Relevant bibliographies by topics / Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters

Academic literature on the topic 'Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 28 June 2021
Last updated: 12 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability"

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Kursaev, Aleksandr. "Circumstances excluding criminal liability for nonpayment of wages." Vestnik of the St. Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia 2020, no. 2 (July 21, 2020): 123–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.35750/2071-8284-2020-2-123-130.

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Relevance of the research topic. The criminal code of the Russian Federation establishes criminal liability for non-payment of wages (article 1451). Liability under this rule occurs only if the employer has the actual ability to make payment of wages. In this regard, the author analyzes situations that may indicate the absence of such a possibility, and their significance in the qualification of the crime, based on the study of judicial and investigative practice. Problem statement. In science, there is no unity of views regarding the qualification of situations in which the perpetrator does not have the opportunity to repay the arrears of wages. It is proposed to consider the existing cases according to the rules of extreme necessity, reasonable risk, innocent behavior, and so on. However, each of these institutions differs in a specific set of characteristics necessary for the recognition of the committed act as inviolable. In this regard, the possibility of exemption from criminal liability for nonpayment of wages directly depends on the circumstance that eliminates the criminality of the committed act, if there are good reasons for non-payment, it can be attributed to. Research goals and methods. The purpose of the study is to assess the criminal law circumstances in which the crime of non-payment of wages can be eliminated. The paper uses dialectical, comparative legal, historical-legal, formal-legal methods of legal research. Results and key conclusions. A study was conducted on the possibility of applying the circumstances provided for by the Criminal code of the Russian Federation that eliminate the criminality of an act to cases of non-payment of wages. The conclusion that only extreme necessity can be considered as the only such circumstance is substantiated.
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Rizayeva, Dana, and Ammar Manna. "Circumstances excluding criminal liability under the criminal law of the Muslim countries." E3S Web of Conferences 135 (2019): 04071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/201913504071.

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In Islamic criminal law there are no institutions the general part, in that connection, it shared the list of circumstances that exclude the criminality of an Act, not developed. In Islamic criminal law, such circumstances, according to the analysis of some of his sources are not reaching the age of responsibility, a State of insanity, mislead, commit a crime under duress, self-defense, urgency, as well as remorse. The article is devoted to the characterization of the circumstances excluding criminal liability under the criminal law of the Muslim countries professing the Anglo-Saxon system of law. Main purpose is to form an idea of the role the circumstances excluding criminal liability under the criminal law of the Muslim countries professing the Anglo-Saxon legal system in modern conditions based on foreign legal literature, and an analysis of the criminal law. The hallmark of Muslim law is a priority of the religious laws of Islam, which govern all aspects of the life of Muslims. The question of the role of the circumstances excluding criminal liability under the criminal law of the Muslim countries professing the Anglo-Saxon legal system in modern conditions is covered in Islamic law with the aim of precise qualification of perfect a criminal offence, with a view to establishing the legality of the Act.
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Rizayeva, Dana E. "General Characteristics of the Circumstances Excluding Criminal Liability under the Criminal Law of Muslim Countries Practicing the Anglo-Saxon Law." International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation 24, no. 5 (April 20, 2020): 4697–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.37200/ijpr/v24i5/pr2020183.

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Sobko, H. M. "Mental violence in the form of forced as circumstances, excluding criminal liability." State and Regions. Series: Law 4 (2019): 141–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.32840/1813-338x-2019-4-24.

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Dorogin, D. A. "Performance of a Special Task (Operational Implementation) as a Circumstance Excluding Criminal Liability." RUSSIAN JUSTICE 7 (July 2019): 57–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.17238/issn2072-909x.2019.7.57-68.

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Hirsnik, Erkki, and Marje Allikmets. "Restraining at Care Institutions Evaluated from the Standpoint of Penal Law." Juridica International 27 (September 30, 2018): 129–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/ji.2018.27.13.

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The connection of restraining measures and necessary elements of a criminal offence may be twofold. First, restraining measures can correspond to actions described in legal provisions of the special part of the Penal Code. It means that the restraining person could be charged under criminal law. Secondly however, it needs to be noted that in some cases, liability under criminal law may follow when restraining measures are not being used - a person may become liable for committing a crime by failing to act. Thus, the job of a caretaker involves a high level of responsibility and danger in the sense of penal law - a punishment may follow both for doing something and also for failing to act. Upon the implementation of restraining measures, several constitutions of the special part of the Penal Code may become relevant. However, the primary provision to view here is Article 136 of the Penal Code (unlawful deprivation of the liberty of another person). Therefore, the article mainly focuses on this provision and also analyses some other provisions of the special part of the Penal Code that may become relevant. It also addresses general circumstances excluding illegality, i.e., the circumstances to be considered not only in care institutions but also almost everywhere else. After this, the article analyses specific circumstances excluding illegality, that is the circumstances relevant within the context of the topic of the article. Since there is very little legal literature (and case law) on this matter in Estonia, the article is mainly based on German law as an important model the Estonian law is built upon.
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Borkov, Viktor. "Victim of operational provocation or criminal?" Vestnik of the St. Petersburg University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia 2020, no. 2 (July 21, 2020): 111–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.35750/2071-8284-2020-2-111-116.

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The article discusses the urgent, not regulated by the criminal law, problem of qualifying the actions of the person who committed the crime as a result of the provocative actions of law enforcement officials. Attention is drawn to the absence in theory and judicial practice of a consistent scientific and legal justification for the release of persons provoked to a crime from criminal liability. An “encroachment” committed as a result of a “police provocation” is considered taking into account the institutions of complicity, involvement and inducement to commit a crime. The author examines the proposals already made by experts from fixing the provocation of a crime as one of the circumstances excluding criminal liability (Chapter 8 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation), to including its arsenal of operationalsearch means to combat crime. According to the constitutional legal understanding of the investigated problem, the assessment of the act of the provoked is influenced by the activities of the persons who incited him to commit a crime, the essence of the disturbed social relations and the nature of the physical, property, organizational or other consequences that have occurred. The question of the criminal legal assessment of the acts of the provoked persons is proposed to be decided differentially, taking into account the reality and the measure of the harm caused by them.
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Smirnov, Alexander М. "Foreign experience in legal regulation of extrajudicial forms of protection of an individual’s rights and freedoms, excluding the criminality of the act." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Law 12, no. 1 (2021): 144–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu14.2021.110.

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The article describes the provisions of the sources of criminal law of some foreign countries regarding the regulation of extrajudicial forms of protection of an individual’s rights and freedoms, excluding the criminality of the act. The author refers to these forms as a necessary defense, causing harm to the person who committed the crime, and extreme necessity. The article discusses the possibility of implementing the provisions of these sources in Russian criminal law to improve the state response to the implementation of these forms. The author comes to the conclusion that the most positive and constructive features of legal regulation in foreign countries, extrajudicial forms of protection of an individual’s rights and freedoms while excluding the criminality of the act, deserve scientific attention and consideration of their implementation in domestic criminal law and legal practice. The main features consist of the following: the conditions for the onset of the right to necessary defense, extreme need and infliction of harm during the detention of a person who has committed a crime, and the grounds for exceeding it; taking into account the situation when determining the legitimacy of the given circumstances; allocation of privileged conditions under which a person is either exempted from criminal liability or not exempted from it, but can count on mitigation of punishment; criminal prosecution for actions if absolutely necessary only if they have resulted in more harm than the harm prevented; regulation of legal and factual error with the necessary defense and extreme necessity; legal regulation of the conditions for the use of weapons in the implementation of these forms; holding accountable those who provoked the necessary defense; the emergence of the right to necessary defense of the person whose rights are being encroached upon.
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Oreshkina, T. Yu. "Successful experience in research of the execution of the law: review of the monograph of D.A. Dorogin «Execution of the law as a circumstance excluding criminal liability»." Rossijskoe pravosudie 4 (March 24, 2020): 100–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.37399/issn2072-909x.2020.4.100-103.

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Raposo, Vera Lúcia. "Doctor’s Criminal Liability and Medically Assisted Death – The Portuguese Case." European Journal of Health Law 26, no. 3 (June 19, 2019): 240–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718093-12264430.

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Abstract Recently, the Portuguese Parliament discussed four proposals aimed at allowing some forms of medically assisted death. However, all of them were rejected by the majority. Therefore, doctors who in some way accelerate a patient’s death risk being convicted of the crime of homicide. Portuguese law provides some legal mechanisms that can exempt a doctor from criminal liability, such as causes excluding the conduct’s wrongfulness, and causes excluding the doctor’s culpability. Other elements to take into consideration are a proper interpretation of homicide crimes, thereby excluding conducts without the intent to kill; the relevance of patient consent; and the rejection of medical futility. This article explains how a doctor may not be held criminally accountable for medically assisted death, even in restrictive jurisdictions such as the Portuguese one.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability"

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Milinis, Albertas. "Criminal Liability for Murder without Circumstances Aggravating and Mitigating (Part 1 Art. 129 of the Criminal Code)." Doctoral thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2009. http://vddb.library.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2009~D_20090507_135323-23627.

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Subject of the dissertation research – analysis of the body of murder without circumstances aggravating and mitigating its gravity provided for in Part 1 Art. 129 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Lithuania as well as analysis of theoretical and practical problems that arise upon qualifying these criminal acts. The goal of this research is to reveal a concept of murder without circumstances aggravating and mitigating its gravity where punishment is imposed in accordance with Part 1 Art. 129 of the CC of the Republic of Lithuania, to analyse attributes of this criminal act, to raise theoretical and practical problems of qualification of the analysed criminal act and to make proposals for solution of these problems.
Disertacijos tyrimo dalykas – nužudymo be jo pavojingumą didinančių ir mažinančių aplinkybių, numatyto Lietuvos Respublikos baudžiamojo kodekso (toliau tekste – LR BK) 129 str. 1 d., sudėties analizė bei teorinių ir praktinių problemų, kylančių kvalifikuojant šias nusikalstamas veikas, tyrimas. Disertacijos tyrimo tikslas – atskleisti nužudymo be jo pavojingumą didinančių ar mažinančių aplinkybių, už kurį kyla baudžiamoji atsakomybė pagal LR BK 129 straipsnio 1 dalį, sampratą, išanalizuoti šios nusikalstamos veikos požymius, iškelti nagrinėjamos nusikalstamos veikos teorines ir praktines kvalifikavimo problemas bei pateikti pasiūlymus šių problemų sprendimui.
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Makkiehová, Sandra. "Okolnosti vylučující protiprávnost se zaměřením na beztrestnost agenta." Master's thesis, 2021. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-446561.

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Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability with a focus on the Impunity of the Agent Abstract The Thesis adresses Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability with a focus on the Impunity of the Agent. The aim of the Thesis was to evaluate current Legislation and to define the limits of Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability Excesses. The next objective was to determine the appropriateness of the Impunity of the Agent and its legislation. The Thesis firstly analyzed the historical legal developments of Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability in Czech countries in order to attain the above mentioned objectives. The historical development is followed by the discussion of the Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability, their general legislation and theoretical foundations, the reasons for adopting their legislation, also the errors of law and of fact. Next chapters are devoted to specific Cirmustances of excluding Criminal Liability, starting from the Necessity, Self - Defence, Consent, Permissible Risk and Lawful use of Firearms. The Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability were analyzed in their statutory legislation by using Academic Literature and mainly the case - law, which clarified some vague rules and limits of the Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability. The third part of the Thesis...
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Šorf, David. "Dovolené riziko." Master's thesis, 2016. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-351370.

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The topic of this diploma thesis is allowable risk and its impact as a potential circumstance excluding liability. Czech law system takes into account tolerable risk as a circumstance excluding liability which this thesis is substantially focused on. At the beginning of the thesis circumstances excluding liability are defined in order to compare specifics of the tolerable risk institute. Briefly it analyzes some basic criminal law questions related to the thesis subject including concept of crime or errors in circumstances excluding liability. Next chapters deal with legal and general definition of tolerable risk and historical development of this issue in our law environment, including work of August Miřička, probably the first Czech lawyer addressing this issue. Further questions are suggested in these chapters. These questions are derived from legal status of tolerable risk and are thoroughly discussed in separate chapters for each sector. Legislator did not restrict sectors of usage explicitly. If conditions stated in the criminal code are fulfilled, tolerable risk can be always used. Although the thesis focuses on sectors in which risk has been proven usable, potential list of fields of application is not totally exhausting. I also evaluate suitability of the definition of tolerable risk in...
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Zoubková, Tereza. "Sporné otázky nutné obrany v judikatuře." Master's thesis, 2018. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-389007.

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Contentious issues of necessary defence in judicial practise The subject of this thesis is necessary defence in Czech criminal law. Necessary defence is defined as an action which is usually considered illegal but because it is made in defence against an imminent or persistent attack on values protected by criminal law, it is not considered a crime. The law also states that the intensity of this defence cannot be clearly and obviously disproportionate to the form of the attack. This thesis focuses primarily on contentious issues that courts often deal with when they interpret and apply necessary defence in real cases. Before focusing on contentious issues this thesis first describes the basics of necessary defence. Since necessary defence is one of the circumstances excluding liability in Czech criminal law, this thesis first briefly describes these circumstances. In the next section the thesis focuses on the conditions and limits of necessary defence as they are defined in criminal law. Necessary defence is comprised of an attack and a corresponding defensive action. This section first focuses on the obligatory attributes of the attack and then on the conditions of the defence. Next this section describes the consequences of violating the limits of necessary defence and then it focuses on putative...
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Leníčková, Tereza. "Trestněprávní aspekty informovaného souhlasu pacienta - komparativní pohled." Master's thesis, 2014. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-340414.

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An informed consent of a patient is an institute in the area of medical law, which is still being developed and deals with both private and public legislation. It is one of the legal reasons for interference into physical and mental integrity of a patient, without which every act would be unlawful. This thesis provides an overview of the current legislation of this institute in the light of the new Civil Code, outlines possible application issues between the new legislation and the legislation that is no longer effective. The aim of this thesis is to give a comprehensive review of the criminal aspects of the informed consent, especially its role as a circumstance of justification. The content of this thesis is an analogous legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany, which is being compared to the Czech legislation in the final chapter. The thesis consists of seven chapters. The first one deals with the relationship between the doctor and the patient and its changes in time periods, which are necessary for the new legislation to be well understood. The second chapter gives an overview of the current legislation starting with the constitutional law, including international treatments, statutes, the Code of Ethics, all over to the regulation of the Czech Medical Chamber. It focuses on specific parts...
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Books on the topic "Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability"

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Yarochewsky, Leonardo Isaac. Da reincidência criminal. Belo Horizonte: Mandamentos Editora, 2005.

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Segura, Leopoldo Puente. Circunstancias eximentes, atenuantes y agravantes de la responsabilidad criminal. Madrid]: COLEX, 1997.

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Responsabilidad criminal: Circunstancias modificativas y su fundamento en el Código penal, una visión desde la doctrina y la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo. Barcelona: J.M. Bosch, 2007.

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Meliá, Manuel Cancio, and José Manuel Paredes Castañón. Relevancia de la actuación de la víctima para la responsabilidad penal del autor: (a propósito de la sentencia del Tribunal Supremo de 17 de septiembre de 1999, ponente, Excmo. Sr. D. Enrique Bacigalupo Zapater). Leon: Universidad de León, Secretariado de Publicaciones y Medios Audiovisuales, 2004.

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Akhmetova, A. K. Spet︠s︡ialʹnye vidy osvobozhdenii︠a︡ ot ugolovnoĭ otvetstvennosti: Voprosy primenenii︠a︡ : monografii︠a︡. Karaganda: Bolashak-Baspa, 2011.

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Didenko, V. P. Obstavyny, shcho vykli͡u︡chai͡u︡tʹ zlochynnistʹ dii͡a︡nni͡a︡: Lekt͡s︡ii͡a︡. Kyïv: Ukraïnsʹka akademii͡a︡ vnutrishnikh sprav, 1993.

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Fernández, José Antonio Alonso. Las atenuantes de confesión de la infracción y reparación o disminución del daño: Interpretación jurisprudencial y doctrinal de las circunstancias del artículo 21.4 y 21.5 del Código penal. Barcelona: Bosch, 1999.

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Udalova, L. D. Predmet dokazuvanni︠a︡ u spravakh, shcho zakryvai︠u︡tʹsi︠a︡ provadz︠h︡enni︠a︡m za nereabilitui︠u︡chymy pidstavamy. Kyïv: KNT, 2009.

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Strafferettens ansvarslære. København: Gad, 1987.

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Pasamar, Miguel Angel Boldova. La comunicabilidad de las circunstancias y la participación delictiva. [Zaragoza]: Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, Universidad de Zaragoza, 1995.

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Book chapters on the topic "Circumstances excluding Criminal Liability"

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Ormerod, David, and Karl Laird. "6. Strict liability." In Smith, Hogan, & Ormerod's Text, Cases, & Materials on Criminal Law. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198788713.003.0006.

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This chapter focuses on identifying the circumstances in which an offence will be construed as one of strict liability—that is, where the Crown will not have to establish mens rea in relation to every element of the actus reus. The following controversies are examined: the presumption of mens rea, that is, unless Parliament has indicated otherwise, the appropriate mental element is an unexpressed ingredient of every statutory offence; how to ascertain whether an offence is in fact one of strict liability; whether strict liability infringes Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR); and the merits of strict liability offences.
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Ormerod, David, and Karl Laird. "6. Strict liability." In Smith, Hogan, & Ormerod's Text, Cases, & Materials on Criminal Law, 136–59. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198831945.003.0006.

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This chapter focuses on identifying the circumstances in which an offence will be construed as one of strict liability—that is, where the Crown will not have to establish mens rea in relation to every element of the actus reus. The following controversies are examined: the presumption of mens rea, that is, unless Parliament has indicated otherwise, the appropriate mental element is an unexpressed ingredient of every statutory offence; how to ascertain whether an offence is in fact one of strict liability; whether strict liability infringes Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR); and the merits of strict liability offences.
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Smith, Keith. "Excluding Fault from Criminal Responsibility: Strict and Vicarious Liability: Quasi-criminal or Regulatory Offences?" In The Oxford History of the Laws of England, 321–33. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199239757.003.0008.

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Allen, Michael J., and Ian Edwards. "5. Capacity and incapacitating conditions." In Criminal Law. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198788676.003.0005.

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Course-focused and comprehensive, the Textbook on series provides an accessible overview of the key areas on the law curriculum. A person should only be held criminally liable where he has the capacity to understand his actions, and to recognise the consequences which may flow from them, and, having understood them, where he has the capacity to control them. The criminal law recognises the requirement of rational capacity by excepting persons who lack rational capacity from liability in certain circumstances. This chapter examines the issues of infancy, insanity, automatism, and intoxication.
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Riordan, Jaani. "Data Retention and Interception." In The Liability of Internet Intermediaries. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198719779.003.0017.

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This chapter considers statutory duties that are owed by internet intermediaries to retain communications metadata for periods beyond their ordinary lifespan, and to disclose those data (and in narrower circumstances, the contents of the communications) for use in criminal investigations. These duties serve a range of public purposes—principally the preservation of national security, law enforcement, and public order. Their justification is said to be a rise in the criminal exploitation of internet and communications technologies, in particular to perpetrate cybercrime and to plan and carry out terrorist activities.
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Allen, Michael J., and Ian Edwards. "5. Capacity and incapacitating conditions." In Criminal Law, 147–92. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198831938.003.0005.

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Course-focused and comprehensive, the Textbook on series provides an accessible overview of the key areas on the law curriculum. A person should only be held criminally liable where he has the capacity to understand his actions, and to recognise the consequences which may flow from them, and, having understood them, where he has the capacity to control them. The criminal law recognises the requirement of rational capacity by excepting persons who lack rational capacity from liability in certain circumstances. This chapter examines the issues of the age of criminal responsibility, insanity and the M’Naghten Rules (including analysis of the meaning of a ‘disease of the mind’ and the cognitive tests for determining whether someone is legally insane), automatism, and intoxication (with analysis of the distinction between offences of specific intent and basic intent). A revised and updated Law in Context feature explores the treatment of mentally disordered defendants and offenders in the criminal justice system.
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Allen, Michael J., and Ian Edwards. "5. Capacity and incapacitating conditions." In Criminal Law, 151–97. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198869931.003.0005.

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Course-focused and contextual, Criminal Law provides a succinct overview of the key areas on the law curriculum balanced with thought-provoking contextual discussion. A person should only be held criminally liable where he has the capacity to understand his actions, and to recognise the consequences which may flow from them; and, having understood them, where he has the capacity to control them. The criminal law recognises the requirement of rational capacity by excepting persons who lack rational capacity from liability in certain circumstances. This chapter examines the issues of the age of criminal responsibility, insanity and the M’Naghten Rules (including analysis of the meaning of a ‘disease of the mind’ and the cognitive tests for determining whether someone is legally insane), automatism, and intoxication (with analysis of the distinction between offences of specific intent and basic intent). A revised and updated ‘The law in context’ feature explores the treatment of mentally disordered defendants and offenders in the criminal justice system.
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Fletcher, George P. "Offenses and Defenses." In The Grammar of Criminal Law, 151–74. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190903572.003.0007.

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This chapter addresses the distinction between offenses and defenses in criminal cases. The Rome Statute draws a clear line between the four crimes subject to the jurisdiction of the Court and the grounds for excluding criminal responsibility in Article 31. The significance of the distinction between these offenses and defenses should not be underestimated. For example, the principle of nullum crimen sine lege, which applies to the former but not the latter, as evidenced by Article 31(3) permits the recognition of new defenses at trial. The four classic defenses of insanity, intoxication, self-defense, and duress spelled out in Article 31 are subject to controversy. Among the major legal systems of the world, there is considerable divergence in approaching these issues. Meanwhile, there are two reasons for the nullum crimen principle. One is to warn defendants of their possible liability. The other is to control the discretion of judges.
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Herring, Jonathan. "2. Actus reus." In Criminal Law Concentrate, 11–27. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198854982.003.0002.

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Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter reviews the actus reus elements of criminal offence. The actus reus consists of prohibited conduct (acts or omissions), prohibited circumstances, and/or prohibited consequences (results). A person can be criminally liable for omissions at common law, but imposing this liability can be controversial. Causation is a key part of consequence/result crimes. The prosecution must prove that the result was caused by the defendant. In order to do this, the chain of causation must first be established, and then consideration must be given to any intervention which might break the chain.
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Lunney, Mark, Donal Nolan, and Ken Oliphant. "9. Negligence: Duty of Care—Omissions and Acts of Third Parties." In Tort Law: Text and Materials. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198745525.003.0009.

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This chapter examines liability for omissions and for the acts of a third party in negligence. Despite the general principle excluding liability for omissions, liability may arise in certain exceptional circumstances, but no precise categorisation is possible of the various situations in which a duty of affirmative action is recognised. The question of liability for the acts of a third party often overlaps with the question of liability for omissions because in a third party case the complaint is often of an omission, for example a failure to control a third party, or to prevent a dangerous situation from being sparked off by a third party. But not all third-party cases involve omissions. Sometimes the complaint is simply that the defendant provided the third party with the opportunity or the means to injure the claimant, and it is that conduct which is alleged to be negligent, regardless of whether the defendant unreasonably failed at some subsequent point of time to intervene to prevent the injury.
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