Journal articles on the topic 'Christians'
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1
Jońca, Maciej. "IIS QUI AD ME TAMQUAM CHRISTIANI DEFEREBANTUR, HUNC SUM SECUTUS MODUM. ŚRODKI DOWODOWE ZASTOSOWANE W PROCESIE CHRZEŚCIJAN PONTYJSKICH W RELACJI PLINIUSZA MŁODSZEGO (EP. 10,96)." Zeszyty Prawnicze 5, no. 2 (June 14, 2017): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/zp.2005.5.2.05.
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<In>iis quiad me tamquam christiani deferebantur, hunc sum secutus modum. Evidence Applied in the Persecution of Pontian Christians According to Pliny the Younger (Ep. 10,96)SummaryIn 1st and 2nd centuries A. D. Christians were occasionally persecuted and punished just for being Christians (nomen christianurn). The letter drafted by Pliny the Younger to emperor Trajan constitutes the most significant non-Christian source providing information on the procedures applied in these circumstances. Pliny mentions three groups of people that emerged due to the presented above activities: the Christians, who did not renounce their faith at court, falsely accused pagans and apostates. A governor asked those who refused to abandon their faith before executing them. The execution did not apply to Roman citizens who, according to law, were sent to Rome. Apostates and pagans underwent special tests. In order to prove that they were not Christians the governor made them call the names of gods and perform sacrifices before the image of the emperor and gods, which was followed by the course on Christ. However, it was not a refusal to participate in the rituals that led to a punishment but their attachment to Christian community. Therefore, a ceremony of purely religious nature became a real proof applied in judicial proceedings. Although the emperor expressed his approval for governor’s measures, he did not establish any general rule concerning the prosecution and punishments of Christians.
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Aleksiun, Natalia. "Christian Corpses for Christians!" East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 25, no. 3 (July 11, 2011): 393–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0888325411398913.
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In this article, the author analyzes the campaign that captured the attention of medical colleges at Polish Universities in Warsaw, Vilno, Cracow, and Lvov during the 1920s and 1930s. The author discusses calls made by right-wing students for a regular supply of Jewish corpses matching their percentage among the students, and the ways in which university authorities and Polish Jewish communal leaders responded to these demands. Clearly, driving Jews out of the medical profession combined traditional prejudicial thinking about Jews with modern racial science and corresponded with the more general call to remove Jews from free professions. However, the issue of Jewish corpses took this line of thinking into the realm of pathology. The author argues that taking issue with Jewish access to “Christian corpses” echoed perceptions of Jewish impurity. It implied that Jewish students constituted a danger not only to their Polish colleagues but even to the corpses of Christians, which they could somehow contaminate or violate. Thus, this campaign was based on the notion of essential difference between Jews and non-Jews even in death. It suggests a vision of society in which any contact between Jews and non-Jews was perceived as contaminating and dangerous.
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Jacobs, Carly M., and Elizabeth Theiss-Morse. "Belonging In a “Christian Nation”: The Explicit and Implicit Associations between Religion and National Group Membership." Politics and Religion 6, no. 2 (February 6, 2013): 373–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755048312000697.
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AbstractIf many consider the United States to be a Christian nation, how does this affect individuals who are American citizens but not Christian? We test two major hypotheses: (1) Americans consider Christians to be more fully American than non-Christians. We examine whether Americans explicitly and implicitly connect being Christian with being a true American; and (2) Christian Americans are more likely to be patriotic and set exclusive boundaries on the national group than non-Christian Americans. Among non-Christians, however, those who want to be fully accepted as American will be more patriotic and set more exclusive boundaries to emulate prototypical Americans than non-Christians who place less emphasis on national group membership. We test these hypotheses using data from a survey and from an Implicit Association Test. We find that Americans in general associate being Christian with being a true American. For Christians, this is true both explicitly and implicitly. For non-Christians, only the implicit measure uncovers an association. We also found that non-Christians exhibit significantly more pro-national group behaviors when they desire being prototypical than when they do not.
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Otto, Jennifer. "“We Slay Demons”: Moral Progress and Origen's Pacifism." Church History 92, no. 2 (June 2023): 251–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640723001385.
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This article evaluates Origen's criticism of Christian participation in the Roman army in relation to two prominent themes in his writings: the moral progress of the Christian and the role of demons in God's providence. I argue that, for Origen, to be a Christian is to be a soldier, albeit one whose adversaries are not human combatants, but the Devil and his angels. The battle is won when Christians refrain from sinning, attaining moral perfection through their study of the scriptures, and adoption of ascetic practices. By avoiding the physical battlefield, Christians remain unsullied by the passions that inflame the soldier, enabling them to fight demons more effectively. But this spiritual combat is not without risks to the physical body. As Origen's Exhortation to Martyrdom attests, execution could be the providentially ordered outcome of a Christian's combat against demons. Origen presents the violent persecution of Christians as consistent with divine providence and martyrdom as a gift of God to the church. His opposition to Christian military participation is rooted neither in a wholesale rejection of warfare nor a deep respect for embodied life, but in his concern for human moral progress—progress that could be advanced by providentially sanctioned violence.
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Becker, Matthias. "Origen the Sophist: Anti-Sophistic Polemic in Porphyry’s Contra Christianos." Vigiliae Christianae 73, no. 2 (May 7, 2019): 159–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700720-12341395.
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Abstract Making use of Beatrice Wyss’ “pattern of the disparagement of sophists” for heuristic purposes, this paper argues that the depictions of Christian exegetes and scholars in a fragment of Porphyry’s lost work Contra Christianos (fr. 39 Harnack/fr. 6F. Becker) contain literary elements of ad hominem attacks which were used in Greek anti-sophistic polemic. Porphyry’s allusive language allows for the conclusion that he aimed specifically at casting Origen in the role of a sophist. This hitherto unnoticed component of Porphyry’s polemic against the Christians sheds light on how Platonists in the third century viewed Christian intellectuals through a Platonic lens in order to secure their identity against a stereotypical opponent which had ultimately been created by Plato himself. Thus, in Porphyry’s view, Christians are, as it were, new foes with old familiar faces.
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Clooney, Francis X. "Extending the Canon: Some Implications of a Hindu Argument about Scripture." Harvard Theological Review 85, no. 2 (April 1992): 197–215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017816000028856.
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Can the sacred texts of non-Christian religious traditions be revelatory for Christians in a fashion that is more than vague and merely theoretical? This question is central within the larger project of understanding the significance of the various world religions for Christians, and the effort to answer it must proceed according to three specific tasks.First, it is necessary to describe the ways in which the Christian tradition predisposes and constrains Christian believers on the issue of whether non-Christian texts can be revelatory words of God for non-Christians, for Christians, or for both. The formulation of this description requires reflection on the Christian tradition and its sources: Christian ideas of revelation, scripture, the Word of God, and possible words of God.
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Tjeltveit, Alan C. "Lost Opportunities, Partial Successes, and Key Questions: Some Historical Lessons." Journal of Psychology and Theology 40, no. 1 (March 2012): 16–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164711204000103.
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To shed light on some key perennial issues, I discuss several historical efforts to discern optimal understandings of human persons that take seriously both Christian faith and academic psychology. These include Gordon Allport's disguised integrative efforts; a 1924 book, An Elementary Christian Psychology; and Paul Meehl's 1958 integration book. I conclude that opportunities are lost: when seeking respectability becomes a primary motivator for Christians interested in psychology when psychology's implicit ethical and metaphysical assumptions are not recognized and critiqued, when efforts to create a Christian Psychology are based on a particular cultural-historical understanding of Christian faith that is assumed to be the only correct view of it, when Christians fail to engage with mainstream psychology when Christians fail to address rigorously key problems in the psychology/Christian faith interface, when Christians use ambiguous or supposedly neutral language to pursue Christian goals, and when Christians fail to work through thoroughly and develop fully the implications of Christian faith for our understandings of the psychological dimensions of embodied human persons.
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Leontieva, A. A. "Kadi Courts in the Ottoman Balkans and Christians in 18th Century (According to the Sofia Documents)." Islam in the modern world 15, no. 4 (January 8, 2020): 137–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.22311/2074-1529-2019-15-4-137-152.
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The article deals with the status of Christian population of Sofia under the Ottoman rule and legal pluralism. The aim of the investigation is to analyze the degree of integration of Christians to the Ottoman system of law and to understand the reasons of Christian’s access to the Shari‘a courts. The legal status of Christians in the Ottoman Empire was defined by the so-called Millet system. The Orthodoxies in Ottoman Empire had three ways of resolving their disputes: they could turn to the Episcopal court, the communal court or the Ottoman court, which made a decision according to Shari‘a and Kanun. As it could be argued, on the contrary to popular belief, Christian’s going to Shari‘a courts were not rare. They had the opportunity to choose what kind of court to prefer for resolving their personal and family disputes.
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Park, Jerry Z., and Joyce C. Chang. "Centering Asian Americans in Social Scientific Research on Religious Communities." Theology Today 79, no. 4 (December 26, 2022): 398–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00405736221132859.
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Social scientific research on American Christianity typically centers the experiences and practices of White American Christians and predominantly white Christian communities or churches. Asian American Christians remain more invisible than other racial minority Christians and their churches, especially in quantitative analyses. Researchers who aim to center Asian American Christianity face several challenges in developing a comprehensive quantitative empirical study of individual believers and churches. Practically, Asian American Christian surveys require multiple language translations and a wide array of outreach techniques to obtain a reasonably representative oversample. Substantively, survey questions on American Christianity often presume White American Christian categories, concepts, and frames—applying these without reflection could result in analytic findings that merely demonstrate how similar Asian American Christians are to their white counterparts. Asian American Christians diverge from the experiences of other American Christians drawing from diverse transnational resources, and the specific ways in which Asian Americans as a whole are positioned in the contemporary American racial order. Advancing an Asian American Christian—centered social scientific research program requires overcoming the present methodological obstacles and incorporating theoretical and theological insights from Asian Americanist scholars. This in turn will produce a new and unique body of research that should prove valuable for the continuance of Asian American Christian communities as well as other American Christian churches facing similar challenges.
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Heim, S. Mark. "Christianity and Islam: Two Kinds of Difference." Review & Expositor 105, no. 1 (February 2008): 27–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003463730810500104.
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Christian engagement with Islam poses the question: what theological sense can we make of a supersessionist approach to our own tradition? This essay sketches a Christian interpretation of Islam that combines the respectful encounter with religious pluralism and the hope for Christian ecumenism. Christians may thus view Islam in part as spreading the same faith and truth that Christians seek to follow. Simultaneously, Christians may view Islam as a profound and integral alternative to Christian faith and practice. The author briefly examines implications of this combined approach for a Christian understanding of Muhammad and the Qur'an.
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Gross, Simcha. "Being Roman in the Sasanian Empire." Studies in Late Antiquity 5, no. 3 (2021): 361–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sla.2021.5.3.361.
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Over the past several decades, scholars have challenged longstanding assumptions about Christian narratives of persecution. In light of these revisionist trends, a number of scholars have reconsidered the “Great Persecution” of Christians under the fourth-century Sasanian king Shapur II. Where scholars previously argued that the cause of Sasanian imperial violence against Christians was a perceived connection between them and the increasingly Christian Roman Empire, these new accounts reject this explanation and downplay the scope of violence against Christians. This article reexamines Sasanian violence against Christians in the fourth century, navigating between the proverbial Scylla and Charybdis of positivist and revisionist approaches. It argues that the accusations against Christians must be situated within the broader Roman-Sasanian conflict. In this context, fifth-column accusations were a pervasive anxiety, animated—and deployed—by empires and inhabitants alike. Yet, rather than inexorably leading to indiscriminate violence against all Christians, fifth-column accusations operated in a variety of ways, resulting in targeted violence but also, it is argued, in imperial patronage. Seen in this light, concerns for Christian disloyalty were responsible for the drastic vacillations in Christian experience under Sasanian rule during the fourth and early fifth centuries, unparalleled for other non-Iranian Sasanian communities, such as Jews. It was the particular circumstances of Christians, caught between the Sasanian and Roman Empires, that account for their experience under Sasanian rule.
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Suwito, Benny. "Perjumpaan dengan Kristus melalui Hati Nurani bersama dengan Magisterium." Lux et Sal 1, no. 1 (November 1, 2020): 49–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.57079/lux.v1i1.11.
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Encountering with Christ as Christians brings Christian acts as Christ’s acts because Christians’ acts are always act of faith. This cannot be separated from the role of conscience in human heart which relates to Magisterium. However, some Christians and theologians thought that Christians, in some of their human acts, do not need Magisterium because of the conscience in human heart that God has given show them to do good and avoid evil directly. Indeed, this opinion is not true. Christians always need Magisterium to act properly as the followers of Christ. Conscience is not individual truth but conscience is the voice of God which exists in human heart with Christian faith. Thus, Christians when they act something with their faith, they need Magisterium because knowing Christ is never knowing an idea of Christ but a personal faith experience to encounter with Christ. That’s why Christians have a relationship with Magisterium though conscience carries them to Jesus.
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Park, Jerry Z., Joyce C. Chang, and James C. Davidson. "Equal Opportunity Beliefs beyond Black and White American Christianity." Religions 11, no. 7 (July 10, 2020): 348. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel11070348.
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Scholars in critical race and the sociology of religion have independently drawn attention to the ways in which cultural ideologies drive beliefs about inequalities between groups. Critical race work on “abstract liberalism” highlights non-racially inflected language that tacitly reinforces White socioeconomic outcomes resulting from an allegedly fair social system. Sociologists of religion have noted that White Evangelical Christian theology promotes an individualist mindset that places blame for racial inequalities on the perceived failings of Blacks. Using data from the National Asian American Survey 2016, we return to this question and ask whether beliefs about the importance of equal opportunity reveal similarities or differences between religious Asian American and Latino Christians and Black and White Christians. The results confirm that White Christians are generally the least supportive of American society providing equal opportunity for all. At the other end, Black Christians were the most supportive. However, with the inclusion of Asian American Christian groups, we note that second generation Asian American and Latino Evangelicals hew closer to the White Christian mean, while most other Asian and Latino Christian groups adhere more closely to the Black Christian mean. This study provides further support for the recent claims of religion’s complex relationship with other stratifying identities. It suggests that cultural assimilation among second generation non-Black Evangelical Christians heads more toward the colorblind racist attitudes of many White Christians, whereas potential for new coalitions of Latino and Black Christians could emerge, given their shared perceptions of the persistent inequality in their communities.
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Berg, Karl. "A Curious Problem in the Renovation of the Christian Building at Dura-Europos: Reconstructing the Use of Water in the Durene Baptismal Rite and its Ritual Significance." Journal of Late Antiquity 16, no. 2 (September 2023): 259–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jla.2023.a906770.
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Abstract: Situating the Christian building of Dura-Europos within its ambient domestic context accentuates a curious problem: During the renovation in which the Christians of Dura converted this building into a worship space, this community installed a large water basin, presumably used for baptism. Yet concurrent with this transformation, Dura's Christians also paved over their house's cistern, located in the adjacent courtyard. Thus, as the Durene Christian community was installing a baptismal basin—a feature which required water—these Christians enigmatically removed the most convenient means by which they could have secured water to fill that basin. The following study aims to reconstruct how the Christians of Dura procured water for use in their baptismal rite and to examine why these Christians might have removed access to their cistern while simultaneously installing a baptismal basin. Recent scholarship on Dura has provided a sound footing for this examination by allowing the use of water at Dura to be reconstructed with substantial clarity. Examining the Christian building's transformation in light of this scholarship allows the Durene Christians' rejection of cistern water for use in their ritual of baptism to be situated comfortably within documented early Christian preferences to baptize in naturally-flowing waters.
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Duff, Nancy J. "Christians Preparing for Conversation: Jewish–Christian Relations." Theology Today 74, no. 3 (October 2017): 243–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040573617721914.
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This article suggests that Christians need to prepare for Jewish–Christian conversation by cultivating a better knowledge of Jewish traditions and by critically examining Christian doctrine and biblical interpretation to rid Christian language and attitudes of anti-Judaism. To do the latter, Christians do not have to give up core beliefs of the Christian faith.
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Slater, Thomas B. "On the Social Setting of the Revelation to John." New Testament Studies 44, no. 2 (April 1998): 232–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0028688500016490.
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Revisionists have argued that no empire-wide persecution of Christians occurred in the late first century and that Domitian was neither a persecutor of Christians nor an evil, incompetent ruler. This essay agrees with those points but also argues that a closer examination of extant Roman and Christian late first/early second century writers demonstrates that Christians were held in low esteem and suffered in Roman society because of their religious convictions. This study argues that Revelation was a Christian response to religio-political pressures by indigenous Asian pagans upon Christians to conform to traditional social practices in Roman Asia.
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Miller, Matthew R., and JohnMark Bennett Beazley. "Christian Spiritual Formation in the Classical School." Journal of Spiritual Formation and Soul Care 11, no. 2 (November 2018): 230–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1939790918796834.
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Classical Christian education has ancient roots in the Christian church. In recent days, Christians have attempted to recover this classical tradition. Many cite the intellectual rigor vis-à-vis public schools as the reason for choosing classical Christian education. However, intellectual rigor is only one part of the classical tradition. More importantly, classical Christian education seeks to develop morally upright Christians. This education forms the character of Christians so that they may live faithfully in the world. This article describes how classical Christian education works at Highlands Latin School in Louisville, KY. Specifically, the implementation of the classical curriculum in middle school Latin and Greek courses is addressed with an eye toward spiritual/moral formation.
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Thompson, James W. "Preaching to Philippians." Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 61, no. 3 (July 2007): 298–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002096430706100306.
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Preachers who discover the distance between the ancient text and the contemporary church may find that words addressed to vulnerable Christians in a pre-Christian era leap over the distance of the centuries to address Christians in a post-Christian era.
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Jonaitis, Rytis, and Irma Kaplūnaitė. "TRACES OF CHRISTIAN CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN PAGAN VILNIUS: THE CEMETERY ON BOKŠTO STREET." Lietuvos archeologija Lietuvos archeologija T. 48 (December 31, 2022): 185–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.33918/25386514-048006.
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Lithuania was the country to remain pagan longest in Europe, but it was not isolated from the rest of Europe. Although the locals in the late 13th – late 14th centuries were still mostly pagans, Lithuania’s grand dukes appreciated the benefits of Christian immigrants. These Christians brought not only their religion, but also a knowledge of crafts, their culture, and their own traditions. Although Christians, both Catholic and Orthodox, mainly wished to settle in Lithuania for economic reasons rather than from a desire to Christianise it, their presence in pagan Vilnius left traces, one of which, visible archaeologically, is the inhumation cemetery on Bokšto Street, where Orthodox Christians began to bury their dead in the last decades of the 13th century. By supplementing the historical context with this cemetery’s material, it is possible to talk about how the Orthodox community influenced the city’s urban landscape, burial traditions, and crafts. Keywords: Medieval Vilnius, Christianity, cemetery, cultural influence.
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Luneva, Anna A. "“Insiders” and “Outsiders” in Early Christianity in the Light of New Anthropological Theories." Chelovek 33, no. 1 (2022): 159. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s023620070019080-5.
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The article represents the problem of the development of early Christian anti-Judaism using the methods of Cognitive Science of Religion and Social Anthropology. This approach allows us to consider the early Christians anti-Jewish writings of 2nd — 3rd CE from another angle and to explain the reasons of emerging of anti-Judaism in a new way. In the works of early Christian authors Jews were always shown as “Others” (Outsiders) opposed to “Us” (Insides) — Christians. The image of Jew was stereotyped and passed through the Christian writings. Jews were characterized as deicides and apostates with worthless rites. They also caused troubles for Christians. At the same time Christians were depicted as new, eternal Israel, their New law replaced the Old law of Jews. For Christians “Us” were those, who rejected carnal sacrifices of Jews, circumcision and Shabbat day. Cognitive Science and Social anthropology explains humiliation of “Others” and exaltation of “Us”, pointing out that inter-group conflict emerge while groups have a common goal. At the same time, fear of “Other” makes inner-group connections stronger. Stereotypes and prejudices are the result of such inter-group communication. Stereotypes transmit, develop and strengthen within the group. Jewish-Christian relations of Antiquity are one of the examples of the conflict inter-group communication. Ancient anti-Jewish treatises demonstrate the growing of antipathy to Jews by Christians under the forming stereotypes.
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Burgos Velasco, Juan Manuel. "Christian Philosophy, Christian Philosophers or Christians Making Philosophy?" Forum Philosophicum 28, no. 1 (June 22, 2023): 27–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.35765/forphil.2023.2801.02.
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The objective of this paper is to reflect on the proper way for Christians to do philosophy, in respect of which I have been inspired by a phrase attributed to Cardinal Newman: “We do not need Christian philosophy. We need Christians making good philosophy.” This sentence can appear controversial, but I believe it is not, if its content is made explicit in an appropriate way. To better develop what I understand Newman to be proposing here, I have added another category to his statement, with the consequence that my own text falls into three sections: 1) on Christian philosophy; 2) on Christian philosophers; 3) on Christians who do philosophy. This is the scheme that we will use to position ourselves as regards the complex issue of the relationship between philosophy and Christianity.
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Salauwe, Irafanda. "PENTINGNYA MORALITAS BAGI KEHIDUPAN ORANG KRISTEN BERDASARKAN ULANGAN 24 :14-15." Sabda: Jurnal Teologi Kristen 3, no. 2 (December 28, 2022): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.55097/sabda.v3i2.27.
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The importance of Morality for Christian life. In this article, the author talks about how to be a Christian with good morals, love others, and of course have an impact on the lives of the surrounding community. In this case, the author invites Christians not only to care about the people around them but how Christians care, embrace marginalized people who have nothing. Apart from that, as Christians, we must play an important role in the sense that we are to be examples for our neighbors. This study of Deuteronomy discusses how a Christian can love his fellow human beings. In this article, the author also uses the legal interpretation method. The research result of this article is a Christian who loves others and obeys God. Which of course is reflected in the life of these Christians. For this reason, every Christian must obey and follow the commands that God has given to His people. Because God sees the obedience of each person in maintaining his covenant with God.
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Godwin, Tony C., and Joyce G. Crouch. "Subjects’ Religious Orientation, Counselor'S Orientation and Skill, and Expectations for Counseling." Journal of Psychology and Theology 17, no. 3 (September 1989): 284–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009164718901700310.
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The present study is a partial replication of Pecnik and Epperson's (1985a) study of expectations for Christian counseling versus counseling of an unspecified orientation, with the additional aim of clarifying the possible impact of counselor skill and social desirability upon these expectations. Undergraduate psychology students read one of four profiles of a counselor: Christian orientation, high skill; Christian orientation, unspecified skill; unspecified orientation, high skill; unspecified orientation, unspecified skill. These subjects, designated as Christian and non-Christian, rated the counselor profile on 19 variables related to counseling. In comparison to non-Christians, Christian subjects in general give higher ratings to the counselor regardless of the counselor's religious orientation. Non-Christian subjects rated the high skill counselor lower on several expectancy scales than Christian subjects did. No support was lent to the contentions that counselors with a Christian orientation are viewed as less expert than counselors in general or that social desirability can account for Christians’ higher expectations for counseling. Instead Christians may view counseling more positively.
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Islam, Tazul. "Christian-Muslim Relations: an Analysis of the Quranic Articulation of Christian Friendliness to Muslims." Al-Bayān – Journal of Qurʾān and Ḥadīth Studies 17, no. 1 (June 26, 2019): 24–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22321969-12340068.
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Abstract The Quranic discourse on Christians is paradoxical because its narratives express both compliments and condemnation, reproach and rapprochement. Scholars debate the sentiments behind the Quranic assertion that Christians are “certainly nearest in friendship” to the Muslim believers (Q 5:82). While some believe that this forms an incentive for rapprochement between Muslims and Christians, others interpret it in completely the opposite way. As such, this study aims to answer the fundamental question of whether Christian-Muslim friendship is possible. To come to a conclusion, it will examine the pros and cons of Christian-Muslim friendship that are detailed in both classical and modern exegeses concerning the nature of such friendship, the reasons behind it, and the identity of the friendly Christians mentioned in the Quran. It is expected that the result of this study will contribute to revising current understanding of Christian-Muslim relations.
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Baker, Josiah. "Native American Contributions to a Christian Theology of Space." Studies in World Christianity 22, no. 3 (November 2016): 234–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/swc.2016.0158.
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Native Christian theologians frequently contribute to a theology of space through their writings on other theological subjects. Native American traditionalism is structured spatially; mythology, rituals and ethics are entirely focused on the tribe's surroundings and the individual's responsibility in living within his or her own place. Thus, Native Christians continue this thought by expressing and exploring the Christian faith through spatial constructs. In discussing the Kingdom of God, they speak of the implications of where the Kingdom resides rather than focusing on when it will be consummated. Additionally, they write on the Christian's responsibility in preserving harmony throughout creation and debate about how this spatial harmony is achieved. In liberation theology, they claim societies can only be liberated by re-establishing their relationship to their surrounding environment; in this way, creation is the basis for liberation. They also discuss the locational implications of eschatology, analysing what it means for every place within the cosmos to be renewed and how Christians should then live within these same places presently. Finally, a brief survey of other issues within theologies of space is presented, and consideration is given to the potential contributions Native Christian theologians could make to these issues as well.
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Smith, Michael. "Why Christian Ethics Impels Open Access Publishing." Theological Librarianship 16, no. 2 (October 26, 2023): 33–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.31046/tl.v16i2.3319.
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The publishing world is experiencing changes with the increased adoption of Open Access publishing, and Christians should celebrate the coming changes. The trend towards increasing Open Access publishing promises increased access to scholarly and scientific information to greater numbers of people around the world. Since Christian ethics impels Christians to love their neighbors, to share the Good News, and to be good stewards of God’s creation, Christians should support the transition to Open Access publishing, particularly since Open Access publishing can help advance each of these important Christian directives and goals.
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Galvin, John P. "“I Believe...in Jesus Christ, His Only Son, Our Lord”." Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 50, no. 4 (October 1996): 373–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002096439605000404.
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Christians recognize that the earthly Jesus can never be captured fully by historical scholarship. They recognize as well that Christian faith is not based on historical reconstructions. These recognitions notwith-standing, Christians insist that some elements of Jesus' life, which are open to historical research, are of central concern to Christian faith.
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Grove, Richard C., Ayla Rubenstein, and Heather K. Terrell. "Distrust persists after subverting atheist stereotypes." Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 23, no. 7 (September 26, 2019): 1103–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1368430219874103.
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Antiatheist prejudice appears to be common. This prejudice may stem from distrust. However, the factors influencing distrust are not fully understood. The current research identified common stereotypes about atheists, tested the intuitiveness of those stereotypes, and determined whether distrust toward atheists depends more on the label “atheist” or the attributes atheists are thought to possess. Study 1 ( N = 100) and Study 2 ( N = 149) identified several attributes thought to be most characteristic of atheists and least characteristic of Christians (or vice versa). Study 3 ( N = 219) demonstrated that atheists and Christians are intuitively associated with the respective traits identified in Studies 1 and 2. Study 4 ( N = 274) and Study 5 ( N = 259) used fake social media profiles to manipulate target religious identification (atheist, Christian, or unspecified) and attributes (stereotypically atheist or stereotypically Christian) to determine the effect on trust ratings. Overall, the results of these studies indicate that atheists and Christians are explicitly and implicitly associated with different attributes and that, even when atheists possess stereotypically Christian attributes, Christians trust atheists significantly less than other Christians. These findings suggest that antiatheist prejudice is relatively insensitive to individual differences of the target.
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Haede, Wolfgang. "The Historical Background of the Highly Critical Perception of Christians by the Turkish Society." Mission Studies 31, no. 2 (July 14, 2014): 191–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15733831-12341333.
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In Turkey, considered a secular and democratic role model for other countries with a Muslim majority, both state and society perceive Christians very critically. There are historical experiences and ideas that contribute to this surprising finding. In the Qur’an, the Holy Book of Muslims, Christians who do not accept the claim of Muhammad to be God’s prophet, are perceived as rebellious liars. Christians in early Islamic society were widely tolerated, but had a status as second-class-citizens. The Ottoman Empire as the front state against the Christian world and the savior of Sunni Islam widely tolerated Christians; thedhimmistatus of Christians as second-class-citizens however was continued in themillet-system. As the power of the Ottomans decreased and Western ideas of nationalism began to influence the Empire during the nineteenth century, the Muslim majority began a search for identity. Secessions of Christian peoples and interference by “Christian” foreign nations triggered more severe clashes between the remaining Christian population and the state. The wide-ranging activities of Western missionaries in the Ottoman Empire were perceived as a part of Western colonialism. During the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic, the leaders of the Young Turk movement were motivated by their desperate battle to save a rest of the Empire as a homeland for the Muslim population. The perception of Christians as the enemy of the new Republic was more firmly established. Though Mustafa Kemal Atatürk gave a revolutionary modern and secular character to Turkey, there was an intentional Turkification of society. A study of Turkish newspapers confirms that these perceptions are widely valid until today. Missiology has to help develop an appropriate response of Christians to the situation inside and outside of Turkey.
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Bodrožić, Ivan, and Maja Rončević. "True Faith and Philosophy as a Way to Overcome Religious Prejudices according to 1st and 2nd Century Christian Sources." History in flux 5, no. 5 (December 24, 2023): 7–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.32728/flux.2023.5.1.
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The authors explore religious prejudices in early Christianity, Judaism, and paganism using 1st and 2nd-century sources. During that era, ethnic and religious biases affected various societal levels. The first section examines biases among Gentiles and Christians toward Jews, followed by biases between Gentiles and Jews toward Christians, and the prejudices of Christians and Jews toward Gentiles. The second section delves into prejudices between Christians and Jews, focusing on how society reacted to Christians’ distinctiveness from Jews, hindering their integration due to pagan religiosity. In response, Christians presented their faith as a bridge, emphasizing its universality for all people, not solely for the Jewish community. They offered a pathway for communion and reconciliation, asserting the superiority and broader interpretative nature of Christian faith over Judaism. Jesus Christ’s life, St. Paul’s teachings, and events from the Acts of the Apostles affirmed the faith’s universal significance. The third section centers on ‘barbarian philosophy’ as an attempt to unify Christians and pagans amid growing societal tensions in the 2nd century. Christian apologists, once pagan philosophers, aimed to alleviate prejudices by aligning their received faith with their society, employing ‘barbarian philosophy.’ This approach viewed Christianity through rationality, rooted in the universal divine Logos, appealing to all people as the creator and advocate.
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Njoroge, John Ngige. "Roles of the Diaspora Christians in Mission and Evangelism From an African Orthodox Perspective." Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Theologia Orthodoxa 66, no. 2 (December 30, 2021): 69–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/subbto.2021.2.05.
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"This paper will focus on the specific roles that the diaspora orthodox Christian can play in mission and evangelism today. The main objective is to bring into the attention, and especially from a missiological point of view, the fact that the diaspora Christians can have an active role to play in the mission of the church. The active Orthodox Church missions has been understand to mean overseas mission and especially in Africa, Asia and in the Albania. However, in the course of the orthodox Christian migration history, there has been missiological connection between the diaspora Christians in the hosting countries and their respective home countries. The focus of this paper is on this missiological connection and how it can translate to an active role of the involved Christians to the mission of the church in Africa. The paper tracks the mission praxis of the diaspora Christians in Africa and beyond. Keywords: roles, diaspora Christians, mission and evangelism, philanthropic works, diakonia, witness. "
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Dean, Jason. "Outbidding Catholicity. Early Islamic Attitudes toward Christians and Christianity." Exchange 38, no. 3 (2009): 201–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157254309x449700.
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AbstractHow did early Islam gain its understanding of Christians and Christianity? How did it react to Christian claims of universality? To answer these questions, this article first identifies passages pertaining to the Christian religion in representative texts of the three main bodies of literature produced by the first Muslim writers and editors: the Qur'ān, the Hadith and the Sira. This data is then analyzed into five ideal-types of Islamic attitudes toward Christians and Christianity: 1) affirmations of the truth of the Gospel, 2) descriptions of Christians as true believers, 3) descriptions of Christians as sectarians, 4) accusations of disbelief (kufr) and 5) accusations of idolatry (shirk). The assertion of an historical relationship between sectarianism, disbelief and idolatry led to subordinating the Muslim-Christian dialogue on the recognition of the unicity of God, which could be conceived of as providing the basis either for a restricted religious pluralism or for an Islamic universalism.
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Stern, Sacha. "Christian Calendars in Medieval Hebrew Manuscripts." Medieval Encounters 22, no. 1-3 (May 23, 2016): 236–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12342223.
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The phenomenon of Christian calendars in Hebrew has largely been ignored in modern scholarship; yet it points to an important dimension of Jewish-Christian relations, and more specifically Jewish attitudes towards Christianity, in late medieval northern Europe. It is also evidence of transfer of religious knowledge between Christians and Jews, because the Hebrew texts closely replicate, in contents as well as in layout and presentation, the Latin liturgical calendars, which in many cases the Hebrew scribes must have used directly as base texts. Knowledge of the Christian calendar was essential to Jews for dating documents, especially (but not exclusively) those intended for Christians, for understanding dates in documents, for scheduling business or other meetings with Christians, and in short, for effectively coordinating their socio-economic activities with the rhythms and structure of Christian medieval life.
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Meyer, Barbara U. "Not Just the Time of the Other—What Does It Mean for Christians Today to Remember Shabbat and Keep It Holy?" Religions 13, no. 8 (August 12, 2022): 736. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel13080736.
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In this essay, I explore how Christians can relate to the Sabbath in a way that adequately expresses Christian traditions about sacred time while showing respect for distinctly Jewish practices. My basic claim is that a Christian sanctification of the Sabbath presents an entirely new challenge for a Christianity that does not view Judaism as superseded or outdated. Thus, I ask: What should be the meaning of the Sabbath commandment for Christians? How can Christians sanctify the Sabbath while affirming it as a sign of the Jewish people’s living covenant? First, I will lay out the questions that are raised for Christian theology when affirming Jewish Sabbath observance as part of practiced Judaism, that is, as lived Torah and as a tradition passed on from generation to generation. Next, I will consult contemporary Jewish literature on the topic, then look for Christian accounts of the Sabbath in Christian systematic theologies. I will ask: What happens when Christians affirm that Sunday does not abrogate the Jewish Sabbath, while also asserting their own commitment to the Bible’s holy day? I will subsequently sketch an outline of a Christian theology of Shabbat that acknowledges distinctive Jewish legal traditions as well as its own connectedness to Biblical temporal structures.
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Van den Brink, G. "Reizende problemen in de wetenschap: orthodox christendom in de trein der traagheid?" Theologia Reformata 61, no. 4 (December 1, 2018): 350–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/5be58d306760f.
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This article (“Traveling Problems in Science: Is Orthodox Christianity Lagging Behind?”) examines the eventual reception of scientific advances by even the most orthodox Christian groups, after more liberal Christians have accommodated to such advances at earlier stages. That is, do orthodox Christians lag behind in their scientific understanding? Focusing on the late reception of heliocentrism, atomism and evolutionary theory among orthodox Christian groups, this article describes a typical pattern of gradual acceptance. In view of historic Christianity’s cutting-edge culture shaping power, this article suggests how Christians might address scientific advances as they develop rather than following them from a distance.
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Anitei, Julian. "Christian Bioethics and Post-Traditional Christians." Christian bioethics: Non-Ecumenical Studies in Medical Morality 5, no. 3 (December 1, 1999): 267–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/chbi.5.3.267.6889.
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Anitei, J. "Christian Bioethics and Post-Traditional Christians." Christian Bioethics 5, no. 3 (January 1, 1999): 267–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/chbi.5.3.267.6889.
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Raheb, Tala. "Christian Agency and Lutheran Personal Status Laws in Palestine." Exchange 49, no. 3-4 (November 9, 2020): 278–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1572543x-12341570.
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Abstract In describing Christianity in the Middle East, scholars often highlight religious oppression, especially in relation to the larger Islamic context. Such contentious descriptions often cast Christians in the role of dhimmis, who are tolerated but not regarded as equal members of Muslim societies. Only in recent years some scholars have begun to modify their depictions of Christians and Christian-Muslim relations in the Middle East. While Christians in the Middle East have experienced and in certain regions continue to experience persecution, solely portraying them as victims does not do justice to the reality on the ground. By means of a case study on Palestine, I argue that an examination of the interaction between sharia (Islamic law) and Christian personal status laws sheds a different light on Christian identity and Christian-Muslim relations in the Middle East, and demonstrates the agency of Palestinian Christian communities in this respect.
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Pollis, Adamantia. "Christians Against Christians." Journal of Human Rights 4, no. 3 (July 2005): 419–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14754830500257703.
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Angin, Yakub Hendrawan Perangin, and Tri Astuti Yeniretnowati Yeniretnowati. "DESKRIPSI STANDAR DAN GAYA HIDUP KEKRISTENAN SEBAGAI ARAH PENDIDIKAN AGAMA KRISTEN." Metanoia 3, no. 2 (March 30, 2022): 118–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.55962/metanoia.v3i2.51.
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Today many people profess to be Christians but their lives are still far from the andard of living and lifestyle modeled by Jesus. It is even more ironic that a similarm life as demonstrated and exemplified by Jesus is considered impossible to do while on this earth and not for Christians to practice today. This study uses a literature review method, namely by analyzing the concept of what is the standard of living and lifestyle that Christ modeled and wore as a framework for the concept of Christian standards and lifestyle as a direction for the development and Christian education. The results of this study show the concepts and implications for the direction of Christian Religious Education in producing and shaping Christians who imitate Jesus.
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Steibel, Sophia, and Martha S. Bergen. "The Body: Discipleship of our Physicality." Christian Education Journal: Research on Educational Ministry 16, no. 1 (January 9, 2019): 95–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739891318820332.
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Christian discipleship acknowledges the importance of the body for a holistic response to God’s redemption for all of life. The biblical view shows a Christian’s body and soul as a sacred unit that demands responsible stewardship. Often, however, the body is an arena where sin and righteousness struggle with habitual inclinations toward destructive rather than life-nurturing behaviors. Spiritual formation aimed at Christlikeness is crucial for the conquering of battles faced by Christians of all ages.
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Bertova, Anna D. "Polemics on the incompatibility of Christianity with patriotism in Japan at the end of the 19th century." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg University. Philosophy and Conflict Studies 39, no. 2 (2023): 393–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu17.2023.214.
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The article aims at analyzing the course of the anti-Christian polemics at the end of the 19th century, and its influence upon the Christian community in Japan. The end of the 19th century turned to be quite difficult for Japanese Christians. Promulgation of the conservative Meiji Constitution in 1889 and the Imperial Edict on Education in 1890 marked the end of the liberal reforms and the shift to nationalistic and militarist policy in Japan. This period was characterized by anti-Christian bashing, when Christians were accused of the lack of patriotism and loyalty to the Emperor and the government, espionage, and attempts to overturn Japanese traditional ways. These accusations put Japanese Christians in a predicament and made them prove their innocence, their point of view and tenets of their religion in the eyes of the authorities, which eventually lead to a furious argument between the two sides — Christian and nonChristian communities, the latter being presented mainly by Buddhist intelligentsia, of which Inoue Enryo and Inoue Tetsujiro were the most famous. This conflict resulted in extremely painful consequences for Japanese Christians, who had to conform and support expansionist policy of the authorities thereof.
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Chao, David C. "Evangelical or Mainline? Doctrinal Similarity and Difference in Asian American Christianity: Sketching a Social-Practical Theory of Christian Doctrine." Theology Today 80, no. 1 (March 28, 2023): 54–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00405736221150397.
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This article takes Asian American Christianity to be an analytically productive religion for advancing a theory of Christian doctrine. This is in large part due to the trans-Pacific character of Asian Americans Christians who, by virtue of their racialization, make explicit the different social circumstances—from Anglo-European Christians—as well as shared ends in which Christian doctrinal commitments operate. Asian American Christians problematize the conventional wisdom assumed in the academic and public discourses concerning Christianity in the US. One of the primary set of categories in the discourses about Christianity in the US is the theological difference between evangelical and mainline Protestants. Moreover, these theological and doctrinal categories are taken to describe and define these two social groups of Christians. By centering empirical studies of Asian American Christian faith and practice, this article claims that doctrinal similarity and doctrinal difference, such as that between evangelical and mainline Protestants, do not simply explain social group similarity or difference as assumed by conventional wisdom. Instead, these Asian American case studies point to the need for a new theory of Christian doctrine that can explain the normative significance of doctrinal similarity and difference in terms of the uses of doctrine.
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Kim, Paulus Jinu. "The Role of Christians in The Correlation between The Notion of Lex Orandi, Lex Credendi, Lex Vivendi and The Commitment of Cape Town." Evangelikal: Jurnal Teologi Injili dan Pembinaan Warga Jemaat 6, no. 2 (July 31, 2022): 85. http://dx.doi.org/10.46445/ejti.v6i2.490.
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Lex orandi, lex credendi, lex vivendi is conventional concepts of the Christian life, but those are still relevant to solve problems of modern society. The interconnectedness of worship (lex orandi), theology (lex credendi), life (lex vivendi) is emphasized in the Christian sphere. Nevertheless, God's mission as the role of Christians was not highlighted in their relationship. The Commitment of Cape Town strongly stresses that Christians accomplishes God's mission with holistic ways in domains of gospel, world, church. In this study, the notion of lex orandi, lex credendi, lex vivendi will be explained about relationship and interaction. Then the Commitment of Cape Town will be analyzed in detail in connection with lex orandi, lex credendi, lex vivendi. The researcher uses the literature review method with answer to one question, that is ‘what is the true role of Christians in the world?’ The result of this study concluded that when Christians stand before God holistically in the notion of lex orandi, lex credendi, and lex vivendi, Christians can live by accomplishing God's mission in the church, with gospel, and into the world.
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Moe, David Thang. "Christianity as a Majority Religion of the Ethnic Minorities in Myanmar: Exploring Triple Dialogue in the Currents of World Christianity." Expository Times 131, no. 2 (May 17, 2019): 45–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0014524619847930.
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It is common to say that Christianity is a minority religion in Asia. Yet this article argues that Christianity is a majority religion of the ethnic minorities in Southeast Asia in general and Myanmar in particular and that one dimension of dialogue is not adequate in an age of world Christianity. Using a ‘triple dialogue’ as a methodology, the article explores three of the most salient issues of Myanmar ethnic minorities in the currents of world Christianity. First, the article revisits a cross-cultural relationship between foreign missionaries and locals in a colonial period and how Western mission impacts on Christians’ relationship with people of other faiths. Second, it explores the current issues of interreligious relationship between Christians and Buddhists and how Christian-Buddhist interaction plays a role in developing Christianity as a Myanmar local religion in a postcolonial mission period. Finally, it examines an intercultural hospitality between the ethnic Christian migrants and Western Christians and a ‘glocal’ relationship between migrants and their homeland Christians in a post-Western Christian period.
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Videbech, Christina. "Christians, Memory, and Resilience in the Late Antique Forum Romanum." Acta ad archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia 34, no. 20 N.S. (March 7, 2024): 109–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.5617/acta.11151.
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The conversion of the Curia in the Forum Romanum in the 7th century is often regarded as the culmination of Christian presence in the old city centre. Finally, Christians, who had previously avoided the pagan heart of Rome, conquered this space. However, Christians had been present in more or less visible ways since the 4th century. This paper presents the evidence for this presence as recorded in both texts and archaeology to dispense with scholarly truisms of Christians avoiding the Forum before the 6th century. By applying the theory of collective memory and resilience theory, Christian changes in Rome are studied as human strategies to cope with changing times and circumstances, ensuring the Forum space’s resilience in the process. The author suggests that, far from being rejected by Rome’s Christian inhabitants, the cultural heritage was part of their identity and would continue to be so during the Middle Ages. Christianity was not a break with the past, but a natural continuation of ancient Rome, at least according to the Christians themselves.
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Craft, Christy Moran, and Yang Yang. "Academic experiences, perceptions of curricular diversity, and academic performance: A study of undergraduate Christian students in faith-based student organizations." Journal of Campus Activities Practice and Scholarship 2, no. 2 (September 2020): 13–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.52499/2020009.
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The purpose of this study was to gain a better understanding of undergraduate Christian students involved in faith-based student organizations at one public, Midwestern research university. Specifically, we were interested in examining select academic experiences, perceptions of the religious and spiritual diversity in the curriculum, and the academic performance of these students as compared to other Christian students and non-Christian students. To that end, we analyzed data collected through a campus climate survey. Findings revealed that Christian students in faith-based student organizations had more favorable perceptions of their academic experiences and the religious and spiritual diversity in the curriculum than did non-Christians, and their academic performance (measured by GPA) was more likely to be higher than that of other Christians and non-Christians. We present several implications for practice, most of which pertain to recognizing and addressing Christian privilege along with encouraging students of all religious and spiritual identities to become involved in relevant faith-based student organizations on campus.
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Salem, Salem A. "Muslims and Christians Face to Face." American Journal of Islam and Society 15, no. 2 (July 1, 1998): 137–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v15i2.2187.
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Muslims and Christians Face to Face is an academic research work thatobserves the various response of Muslims to Christianity and Christians toIslam. It is written by Kate Zebiri, who is a lecturer in Arabic and IslamicStudies at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.In the first chapter, "Factors Influencing Muslim-Christian Relations," Zebiridiscusses the four factors that affect Mu Jim and Christian perceptions of eachother.The first factor is what the Qur'an says about Christians and Christianity, andthe way in which the Qur'anic material has been interpreted. With regards to thisfactor the author discusses the Qur'anic awareness of religious plurality, theQur'anic perception of Jesus, the earthly end of Jesus in the Qur'an, and what theQur'anic verses say about the salvation of the People of the Book in the hereafter.Moreover, Zebiri tries to draw attention to the difference between what theQur'an says about Christians and Christianity, and the way in which the Qur'anicmaterial has been interpreted, and the difference between the commentators' andjurists' positions toward Christianity, in both the classic and contemporary periods.The second factor is the history of Muslim-Christian relations and the affectof historical memory. Here the author describes the relation between the ArabMuslim conquest and the Byzantine Christian Empire; the situation ofChristians under Muslim rule; the affect of the Crusades on the Muslims' attitudesto Christianity; the development of the Christian attitude to Islam fromignorance during the European Christendom, to anti-Muslim polemic attitude toconduct studies on Islam based on reliable sources after the Renaissance, tousing Islam as a theme in internal Christian polemic during the time of theReformation, to admiring Islam for its own sake in the Enlightenment; and finally,the attitude of both liberal and conservative Christians to Islam today.The third factor is the relationship between Christian missions and imperialismand the influence this has on the Muslim attitude toward Christianity today.With regards to this factor, the author explores the interrelationship betweenColonialism and Christian missions, and how it has been implanted in theMuslim consciousness and become part of the anti-Western discourse.The fourth factor is Christian and Muslim views on dialogue. In this pare theauthor shows the Christian acknowledgment of Islam as a result of the Christianecumenical movement She states that Muslims have been slow to initiate andparticipate in organized dialogue. In addition, she mentions that many Christiansand Muslims see dialogue as antithetical to their mission or da'wah, believingthat one compromises the other ...
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Beaumont, Mark. "Christianity seen by Muslims and Islam seen by Christians in the Period of Early Islamic Rule in the Middle East." International Journal of Asian Christianity 5, no. 2 (August 30, 2022): 195–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/25424246-05020004.
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Abstract This paper highlights a context where Christians lived under Muslim rule. Muslim critique of Christianity was widespread, and Christians had to react to Muslim dominance by finding ways of responding to criticisms without incurring punishment for rebellious attitudes to their rulers. In the first two centuries after the Arab conquest of the largely Christian Middle East, Muslims viewed Christians as needing correction for their mistaken beliefs about the oneness of God in their deviant Trinity, about the humanity of Jesus in their insistence on his divine status, about the death of Jesus by crucifixion when this had not happened, and for their failure to recognise the finality of the Prophet Muḥammad in their suppression of testimony to his coming in the Bible. Christians viewed Muslims as heretics who had diverted from the true Christian faith in the Trinity and the divinity and crucifixion of Jesus and who looked for prophecies of Muḥammad in the Bible that did not exist. Muslims and Christians searched each other’s scriptures to persuade the other that their interpretations might need correcting. As the centuries passed in the Middle East, Christians steadily embraced Islam. By the time of the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century, the vast majority of the population were Muslims.
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Buell, Denise Kimber. "Producing Descent/Dissent: Clement of Alexandria's Use of Filial Metaphors as Intra-Christian Polemic." Harvard Theological Review 90, no. 1 (January 1997): 89–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017816000006192.
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In the second century, Christians vied with each other to produce an authoritative discourse on Christian identity. Some early Christians deployed historically- and culturally-specific notions of procreation and kinship in their struggles with each other over claims to represent the truth of Christian biblical interpretation, practices, and doctrine. The extant writings of the late second-century Christian author Clement of Alexandria offer a generous range of contexts for exploring the nuances of this practice. This study comprises one facet of a larger investigation into early Christian use of procreative and kinship imagery in discourses about Christian identity in the second century CE.