Academic literature on the topic 'Citations latines – Histoire'

The appearance of printed text resulted in changes to the way text is accessed, which leads to the question of whether these changes modified scholarly practice; and if so, how? The following article examines this question in a particular context—that of dictionaries and encyclopedias, referencing classical citations as guarantors and examples. The article defines the evolution of three important witnesses in this domain from the end of the fifteenth century to the first part of the sixteenth: the Cornu Copiæ by Niccolo Perotti, the Commentarii linguae latinæ by Etienne Dolet, of which two tomes appeared in 1536 and 1538, and the Thesaurus Latinae Linguae by Robert Estienne, in its three versions from 1531, 1536, and 1543. These three books represent the same type of object: language dictionaries, aimed towards a specific public of advanced learners, or the learned. In fact, the material weight of book fabrication, the difficulty from then on of collecting masses of texts, the new study conditions, the sheer quantity of texts available, and the famous temptation of universality, made the practice of regulation and of precise referencing an urgent necessity. The position of learned printers of Estienne’s generation was crucial: they helped create and then make commonplace certain material norms that are now so much part of our intellectual habit that we sometimes forget their material origin.

‘L'Esprit du Seigneur a rempli l'Univers et lui qui maintient tout dans l'unité, il connaît toute parole.’ Tel est l'introït de la fête de la Pentecôte dans la liturgie de l'Eglise catholique latine; c'est une citation du livre de la Sagesse (1. 7). La thèse d'une omniprésence de l'Esprit saint s'est trouvée, au cours des siècles, développée dans différentes directions. Sensible à la question de la vérité, le Moyen-Age aimait commenter une maxime datant du 4e siècle: ‘Toute vérité, quel que soit celui qui la dise, vient du Saint-Esprit.’ Préoccupé de la sécularisation contemporaine, le Concile Vatican II disait: ‘L'homme, sans cesse sollicité par l'Esprit de Dieu, ne sera jamais tout à fait indifférent au problème religieux.’ Et, soucieux comme toute notre génération de la justice dans la société, il affirmait: ‘L'Esprit de Dieu qui, par une providence admirable, conduit le cours des temps et rénove la face de la terre, est présent à [l'] évolution [des mentalités dans le sens du progrès social].’

Abstract Background: Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in the US and the leading cause of cancer death among women who self-identify as Hispanics/Latinas (H/L). Approximately 5-10% of breast cancer can be attributed to inherited genetic mutations in high penetrance genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2. Studies have shown that genetic counseling can help women and their families make informed decisions about genetic testing, which in turn can lead to life-saving preventative strategies. H/L women are less likely to undergo genetic testing than Non-Hispanic White women. To address this disparity, we have developed a hereditary breast cancer outreach, education, and navigation program for Spanish-speaking Latinas in California. Materials and Methods: The “Tu Historia Cuenta” program is a promotores-based virtual outreach, education, and navigation program implemented in the cities of San Francisco, Sacramento, and Los Angeles. Participants responded to a demographic survey, a breast cancer family history survey, and a feedback survey. Survey responses were described for participants and compared by the area where the program took place using chi-square, Fisher exact tests, and t-tests. Multinomial logistic regression models were used for multivariate analyses. Results and Conclusion: We enrolled 1042 women, and 892 completed the family history survey. Among those who completed the survey, 62 (7%) were found to have a strong family history of breast cancer and qualified for referral to genetic counseling. We identified 272 women (42.8% of women aged 40 to 74 years) who were due for mammograms (64 of whom we have connected to a federally-funded screening program), 162 women (16% of women aged 25 to 65 years) due for Papanicolaou test, and 189 women (71.6% of women aged 50+) due for colonoscopy. Insurance rates differed across the three cities with San Francisco having the smallest proportion of uninsured individuals (9.3%) compared to Los Angeles and Sacramento (44.3% and 44%, respectively), which may be explained by differences in health care access. Through this study, we were able to connect with participants that are often excluded form research (35.8% of the study participants were uninsured and 48% were monolingual or had limited English proficiency). These results highlight the need for additional support for programs that spread awareness about cancer risk and facilitate access to resources, specifically within the H/L community. Citation Format: Lizeth I. Tamayo, Fabian Perez, Angelia Perez, Miriam Hernandez, Alejandra Martinez, Xiaosong Huang, Valentina Zavala, Elad Ziv, Susan L. Neuhausen, Luis Carvajal-Carmona, Ysabel Duron, Laura Fejerman. Cancer screening and breast cancer family history in Spanish-speaking Hispanic/Latina women in California [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 15th AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2022 Sep 16-19; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2022;31(1 Suppl):Abstract nr C071.

Did you wake up this morning wondering: "What really is my true identity?" Or have you ever seen your favorite television news program do a spot on cultural identity? "Today we ask you the viewer about your cultural identity." Not likely. It is certainly not vital for each of us to be able to expound upon our personal identity issues and definitions (you don't necessarily have to talk about identity to know yourself and to be happy and well-rounded). And yet, with this said, a casual visit to the local "mall" for a dose of people/culture-watching is all that it might take to be reminded of the multitude of social, economic and political institutions that vie every day for a piece of your identity, and the identity of everyone else we share this society with. Some of these identity-mongers can be considered beneficial and welcome influences on our understandings of who we are and how we see the world and life itself. These groups may include your family, friends, religious community and the cultural knowledge or background within which you were raised. Other groups that seek strong identification with themselves or their products include nation states, corporations, entertainment products, political parties and some civic institutions as well. From our observations in the mall, you can see how many aspects of identity have to do with collective identifications common to members of groups, such as those mentioned above. Indeed, much of the recent work in academia on identity analyses how social systems in the current era of late modernity affect identity construction. Yet, if we are to try to glue together a total picture or concept of what identity is, we must also consider the elements of an individual's identity which can be better understood within the unique experiences and feelings of each person. To be sure, it would be a sad reality if the identifications that influence my behavior in the mall encompassed the totality of "my identity". To get at what identity is, or might be made of, we can first venture into a tragically brief history lesson on the evolution of the concept of identity. This evolution has been rather drastic over the past few centuries. Chapter One -- Identity before Hegel: in Western society, before the beginning stages of the industrial revolution, you were considered to be born with your identity. It was a mixture, perhaps, of your soul and your situation/position in society and family (i.e. depending on your father's occupation, your gender, ethnic group, etc.). This view varies greatly from the modern, "constructionist" conceptualisation of identity. Chapter Two -- Modern Identity: in intellectual and academic circles much of the constructionist work on identity was begun by Existentialist philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre. The most recent inquiries on the issue of identity have been within Cultural Studies and Postmodernist thought. The constructionist view sees identity as "constructed on the back of a recognition of some common origin or shared characteristic with another person or group, or with an idea" (Hall 2). Thus, identity is formed through experiences of, and identification with, certain events, rituals, social institutions and symbols of culture(s) in which an individual was raised and lives. In short, identity is not a given or static; it is an evolving construction within each of us. Now that history class is over, perhaps we should highlight three principal concepts from the constructionist's viewpoint on identity. First, cultural environment is of utmost importance to personal and collective identity construction. "Cultural environment" must be seen as encompassing, (1) the plethora of entertainment and information technologies -- cultural spaces that corporations fill with new and reconstructed cultural products --, and (2) more temporal symbolic spaces such as oral and written languages. So, the Power Rangers will have their say in the identities of their young minions, but family heritages will as well, provided that such spaces are available and experienced. Secondly, the amount of cultural/social power that different groups and interests have to influence identity at the individual and collective (group) levels is also a vital element in the identity continuum. The last point is that identity itself is inherently a social phenomenon; it is a product of society, rather than a preexistent element of a being human. Identity is here seen as a way in which people make sense of and understand the self through affiliation and bonds with other people and the signs (i.e., the culture) that societies have created. Manuel Castells, a prolific writer and social observer, offers some compelling ideas about how social structures in modern societies are instrumental in collective identity construction. Castells's hypothesis is that identity construction can be separated into three categories: (1) legitimising identity, which is introduced by the dominant (hegemonic) institutions of society to further reproduce and rationalise their privileges, power and domination vis-à-vis social actors; (2) resistance identity, emerging from actors within cultures that are marginalised by dominant discourses and power relations, and who therefore build "trenches of resistance and survival" against these forces; and (3) project identity, "where social actors, on the basis of whichever cultural materials are available to them, build a new identity that redefines their position in society and, by doing so, seek the transformation of overall social structure" (Castells 8). While Castells's theories deserve more in-depth consideration than can be offered here, for our purposes nevertheless they help to distinguish some of the boundaries and anomalies within identity. Resistance identity, for example, is for me a useful concept for explaining the impact of ethnicity and nationality on how people use various cultural products to build and maintain their identities. In the USA, there are many groups who share common histories, experiences of persecution and discrimination, and culture with other members of the group. African-Americans are the best known and most studied sub-cultural (i.e., not the dominant) cultural/social groups in the USA. Being African-American, or "Black", is experienced by the individual and the group in the home, at school and work, and through the mass media and literature. For Castells, being Black in the USA is a resistance identity which is constructed through negative experiences of bigotry, discrimination and, for some, a lower economic status, and also through positive experiences of Black culture, history and family. Returning briefly to the international scene, resistance identity may also be a reaction to the proliferation of US and English-language cultural products in local settings. With "American" mass media and political-economic dominance (at present in the form of neo-liberal policies), nationalism, regional cultural pride and preservation may involve some resistance to this increasingly intrusive order. We must remember that Castells's typology here deals with collective identity only. This is important to keep in mind, particularly because common stereotypes of people's identities often play on the ethnic and social-economic groups which people may or may not be a part of. An endemic assumption is that an "American", "Black", "Latino", or even a "yuppie" will possess an identity and personality common to their stereotyped groupings. One problem with concepts of identity is that it is easy to generalise or overdetermine them. A face-value understanding of legitimising identity, for example, may posit that it is the embodied association and identification with the dominant institutions of society. Yet, if you think about it, most members of society, including members of marginalised groups, possess aspects of a legitimised identification with mainstream society. Most people do identify with capitalist dreams of being important, wealthy and living a specific lifestyle. Furthermore, many people, regardless of ethnicity or other groupings, do participate in the capitalist society, political systems and parties, Western ideologies, religious institutions and values. My point here is not to generalise, but rather to suggest that most people who have or feel some resistance to the dominant society also identify with certain legitimised and accepted aspects of that same society or culture. One way to think about the difference between resistance identity and legitimised identity is to consider how members of marginalised groups have access to specialised social and cultural spaces which other groups do not. Blacks have access to the black community, Latinos to Latino communities, homosexuals to homosexual communities. Specific processes of socialisation, identity-building and reaffirmation go on within these groups that non-group members miss out on for a variety of reasons. What members of the dominant society have are opportunities for membership in other specialised spaces that they seek membership in due to interests, unique personalities, physical traits or situational experiences. These cultural phenomena include musical tastes, gangs or civil groups, sports and other school activities, and the list goes on and on. Depending on the level of marginalisation, many members of "resistance" groups may or may not participate in a variety of other identity groups such as these. Furthermore, the type of identification involved may be collective or largely unique to the individual. Even with identities that we may call collective, as with my example of African-American identity, the actual types of identifications, feelings and interpretations that an individual feels with reference to her or his group(s) certainly can vary greatly. Another place we might look for a better understanding of identity groups is the wide gamut of communities of interest thriving in cyberspace. The development of online communities-of-interest, which are seen by some writers as allowing breaks from some of the traditional social constraints of modern society, has led to theories and excitement about the postmodern nature of cyberspace. These communities have developed because they allow individuals to express parts of themselves which do not have many outlets in real-world lives. The ability to play with gender and other personal characteristics in chat rooms or MUDs also offers identity variations that are refreshing, exciting and at times empowering for some people (see Bradlee, Lillie). Yet these considerations, like many others that accompany discussions of "post-modern" identity, dwell on the positive. Identity developments can also lead to harmful behaviors and thought processes. The Internet has also grown to offer a plethora of spaces for many people, particularly middle and upper-class men, to engage sexual fetishes, via the use of pornographic Web sites, that certainly can have long-term effects on their identities and perhaps on intimate relations with real people. The Internet offers a vast number of cultural spaces that those who have the chance to be online can tap into and identify with. Many of these spaces have been colonised by corporate interests, and more importantly, these capitalist forces are the primary drivers of new software and hardware production that will shape the look and feel, if not the content, of the Net of tomorrow (Schiller). As dangerous and unfortunate as this may be, identity is not yet in danger of being the proxy and total creation of mega-multinationals. Collective identification often has its roots in temporal cultures, tradition, and, for some, resistance identity. The audio-visual and Internet industries might have installed themselves as cultural gatekeepers and producers (a dangerous development in itself), but they cannot create cultural identities so easily. Drawing on the ideas laid out above, we can posit that the individual (whether they know it or not) and the cultural background and family/community influences in which he or she grows up most likely have the largest role. Concepts of identity, particularly newer work in the constructionist legacy (the example here being Castells), can serve us well by helping to forge understandings of the role of (1) the individual and (2) group influences in our day-to-day integration of cultural spaces, products and genres into our identities, behaviors and belief systems. Although constructionist ideas are implicitly represented in how much of the popular culture and society articulates "identity", it is all too easy to get caught up in concepts of identity based on bigotry, religious fanaticism or over-generalisation. As you stroll through the mall this week you might then pause to consider, not so much the extent to which our collective selves are casualties of a vapid consumer culture, but rather, I suggest, how to productively conceptualise the complexities of modern identities. References Berland, Jodi. "Angels Dancing: Cultural Technologies and the Production of Space." Cultural Studies. Eds. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler. London: Routledge, 1992. Braddlee. "Virtual Communities: Computer-Mediated Communication and Communities of Association." Master's Thesis. U of Indiana, 1993. Castells, Manuel. The Power of Identity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997. Hall, Stuart. "Introduction: Who Needs Identity?" Questions of Cultural Identity. Eds. Stuart Hall and Paul du Gay. London: Sage, 1996. Lillie, Jonathan. "The Empowerment Potential of Internet Use." Homepage of Jonathan Lillie. 3 Apr. 1998. 14 Oct. 1998 <http://www.unc.edu/~jlillie/340.php>. Schiller, H.I. "The Global Information Highway: Project for an Ungovernable World." Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information. Eds. James Brook and Iain A. Boal. San Francisco: City Lights, 1995. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Jonathan Lillie. "Tackling Identity with Constructionist Concepts." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1.3 (1998). [your date of access] <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9810/const.php>. Chicago style: Jonathan Lillie, "Tackling Identity with Constructionist Concepts," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1, no. 3 (1998), <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9810/const.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Jonathan Lillie. (1998) Tackling identity with constructionist concepts. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1(3). <http://www.uq.edu.au/mc/9810/const.php> ([your date of access]).

Tout emprunt d'une citation (par exemple : Ignoti nulla cupido ou « on ne désire pas ce qu'on ne connaît pas » - Ovide -) vers, extrait de la prose d'un auteur, sentence à caractère proverbial, etc., est d'abord révélateur d'une circulation au sein de toutes les médiations par lesquelles une société humaine se construit et qu'on nomme « culture ». Pour désigner tel vers d'un poète grec, latin ou proche de nous, tel fragment de prose antique, telle expression topique allant et venant selon une trajectoire nécessairement imprévisible, il paraît opportun de privilégier l'emploi du mot composé « formule-médaille », heureuse métaphore forgée par notre maître Jean Deprun (†) au sein de son séminaire de recherches à la Sorbonne dans les années 80, métaphore désignant une expression maniée et remaniée d'un siècle à l'autre. Dans cette étude, il s'agit donc de tenter d'épouser le trajet de quelques unes de ces formules « voyageuses ». Notre ambition sera, non pas de proposer un énième florilège de citations, mais d'en interroger quelques unes selon leur impact au sein des œuvres où elles sont réemployées, selon leur perméabilité à l'esprit du temps dont elles relèvent, selon les libres réflexions qu'elles peuvent entraîner. Cette ambition reste exigeante : l'histoire des idées permet de l'honorer. On souhaite ainsi dégager des « effets de sens » qui amplifient ou rompent la signification initiale d'une expression au gré d'une trajectoire aux rebonds et aux bifurcations multiples.À l'instar d'Arthur Oncken Lovejoy (1873-1962), auteur américain de l'ouvrage intitulé The great chain of being.The study of the history of an idea, on aurait pu user de l'expression « cellule idéelle » pour désigner toute citation « voyageuse » se logeant dans un texte tel un micro-organisme dans un vivant quelconque. En raison de la connotation trop biomorphique de cette terminologie, le mot composé « formule-médaille » nous a paru d'emblée préférable : il assure par l'effet d'une connexion verbale à portée métaphorique à la fois l'attribution d'une valeur propre à la formule étudiée (de même qu'une médaille a une valeur pour le numismate) et la représentation de sa destinée erratique (de même que toute médaille est généralement vouée à changer de mains). À quel schéma directeur obéir pour embrasser la destinée d'une formule-médaille ? Trois dimensions du temps sont prises en compte. On examine tout d'abord la formule dans son présent de référence, c'est-à-dire au moment de sa prime apparition ; il s'agit donc de la considérer dans l'œuvre où elle a pris place pour la première fois. Toutefois, ceci ne peut valoir pour toute formule retenue ; certaines expressions au caractère moral universel (comme « La Règle d'or ») ne peuvent être le fait d'un auteur clairement repérable. Lorsque l'objet d'étude est un vers ou un élément de prose d'un auteur identifié sans conteste, on s'attache à remonter aux sources qui ont pu inspirer l'auteur ; en d'autres termes, on passe du présent de référence au passé, en n'ignorant point que cette tâche est délicate et parfois peu fructueuse. Enfin, on s'attelle au futur en tentant de tracer ce qui sera le sillage de la formule qu'on examine, donc sa fortune ultérieure, laquelle ne laisse pas de surprendre, d'autant plus qu'elle s'enfle de diverses variantes, voire d'altérations qu'on n'a pas à négliger. En somme, tout citateur est en droit d'afficher sa liberté dans le réemploi qu'il propose : pour l'un, une même locution sera le slogan d'une rusticité innocente, pour l'autre, un mot d'ordre du libertinage. Il s'ensuit que ces formules-médailles, antiques ou plus récentes, sont, selon leur contexte idéologique, tout autant marques de ralliement à une cause que « pommes de discorde », ou encore, qu'elles sont comme des lignes de partage des eaux dans les territoires que la pensée détermine à tel ou tel moment de son histoire
The borrowing of any quotation, - e. g. Ignoti nulla cupido or “There is no desire for a thing unknown” Ovid - either verse, prose extract, proverbial expressions, etc., is the reflection of the circulation of content through the several types of mediation thanks to which human society is built and which evolve into what is called “culture”. To refer to a line extracted from a Greek or Latin poem, or even a more recent one, or else from an ancient piece of prose, or to a topical expression roaming across time in an inevitably unpredictable trajectory, it seems appropriate to use the expression formulaic medal, an apt metaphor coined by our late professor Jean Deprun (†) in his Sorbonne research seminar of the 1980s, to characterize an expression phrased and rephrased over the centuries. The present study aims at tracing the journey of some of such nomadic formulaic medals.Our ambition is not to offer some new anthology of quotations, but to question some of them, according to their impact in the works in which they are reused, according to how pervious they may be to the spirit of their age, or according to the personal thoughts to which they may give rise. Such an ambition is demanding: history of ideas may render it possible to answer to it by outlining the various renditions which magnify or discontinue the original meaning of an expression as it moves along its route by leaps and bounds and crossroads.Following Arthur Oncken Lovejoy (1873-1962), the American author of The Great Chain of Being. A study of the history of an idea (1936), one could use the expression idea cells to refer to any ‘roaming' quotation inserted in a text like a micro-organism in a living creature. Because of the ‘biomorphic' connotation of this terminology the term formulaic medal has seemed preferable.Through a collocation based on a metaphor it performs both the attribution of a distinct value to the expression considered (just as the medal has a value for the numismatist) and the representation of its nomadic journey (just as a medal is generally bound to change hands).Which blueprint should be complied with to encompass the destiny of a formulaic medal? Three dimensions of time are to be taken into account.The formulaic medal must be examined first in its context present at the time of its appearance, in the work in which it occurred for the first time.This may fail to apply to all the formulaic medals considered: some expressions of a universal moral nature (such as the ‘Gold rule') cannot be attributed to one single identifiable author.When the object under study is a line or extract of prose by a well identified author, it is crucial to trace it back to the sources which may have inspired the author, shifting from its present to its past, keeping in mind that this may be somewhat difficult and sometimes rather unsuccessful.Finally its future is to be tackled by tracing what is going to be the next stages of the expression studied and its subsequent uses, which may come as a suprise as they may be enriched by variants or alterations which are not to be overlooked.Every author quoting an expression is allowed the freedom to reuse it: one may use it as the slogan of an innocuous rusticity, while another will use it as the motto of libertinism.As a consequence these formulaic medals, whether ancient or more recent, may reflect, according to the ideological context, the commitment to a cause or a bone of contention, or even watershed lines in territories carved at one point or another, by the history of thinking

Dans la lettre 56 Spinoza ne reconnait pas l’autorité des anciens, incitant son interlocuteur à raisonner par soi-même, ne suivant que sa raison. Toutefois, face à cette prise de position radicale, Spinoza cite, fait référence et propose des exemples, dont la plupart sont extraits des historiens latins; il semble prendre au sérieux les mots de Tacite, Quinte-Curce, Salluste, etc. et les récits dont ils sont auteurs, jusqu’au point d’affirmer, dans le TP, que «personne qui connait les Histoires» – soit l’oeuvre de Tacite – «peut ignorer» la justesse de son argumentation. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, je m’interroge sur cette – apparente – contradiction. Á travers un parcours qui s’articule en quatre sections, j’intende démontrer quel est l’usage que Spinoza fait de ses sources et à quelle fonction elles répondent dans l’architecture de sa philosophie politique. Chaque section est consacrée à un aspect de ce rapport: la première, à la formation latine de Spinoza, au contexte culturel où il s’inscrit, et au système de citation à l’âge classique. Dans la deuxième, je montre qu’il y avait une courante politique philo-monarchique, le Tacitisme, dont les écrits étaient composés principalement de citations des historiens latins; Spinoza se confronte avec le Tacitisme, donnant aux mots des anciens – comme j’explique dans la troisième partie – un sens complètement differente. Le rôle des citations ne se réduit pas, néanmoins, à la fonction polémique. En revanche, les citations, les références et les exemples remplissent quatre fonctions: rhétorique, argumentative, polémique et anthropologique, cette dernière indiquant que les mots et les récits des historiens font partie intégrante de sa philosophie politique. Enfin, la quatrième section détermine les rôles que les récits et les histoires jouent dans une philosophie politique qui prétende être, en même temps, scientifique et pragmatique
In letter 56, Spinoza does not recognize ancient philosophers’ authority and urges Hugo Boxel to follow only his reason in order to acquire knowledge. Notwithstanding this radical stance, Spinoza quotes, makes references and gives examples which are mostly excerpted from Roman historians; he takes Tacitus’, Sallut’s , Quintus Curtius Rufus’ words and histories seriously to the point that he says, in the TP, that “no one that knows Histories” – the Histories by Tacitus – “can ignore” the rightness of his argumentation. In this work, my aim is to address this apparent contradiction. Articulated in four sections, my dissertation shows how Spinoza uses his sources and which role they play in formulating his political philosophy.Each section focuses on a different aspect of this relationship: the first one is devoted to Spinoza’s education, to his cultural background and to Early modern’s forms of quoting. In the second one, I highlight the existence of a monarchist political current, Tacitism, which makes a consistent use of ancient historian’s quotes; Spinoza confronts this tradition, giving to the ancient writers’ words and maximes a completely different sense. Nevertheless, Spinoza quotes not only for a polemical purpose. In contrast, the references and the exemples seem to fulfil four functions: rhetoric, argumentative, polemic and anthropologic. The last one indicates that thr Roman historians’ words and stories are an integral part of Spinoza’s political philosophy. Finally, in section four, I identify the roles that narrations and stories play in a political philosophy whose aim is to be, at the same time, scientific as well as pragmatic

Depuis toujours, les œuvres d'art ont joué un rôle fondamental dans la formation des artistes, servant de modèles iconiques pour l'apprentissage et la création de nouvelles œuvres. Au cours du XXème siècle, la diffusion considérable d'œuvres d'art en rapport au progrès dans l'imprimerie et à l'essor des médias a fortement contribué au développement des pratiques liées à la citation en peinture. Chez Picasso, la citation consiste dans l'appropriation et la réinterprétation de chefs-d'œuvre qu'il retranscrit dans son style. Ainsi, en 1957, il peint quarante-quatre variations à partir des Ménines (1656) de Velazquez. Au début des années soixante, les artistes pop ont recours à la sérigraphie pour imprimer sur toile les reproductions photographiques de chefs d'œuvres. Leurs productions relèvent d'une esthétique particulière comme résultat de l'utilisation de ce procédé qu'ils chercheront à développer par la suite. Ainsi, dans les versions de la Cathédrale de Rouen (1892-1894) de Monet peintes par Lichtenstein en 1969, l'image est reconstituée par une trame de points, équivalent graphique des points d'encrage de la photographie de presse. Dans les années soixante-dix, le collectif espagnol Equipo Crónica s'empare des grands classiques de la peinture espagnole et européenne et les retranscrit par une juxtaposition d'aplats de couleurs. Influencés par ces démarches, certains artistes latino-américains ont forgé leur propre style. L'œuvre du péruvien Herman Braun-Vega, par exemple, jette des ponts entre la peinture des grands maîtres tels que Velazquez, Goya ou Picasso, et l'imaginaire visuel péruvien. A l'instar de Picasso, Fernando Botero s'approprie des œuvres des maîtres en les soumettant à son style. Dès la fin des années soixante, les arts plastiques péruviens reprennent les caractéristiques plastiques du Pop'Art international pour mettre en scène divers aspect de la culture péruvienne. Ainsi Marcel Velaochaga met en relation l'esthétique Pop avec une réflexion critique sur l'histoire du Pérou et ses propres icônes visuelles.

Abstract This chapter discusses declamation, a pedagogical format which was newly introduced into universities in the sixteenth century. It coexisted alongside disputation for over two centuries. It begins by presenting an up-to-date account of how declamation originated in Protestant universities and surveying the documentary evidence. Declamations remained a staple of humanist education into the eighteenth century, proliferating in Europe and the Americas. For declamation, a student wrote a speech, most often in Latin, and performed it in front of an audience of peers. The chapter then develops an analysis of declamations as ‘scripts’, looking at a script written by famous scholar and theologian John Rainolds, in the context of having to deliver a declamation while he was a master’s student at Oxford. It shows how Rainolds crafted his speech on the page: how he fashioned his own Latin rhymes; strung together verses of poetry; arranged citations and exempla; and staged an argument with an opposition of his own invention. Ultimately, the manuscript demonstrates how students prepared oral performances.

Chapter 1 demonstrates Wong Kar-wai’s ability to reinvent an old tune by tracing the history of the Latin song “Perfidia,” both before and after its appropriation in Days of Being Wild (1990). The chapter considers first the use of music as a vehicle in the creation of a realistic setting in a variety of film genres. Having placed Days of Being Wild in the context of nostalgia cinema, the chapter also maps the role of music in creating an ambiguity between realistic storytelling and mythography. To elucidate Wong’s retooling of “Perfidia,” various theories of borrowing, sampling, and citation are surveyed (and critiqued). The chapter ends with an extended reflection on Michel de Certeau’s understanding of everyday bricolage by way of framing a new theory of synchronization in film.