprise, pour le quel se trouvent concernés artisans,artistes, professions libérales, etc. Synallagmatique, le contrat d’entreprise engendre des obligations réciproques à la charge de l’entrepreneur et du maître de l’ouvrage. Elle a permis de mettre en évidence les obligations qui constituent le droit commun du louage d’ouvrage, et de s’apercevoir que les obligations nées du contrat d’entreprise ainsi que ses effets revêtent des contours spécifiques qui s’expliquent par particularités de la convention. Ces particularités sont indéniables s’agissant des obligations principales et accessoires de l’entrepreneur à l’égard du maître de l’ouvrage et à l’inverse. Ces deux parties devraient être sanctionnées pour l’inexécution des obligations contractuelles et être exonérées de la responsabilité en justifiant les causes d’exonération. L’étude comparative de ces particularités en droit français et en droit vietnamien permettra de constater les similitudes et les divergences entre les deux systèmes juridiques. Les deux pays sont proches sur le plan juridique. Ainsi, la conclusion qui s’en dégage est que certaines dispositions du droit français pourraient utilement inspirer les législateurs vietnamiens et vice versaThe thesis examines the comparison of the effects of the contract of enterprise in Vietnamese law and French law. Within the special contracts, in a world of greater economy of services, the contract of enterprise plays from now on a major role with various operations. It would be with a ruddy complexion, because most of the services can steal into the legal mold of the contract of enterprise, thus that are concerned craftsmen, artists, medical services, liberal professions, etc. Synallagmatic, the contract of enterprise engenders mutual obligations chargeable to the contractor and the owner. The study allowed to point out the obligations that constitute the common rules of the contract of enterprise and, to notice that the obligations following the contract of enterprise are specific because of the particular aspects of this agreement.The particularities are undeniable with respect to the main and secondary obligations of the contractor towards his owner and on the contrary. Both parties should be sanctioned by the non-fulfillment of the contractual obligations and to be exempted from the responsibility by justifying the causes of exemption. Comparative studies of these particularities in French law and in Vietnamese law will allow to notice the similarities and the differences between both legal systems. The two countries are close on the legal plan. Thus, the conclusion that emerges is that certain provisions of the French law could usefully inspire the Vietnamese legislators and vice versa
8
Vingiano, Iolande. "Obligation de sécurité et alea : étude du risque issu du manquement à l'obligation de sécurité dans les assurances de responsabilité civile pour les professionnels." Thesis, Aix-Marseille, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014AIXM1073.
Abstract:
L' « obligation de sécurité » sanctionne divers comportements portant atteinte à la santé physique ou mentale d'autrui. Parallèlement, l'assurance favoriserait le sentiment de sécurité, les assurances de responsabilité civile des professionnelles garantissent la dette de responsabilité civile contractée par l'assuré à l'égard d'un tiers.Se pose alors la question de savoir s'il est possible de garantir de manière satisfaisante le risque issu du manquement à l'obligation de sécurité dans les contrats d'assurance de responsabilité civile des professionnels.Si les « grands principes du droit des assurances » imposent une étude statistique du risque soumis à l'assurance, une étude juridique du risque est indispensable puisque seule une conception objective du risque assurable permet de déterminer si l'aléa devant préexister au contrat d'assurance est préservé. Par la suite, l'étude subjective du risque issu du manquement à l'obligation de sécurité nécessitera de déterminer l'influence du comportement de l'assuré sur l'événement aléatoire garanti par le contrat d'assurance de responsabilité civile des professionnels. Le risque identifié permettra alors d'observer l'étendue de la garantie d'assurance actuellement proposée dans les contrats d'assurance. A défaut de garantie satisfaisante dans le temps et pécuniairement, l'intervention de mécanismes supplétifs à l'assurance pourrait être une alternative pour l'indemnisation des victimes les plus gravement atteintes par la réalisation du risque issu du manquement à l'obligation de sécuritéThe " obligation of safety " punish diverse behavior striking a blow at the physical or mental health of others. At the same time, the insurance would favor the feeling of safety, the third-party insurance of the professionals guarantees the debt of civil liability contracted by the insurant towards a third. The question is to know if it is possible to guarantee in a satisfactory way the risk stemming from the neglect in the obligation of safety in the insurance contracts of civil liability of the professionals.If the "big principles of the right of the insurances" impose a statistical study of the risk subjected to the assurance, a legal study of the risk is indispensable because only an objective conception of the insurable risk allows to determine if the hazard that must preexist before the insurance contract is protected.Afterward, the subjective study of the risk stemming from the neglect in the obligation of safety will require to determine the influence of the behavior of the insurant on the unpredictable event guaranteed by the insurance contract of civil liability of the professionals. The identified risk will allow to observe the area of the guarantee of assurance at present proposed in insurance contracts. If the guarantee in the time and financially is not satisfactory, the intervention of auxiliary mechanisms in the assurance could be an alternative for the compensation of the victims most seriously affected by the realization of the risk stemming from the neglect in the obligation of safety
9
Thomas, Arnaud. "L'indemnisation de l'impayé." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Paris 10, 2023. http://www.theses.fr/2023PA100152.
Abstract:
Un créancier de somme d’argent peut être privé du paiement par la faute d’un tiers. Les occurrences d’une telle hypothèse sont nombreuses et variées. L’intervention d’un tiers peut avoir été sollicitée par le créancier, aux fins de recouvrer la créance. L’intervention du tiers peut à l’inverse être entièrement subie par le créancier, lorsque le premier fait irruption dans le processus de recouvrement. Dans chacune de ces hypothèses, le créancier privé de son paiement peut rechercher la responsabilité civile du tiers auquel il impute son impayé. Le contentieux est nourri, notamment à l’encontre des professionnels du droit. Il n’existe pourtant pas d’analyse globale de l’indemnisation du créancier de somme d’argent privé de son paiement par la faute d’un tiers. Parfois présenté comme la perte de la créance ou la perte de chance d’un paiement, le dommage susceptible d’être subi par le créancier de somme d’argent n’est pas réellement identifié. Il en résulte des hésitations en jurisprudence et en doctrine, relatives notamment au quantum de l’indemnisation du créancier et à la subsidiarité de cette indemnisation à l’épuisement de toute voie de recouvrement de la créance. L’identification du dommage, dont doit être distingué le préjudice, subi par le créancier de somme d’argent tend ainsi à faire émerger un régime général de son indemnisation. Cette étude tend notamment à éclaircir le système spécial d’indemnisation des créanciers d’un même débiteur soumis à une procédure collective. Le droit des faillites a en effet vu apparaitre un système d’indemnisations collectives des créanciers dans l’hypothèse d’une faute imputable à un tiers. Edifié aux fins de rendre effective la responsabilité civile des tiers dans ce contexte, ce système s’avère incohérent et inefficace. Il est dès lors proposé de lui substituer un système nouveau d’indemnisations individuelles des créanciers, à la demande des organes de la procédure collective. Etudiée de manière générale puis dans le contexte de la procédure collective du débiteur, l’indemnisation de l’impayé tend enfin à éclairer tant le droit de la responsabilité civile que celui des entreprises en difficultéThe creditor of a sum of money may be deprived of payment through the fault of a third party. These can happen under many circumstances. For example, the creditor may have asked a third party to take action to recover the debt, and that third-party may have failed to carry out its obligations. On the other hand, the third party's action may be entirely unsolicited but still interferes with the debt collection process. In either case, the creditor who has been deprived of payment may seek damages from the third party whom he holds liable for his unpaid claim.There is a considerable amount of litigation in this area, particularly against legal professionals. However, there is no legal framework governing the compensation of creditors who have been deprived of payment through the fault of a third party. Sometimes referred to as the loss of the claim [“perte de la créance”] or the loss of the chance of payment[“perte de chance d’un paiement”], the damage that the creditor of a sum of money might suffer is not clearly identified. As a result, courts and academic writers have been rather hesitant as to the amount of compensation to be paid to the creditor by the third party and whether such compensation should depend on the exhaustion of all means of recovering the debt.A proposal for a new identification of the damage, suffered by the creditor of a sum of money, thus tends to give rise to a clearer legal framework.The purpose of this dissertation is also to shed light on the specific system of compensation for creditors of the same debtor who is subject to bankruptcy proceedings. Indeed, French courts have created a mechanism of collective compensation for creditors in the event of a fault attributable to a third party. However, this mechanism has proved to be inconsistent and ineffective. This current mechanism could be replaced by a new system of individual compensation for creditors at the request of the bankruptcy Trustee.This dissertation thus examines, and proposes to amend, the issue of compensation for unpaid debts both from a general perspective and in the context of the debtor's bankruptcy proceedings
10
Vu, Van Tinh. "La responsabilité civile des dirigeants de société anonyme en droit vietnamien. Regards croisés avec le droit français." Thesis, Paris 2, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015PA020009/document.
Abstract:
La thèse examine la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés anonymes en droit vietnamien et droit français. Il s’agit d’une première étude académique qui aborde l’état actuel du droit vietnamien de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants des sociétés anonymes et fait des comparaisons avec celui de l’actuel ordre juridique français. Quels avantages pourrait-il y avoir à aborder une étude du droit vietnamien touché par des illustrations en droit français ? Les deux pays sont proches sur le plan juridique. Le droit de la responsabilité civile des dirigeants de sociétés n’échappe pas à cette réalité. La responsabilité civile des dirigeants reste fondée sur la faute, mais elle a connu certaines adaptations. Le système actuellement existant dans chacun des deux pays s’est vu par ailleurs complété par des nouvelles sources, justifiées par la mondialisation. Le droit français est très riche en illustrations jurisprudentielles alors que le droit vietnamien est purement théorique et caractérisée par les nouveaux concepts prêtés des principes proposés par la doctrine anglo-saxonne du gouvernement d’entreprise. Ainsi, la conclusion qui s’en dégage est que certaines dispositions du droit français pourraient utilement inspirer le législateur vietnamien et vice versaThe thesis examines the personal liability of public limited companies directors in Vietnamese law and French law. This is the first academic literature that addresses the current rules on the civil liability of directors of limited companies in Vietnamese law. What benefit is there be to conduct a study of Vietnamese law affected by French law? The two countries are close in law. The law of civil liability of corporate directors does not escape from this fact. Liability of director remains based on fault, but it has experienced some adaptations. The existing system in each country was also supplemented by new sources which are justified by globalization process. French law is then very rich jurisprudential illustrations while Vietnamese law is purely theoretical and characterized by new concepts borrowed from the corporate governance doctrine of common law. Thus, the conclusion that emerges is that some provisions of French law could usefully inspire the Vietnamese legislator and vice versa
Books on the topic "Civil liability (France)":
1
Olivier, Descamps. Les origines de la responsabilité pour faute personnelle dans le Code Civil de 1804. Paris: L.G.D.J., 2005.
2
Whittaker, Simon, Stephen Weatherill, Birke Häcker, Mark R. Freedland, and Jean-Sébastien Borghetti. French Civil Liability in Comparative Perspective. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2019.
3
Whittaker, Simon, Stephen Weatherill, Birke Häcker, Mark R. Freedland, and Jean-Sébastien Borghetti. French Civil Liability in Comparative Perspective. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2021.
4
Bussani, Mauro, Anthony Sebok, and Marta Infantino. Common Law and Civil Law Perspectives on Tort Law. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195368383.001.0001.
Abstract:
The book provides scholars, lawyers, and law students with a comparative overview of the law of civil liability for injuries arising outside of contract in five major legal systems in the common law and civil law traditions: England, the United States, France, Germany, and Italy. The book analyzes a number of foundational issues that lie at the core of tort law in all the jurisdictions surveyed, and takes them as points of comparison for appreciating commonalities and differences between the common law and the civil law traditions, as well as within each of these traditions. The analysis covers the structure and context of tort law architectures, the role of negligence and the continuum between fault and strict liability, rules on recovery for personal injuries, non-economic losses and for pure economic losses, tests and approaches to causation, medical, and products liability regimes. As such, the book offers an updated and enriched framework for understanding the rules, theories, styles of reasoning, and cultures of tort law across the Atlantic.
Book chapters on the topic "Civil liability (France)":
1
Andreu, Lionel. "The Law Applicable to Autonomous Cars Driving in France." In Autonomous Vehicles and Civil Liability in a Global Perspective, 321–44. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41992-8_13.
2
Santos Silva, Marta. "§ 4 General Remarks on the Non-Contractual Liability Regime Arising Out of Damage Caused to Another in the Portuguese Civil Code." In The Draft Common Frame of Reference as a "Toolbox" for Domestic Courts, 101–37. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52923-3_4.
3
Bussani, Mauro, Anthony J. Sebok, and Marta Infantino. "Products Liability." In Common Law and Civil Law Perspectives on Tort Law, 213–48. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195368383.003.0008.
Abstract:
This chapter surveys the development of the products liability law in the United States and in Europe. In particular, it describes the history of products liability law in America, starting from the nineteenth century, and discusses the debates that followed the adoption by the American Law Institute in 1998 of the Restatement Third on Torts—Products Liability. The chapter then charts parallel developments in Europe, and explores how England, France, Italy, and Germany have dealt with products liability claims before and after the enactment of the European Union of the Product Liability Directive in 1985. The chapter tells more than a simple binary story of comparison; it rather tells a story of convergence and divergence on multiple points, taking products liability as one of the most valuable standpoints to understand the dynamics of historical and contemporary tort law developments.
4
Thierry, Bonneau. "Part III Civil Law Legal Systems, 5 France." In Liability of Financial Supervisors and Resolution Authorities. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198868934.003.0005.
Abstract:
The liability of the French financial and the French banking authorities is not so common a question. The legal framework is limited. The main source of liability standard is case law. The French financial authority and the French banking authority are not exactly in the same situation because of their respective status. Only the financial authority has legal personality. It implies that the banking authority is not in itself liable for negligence, misconduct, or inadequate behaviour. The French state is therefore liable in this latter case. This difference is without consequence on the conditions on which liability depends: a fault/negligence, damage, and a cause connection. In many cases, gross negligence/gross fault must be proved. Consequently, the question is to determine the significance and the extent of this concept. The result is that it is not easy to engage the liability of the authorities and the French state as regards losses suffered by clients.
5
Harlow, Carol. "France and the United Kingdom." In Tort Liability of Public Authorities in European Laws, 302–9. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198867555.003.0016.
Abstract:
This chapter compares the respective answers of the English and French systems of administrative liability within a wider comparative study that focuses on outcomes. The chapter is in three parts. It first looks briefly at the constitutional and cultural framework in which the rules operate. In France, we find a separate system of administrative courts which handle all questions relating to the administration, including liability, and which have built a sophisticated public law system of non-contractual liability. In the UK, where all questions of liability go to the ‘ordinary’ civil courts, the law is uncodified, and there are gaps in the liability principles. The chapter then looks at basic principles. In France, where the dominant principle is faute de service public, the courts also acknowledge a no-fault principle. In the UK, the strongest form of redress is strict liability for assault, battery, and false imprisonment, but the dominant principle is negligence, and a public authority must owe a duty of care to the claimant to be held liable. In the final part, the chapter answers specific liability questions, making the point that it is often hard to get redress for economic loss. Claimants often fail to get redress for wrongful failures to grant licences or exercise a discretion or statutory power.
6
Bussani, Mauro, Anthony J. Sebok, and Marta Infantino. "The Place of Tort Law." In Common Law and Civil Law Perspectives on Tort Law, 1–20. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195368383.003.0001.
Abstract:
This chapter describes the main features of tort law in the common law and civil law systems surveyed in the book—namely, England, the United States, France, Germany, and Italy. On the assumption that changes in civil litigation, as well as social, economic, and cultural developments are key to grasp the commonalities and differences in the ideas and architectures that underpin civil liability, the chapter delves into these jurisdictions’ social history and legal culture. The chapter also provides a concise overview of each legal system’s general tort law architecture, approach to civil liability (especially vis-à-vis contractual remedies), tort law theories and doctrines, style of reasoning, and litigation rates.
7
Rouas, Dr Virginie. "France: Untapping the Potential of Civil Liability to Remedy Human Rights Violations." In Civil Remedies and Human Rights in Flux. Hart Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781509947621.ch-008.
8
Cossart, Sandra, and Lucie Chatelain. "Human Rights Litigation against Multinational Companies in France." In Human Rights Litigation against Multinationals in Practice, 230–53. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198866220.003.0009.
Abstract:
Sandra Cossart and Lucie Chatelain review strategic human rights and environmental cases against multinationals in France. By reference to actual cases they outline the legal bases, jurisdiction, and procedure for corporate criminal liability for offences overseas. They discuss cases arising from consumer complaints for misrepresentations by multinationals about human rights standards in supply chains. Regarding tort law, they explain the corporate veil and other hurdles and the potential for claims against parent companies and attempts made to utilise French labour law by employees of foreign subsidiaries. They explain the ground-breaking Law on the Duty of Vigilance of parent and instructing companies, the potential for civil liability in the event of failure to comply with the requirements for a vigilance plan, and judicial enforcement mechanisms. They outline procedural barriers to claims against multinationals, including with regard to access to evidence, collective actions, legal standing of NGOs, and costs rules.
9
Gordley, James. "The Structure of the Modern Civil and Common Law of Torts." In Foundations of Private Law, 159–81. Oxford University PressOxford, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199291670.003.0009.
Abstract:
Abstract Neither the ancient Roman law nor the traditional common law had much to say about torts in general. They recognized what we would call particular torts, each with its own rules. The civil law eventually arrived at a unified concept of tort. Roman distinctions were regarded as peculiarities of Roman positive law and many eventually disappeared. As we will see, this change was again the work of the late scholastics of the 16th and early 17th centuries for whom the Roman actions were all directed at doing what Aristotle described as commutative justice in involuntary transactions. By this view, the defendant was liable if he was at fault for injuring the rights of the plaintiff. Liability without fault, which existed in Roman law, remained, but it was never satisfactorily explained. Again, many of their conclusions remained co shape modern civil law after the Aristotelian ideas on which they were originally based had been forgotten. Articles 1382-3 of the French Civil Code and§ 823(1) of the German Civil Code contain general provisions imposing liability on one who intentionally or negligently injures another’ s rights, although the German Code enumerates these rights and the French Code merely speaks of ‘ harm’ to the plaintiff (dommage). Neither code deals with strict liability, and the deficiency has been supplied, in France, by creative judicial interpretation, and in Germany, by special legislation.
10
Rowan, Solène. "The Genesis of the New French Law of Contract." In The New French Law of Contract, 1—C1.N53. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198810872.003.0001.
Abstract:
Abstract This chapter introduces the new French law of contract. It highlights how the French Civil Code remained to be the principal private law legislative instrument in France as of today despite being revised to keep up with the changing time. Prior to the reforms, the Code on contract law remained unchanged and was only progressively interpreted differently. The chapter also acknowledges the realisation that the Civil Code’s international influence and appeal to international business had been falling. Moreover, the drafters addressed the 2016 reforms on contractual liability and compensatory, and agreed damages. The chapter then clarifies that the analysis is limited to the original articles in the 1804 Civil Code.