Journal articles on the topic 'Christianity – Economic aspects'

The relationship between Islam and Christianity in various regions is often confronted with situations caused by external factors. They no longer debate the theological aspect, but are based on the political economy and social culture aspects. In the Dieng village, the economic resources are mostly dominated by Christians as early Christianized product as the process of Kiai Sadrach's chronicle. Economic mastery was not originally as the main trigger of the conflict. However, as the political map post 1965, in which many Muslims affiliated to the Indonesian Communist Party convert to Christianity, the relationship between Islam and Christianity is heating up. The question of the dominance of political economic resources of Christians is questionable. This research to explore the socio cultural and religious impact of the conversion of PKI to Christian in rural Dieng and Slamet Pekalongan and Banjarnegara. This qualitative research data was extracted by in-depth interviews, observations and supported by data from Dutch archives, National Archives and Christian Synod of Salatiga. Research has found the conversion of the PKI to Christianity has sparked hostility and deepened the social relations of Muslims and Christians in Kasimpar, Petungkriono and Karangkobar. The culprit widened by involving the network of Wonopringgo Islamic Boarding. It is often seen that existing conflicts are no longer latent, but lead to a form of manifest conflict that decomposes in the practice of social life.

AbstractThe development of South Korea and its growth to become the world’s eleventh largest economy has been accompanied by the introduction of Christianity and its increase to become the major religious group, to which nearly thirty per cent of the population are affiliated. This article probes the connection between these two spectacular examples of development; economic and religious. By highlighting moments or episodes of Christian contribution to aspects of development in Korean history and linking these to relevant aspects of Korean Christian theology, there is shown to be a constructive, although not always intentional, link between Korean Christianity and national development. The nature of the Christian contribution is seen not primarily in terms of the work ethic it engenders (as argued by Max Weber in the case of European capitalism) but mainly in the realm of aspirations (visions, hope) of a new society and motivation (inspiration, empowerment) to put them into effect. In other words, it was the public theology of Christianity that played a highly significant role in the modernization and revitalization of Korean society in the twentieth century.

AbstractThe international growth of Pentecostalism has seen a rush of congregations in Africa, many of which have tapped into a range of both local and global trends ranging from neo-liberal capitalism to tele-evangelism to youth music. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this discussion focuses on the main Johannesburg congregation of a grouping of churches that have successfully engaged with aspects of socio-economic transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. Such engagement has involved conspicuous alignment with aspects of contemporary South African society, including an acceptance of broader policy projects of the nation state. I argue that the use of a variety of symbolic and thematic elements of a secular nature in the Sunday services of this church reminds and inspires congregants to consider wider social perspectives without challenging the sacred realm of faith.

Abstract Several theories emerged, based on the Christian conversion of lower caste communities in colonial India. The social and economic aspects predominate the study of religious conversion among the lower castes in Kerala. Most of these studies only explored the lower caste conversion after the legal abolition of slavery in Kerala (1855). The existing literature followed the mass movement phenomena. These studies ignore the slave lifeworld and conversion history before the abolition period, and they argued, through religious conversion, the former slave castes began breaking social and caste hierarchy with the help of Protestant Christianity. The dominant Dalit Christian historiography does not open the complexity of slave Christian past. Against this background, this paper explores the history of slave caste conversion before the abolition period. From the colonial period, the missionary writings bear out that the slaves were hostile to and suspicious of new religions. They accepted Christianity only cautiously. It was a conscious choice, even as many Dalits refused Christian teachings.

The article examines the mentality closeness of Ukraine with Western European civilization. The geopolitical position of Ukraine on the border of Europe (West) and Asia (East) complicates the civilizational self-identification of Ukrainians is emphasized. Such features are due, on the one hand, to strong ties with European countries and de facto geographical affiliation with Europe, and on the other – proximity to Eastern civilization and long-term influence of Russia, which led to involvement in Asian civilization. Ukraine has been a part of the European space since the adoption of Christianity is substantiated. Its European essence has been historically shaped by geographical location, inclusion in European civilization by economic and cultural ties. The basic values and features of the Ukrainian mentality were correlated with the mental principles of the peoples of European countries and it was found that the greatest similarity between Ukraine and European states at the mental level are Ukrainian freedom, individualism and desire for democracy as opposed to Russian despotism and authoritarianism. These features of the Ukrainian mentality have enabled the historical preservation and revival of the Ukrainian nation, help to develop further and become a developed European country not only geographically and economically, but also spiritually is claimed . After all, it is not enough to achieve high economic standards and decent material life as an external form, to integrate into Europe is important at the internal level – values, spiritual and cultural, increase the number of active educated citizens, which is the core of development and progress – actively build civil society. In case of Ukraine's accession to the EU, Europeans will be able to discover Ukraine not only as an arena of political scandals and national upheavals, but also to discover positive mentality traits of Ukrainians – peace and tolerance, emotionality, creativity, high receptivity to new ideas, ability to adapt to different conditions is noted. Keywords: mentality, Ukraine, Europe, civilization theory, European civilization, Eurasian civilization, value system European integration, national identity, civil society.

In the late fifties, Christianity was a provincial religious movement rooted in Jewish beliefs, practice, and history. This gives to a model of Christian attitudes to Rome three natural dimensions: provincial, Jewish, and distinctively Christian. A provisional list of attitudes is constructed by considering issues that were significant for each group. The resulting list has six elements: awe at Rome's prestige, power and wealth; appreciation of Roman peace, economic prosperity, partial protection of Diaspora communities, and laws permitting Jewish practice; resentment at taxation, occupation of Israel, and poor governing of Judaea; contempt for Roman religious beliefs and certain aspects of morality; denial of ultimate authority; and expectation of overthrow. This combination could be used as a grid for interpreting the Roman dimension of Paul's letter.

This study aims at examining the generic structure of Muslim and Christian wedding invitation genre in the Jordanian society. It is a sociolinguistic study. The researcher believes that considering many aspects of these invitation cards such as form, structure and so forth, may provide a lot of information about the social dimensions of those who tend to hold a wedding ceremony. The data are elicited through a questionnaire that consists of twenty-five items compiled from invitation cards for both Muslims and Christians. The findings of the study show that the form of the invitation cards in Islam and Christianity in the Jordanian society is systematic and influenced by social, economic, and religious factors. Finally, this study recommends that further research to be conducted investigating other invitation cards for other events in the Jordanian society such as invitation cards for attending meetings, lectures, celebrations, royal feasts, tribal reconciliation, etc.

This article discusses the relationship between Christian and Jewish Orthodox women with their sacred books (the Christian Bible and the Torah respectively) from a feminist point of view. While recent socio-economic changes have enabled women from an orthodox religious background to become financially independent and ultimately prosperous, from a religious perspective women’s status has not undergone major transformations. Using the cognitive principle of conceptual blending, I will focus on common aspects in Orthodox Judaism and Christianity related to sacred texts as objects, in order to shed light on the religious understanding of prosperity in the twenty-first century, beyond that of empowerment as financial gain or social status. The importance ascribed to authoritative texts both as images of divinity and sacred objects of veneration is a common trait of Orthodox Judaism and Christianity. The gendered perception of the sacred is most prominent in two similar processions. Simchat Torah, a Jewish holiday which celebrates the yearly reading cycle of the Torah, is actively celebrated only by men, who are the ones to carry the Torah scrolls. Similarly, the orthodox Good Friday procession involves a cross and the church’s copy of the Scripture together with the Holy Epitaph being carried only by men. The ban on women to carry sacred objects, at least at appointed times, as well as women’s responses in the two communities will be analysed comparatively to establish whether women commonly perceived as prosperous can make steps in order to re-evaluate the theological implications of this restriction.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to use international survey data to investigate the effects of religiosity, religious denomination, communist heritage, and socio-economic development on work values. Design/methodology/approach – First, religiosity and work values are conceptualized. Next, the relationships among these concepts are discussed and the hypotheses, variables, and data are presented. Finally, the results of the empirical tests are presented and the theoretical and managerial implications, as well as avenues for future research, are discussed. Findings – It is found that socio-economic development negatively, whereas religiosity and communist heritage positively, influence extrinsic work values. Further analysis reveals that religiosity has a quadratic relationship with intrinsic work values. Conspicuously, after controlling for the effects of religiosity, no significant association is found between religious denominations and work values. Research limitations/implications – The current analysis relies only on national/societal level data and overlooks the effects of independent variables (religiosity and communist heritage) at the individual level. Furthermore, the methodologies and measurements of religiosity and work values are of a limited scope. Thus, future studies may look into the effects of religiosity on work values at the individual level and apply other conceptualizations and measures to test the validity of the results. Practical implications – Based on the findings of this study, it can be suggested that the use of intrinsic rewards might be less appropriate in the societies marked by communist heritage or high religiosity. On the contrary, these societies may embrace more extrinsic work values associated with direct, restrictive, and tangible aspects of work. Originality/value – This study contributes to the literature by conceptualizing, measuring, and incorporating various variables into the research design and by providing original insights into the influence of religion on work values. Furthermore, this study suggests that, at least with regard to work values, religiosity (the strength of one’s conviction for their religion) is more important than religious denomination (Protestantism, Catholicism, Islam, Orthodox Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism).

The prehistoric period has ended formally in Indonesia with the discovery of the first writings from around the 4-5th century AD, in many places in Indonesia there are still visible signs of the persistence of prehistoric traditions far into the historical period to the present. Ethnographic sources that describe the lives of several isolated tribes which are somewhat isolated from the pace of the modernization process in this country, contain indications that prehistoric elements still exist in the lives of these communities. Some of these elements that settle in some aspects of socio-economic life and beliefs can be returned to their origins in the farming period. The most prominent among the remnants of that life is the tradition of worshiping ancestors both embodied in megalithic buildings as well as those conceived in the mind, although several religious conceptions such as Hindu-Buddhist, Islam and Christianity in layers form the mind. Indonesian spirituality. The research method used in this paper is a literature study, some related literature according to the context is included in this paper. The purpose of the study is to describe the remnants of prehistoric life in several regions in Indonesia to the present.

This paper discusses the history of Cantor Cristão, the first official Brazilian Baptist hymnal, published in 1891, revealing important aspects of the development of Protestant hymnody in Brazil. It also exposes a web of long-distance connections, multiple linguistic and cultural elements, and distinct perspectives of those who chose to do missionary work and those who chose to welcome them. More specifically, I describe and reflect on the contributions of Solomon L. Ginsburg, an Orthodox Jew from Poland, converted to Christianity in England, and turned Evangelical missionary, who played a crucial role in the history of Cantor Cristão as publisher, author, and translator of hymns. In my analysis, I adopt a historical ethnomusicological perspective and utilize the concept of musical localization, as well as the complementary notions of negotiation of proximity and ethics of style as interpretative lenses. I am drawn to a more nuanced view of the legacy of the mission enterprise, one that is not blind to issues of power, ethnocentrism, and wealth, but makes room for a robust examination of all sorts of capital transfers and investments (economic, cultural, and social), and the real phenomena of musical localization and individual agency.

The study is based on the identifying religious (spiritual) factors important for innovative thinking in entrepreneurship and management. The author uses the Weber´s inspiring perspective analyzing the capitalism through the innovative religious concepts. It means that besides philosophical, sociological and psychological aspects there are very important and powerful religious roots which have a major impact on the emergence, development, and maintenance of the economic environment, business and management. These “self-transcendent” factors are described as fundamental roots used till today in the general spiritual concepts creating the needed frame and support of innovative thinking in entrepreneurial and managerial activities looking for any “new spirit of capitalism”. Identified spiritual character of business potentials is distinguished by positive and negative spiritual (religious) factors based on world’s religions. General religious (spiritual) factors are reflected on the background of basic selected religious systems Judaism, Christianity (Protestantism, Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy) Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and other Asian directions. The study culminates in the discovery of religiosity of the capitalism itself. All the above-mentioned points are important contribution for better understanding of current multi-cultural and multi-religious growing trends.

The 20th Century was a new phase of Dutch colonialism in Indonesia. The existence of colonialism in Indonesia brought impacts and changes in several aspects such as economic, politic, social, and culture. Some districts in Java run into a transition from a traditional society into a modern one. To muslims, the changes brought another impact. Muslim in some places in Java comonly thrive into a positive progress. It could be seen in the forming of Islamic organization, Islamic pers growth, and modernization of Islamic education. In Purwokerto, in the early 20th century, it grew and became one of the busiest cities in the district of Banyumas residency as well as one of the most important cities in the southern part of Central Java. That growth made a certain impact to Muslim community in Purwokerto. In the early 20th century, they were divided into 4 religious organizations thus are Serikat Islam, Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama, dan Ahmadiyah. Besides, the growth of Muslim community in Purwokerto in this era was along with the growth of Christianity and Chatolic community which was introduced by Dutch Colony. Therefore, this research aims to find out had Muslim community in Purwokerto made progress as were in other common district in Java in that era or vice versa? and why?

Cultural influence plays an important role in the association of attitudes towards science, this varies between countries because cultural context, including linguistic, social, political, economic, philosophical and religious aspects, determine and shape attitudes towards science. Cultural influence is the way we view the world. Learning, therefore, cannot be separated from its socio-cultural context (Vygotsky, 1987). Students carry their attitudes towards science into the classroom based upon their socio-cultural background influence. For example, Asian students choose a science predominantly even though science-based careers are less economically profitable because of their families’ important impact on their choice and science-related choices have a very great prestige within the Asian cultures. Whereas students within the western cultures are individualist and make attractive choices reflecting their personal enjoyment and skills to a more considerable effect. Moreover, in Turkish culture, science-related careers also have a great prestige and have been perceived as very important for the country’s development and therefore students’ attitudes towards science is very positive even though their performance on the PISA is lower than average. As a result of different cultures holding different attitudes towards science and science-related careers, there is a great impact upon student uptake of science and science-related careers. Key words: career choice, Christianity, culture, family influence, Islam, religion, science attitudes, science.

Five decades after the United Nation's first conference on the environment in 1972, the IPCC warned that ‘any further delay in concerted anticipatory global action on adaptation and mitigation will miss a brief and rapidly closing window of opportunity to secure a liveable and sustainable future for all’. Faced with steeply rising greenhouse gas emissions, accelerating biodiversity loss and continued degradation of oceans, forests and soil, the situation appears increasingly baffling. Why do we not see effective measures to turn these developments around? As the situation grows dire, it becomes more mysterious: what exactly is this crisis and why has it proven so difficult to solve? If the problem persists, is it because it is not properly understood? Yet, the environmental question has been studied for decades and diagnoses are legion: capitalism, colonialism, overpopulation, economic growth, humanity's inherent short-sightedness, patriarchy, the private property system – or the tragedy of the commons, the disconnect from nature in Western culture, corporate anti-environmental campaigns, the Neolithic adoption of agriculture – or its more recent industrialisation, the miscommunication of environmentalists and scientists, Christianity and neoliberalism have all been proposed as fundamental causes of the crisis. Despite this long and rich history of debate, it may be, as Pierre Charbonnier argues, that we need a more precise understanding of the ‘ecological question’ to find a way out of the present impasse. In line with Katrina Forrester and Sophie Smith's argument, we are convinced that such rethinking of the environmental must be historical, but also that it must pay special attention to economic aspects. Since the end of the Second World War, economics has risen to prominence as a form of expertise in governance at the expense of other kinds of knowledge, and the environment has become closely intertwined with the economic in the ways it has been governed. In that light, it is not surprising that current discussions among scholars, climate scientists, politicians and social movements hold that the environmental crisis calls for a reevaluation of the economic. History is central to this endeavour and can be ‘usable’ in the current crisis, as it, in Deborah Coen's words, can ‘reveal the contingent and often contradictory traces of the past in the present – and to provide clarity for the future’. In this introduction we discuss three partially overlapping ways in which historical perspectives can be helpful to the effort of constructing an ecologically stable society. In contrast to the general tendency in the twenty-first century academy to divide into ever more specialised fields, we call for a broader conversation among historians of the economic and of the environmental to reveal the paths that brought us here – and the ones not taken. We need new histories of thought, institutions, movements and governance that combine the economic and the environmental to reach a better understanding of the present crisis, decode the specific mechanisms of inaction in the face of looming catastrophe, and strive towards more apt formulations of the environmental. We wish to contribute to an emerging conversation located at the intersection of history of economic thought, intellectual history and political history more generally by pointing to strands of research that could be drawn together and that this special issue is meant to engage in dialogue.

The author claims that the concept of human rights arose on European soil as a result of certain cultural, political, and economic factors. Its primary base is formed by Christian ideas, secularized with the dissolution of feudalism and the spread of capitalism. In particular, this concept synthesized the Christian ideas of God’s likeness of man and the omnipresence of God: being god-like, man, like God, may be present in all things, though not in all at once. The main beneficiary was the bourgeoisie, who used personal rights to destroy feudal institutions, political rights to establish control over the state, and economic and social rights to mitigate class contradictions and distract their opponents. The religious origin of rights is the key to understanding their important features such as the absence of logical basis for human rights; helplessness of the law in front of acts that undermine the foundations of order and are marked as acts of self-realization; extraordinary diversity of rights, etc. There are several directions of human rights criticism (conservative, moderateliberal, Marxist and Christian). All of them assume that human rights neither adequately reflect human nature, nor take into account some of its aspects. Indeed, man is not only an individual seeking to choose, but also a member of a collective who needs a recognition (conservatism); a being alienated from labor and racial life (Marxism); a believer seeking to avoid sin (early Christianity) and obedient to divine will (Islam); a being who suffers from constant suffering and seeks to be saved from it (Buddhism); a victim of civilization, oppressed by the flow of information and the need for constant choice This inadequacy entails a destructive effect: the concept of rights creates a monochrome picture, on which, the human existence is reduced to act of will; gives rise to logical contradictions; destroys reality, monopolizing the axiological basis of cooperation; is used as a tool of submission and domination; creates an absolute justa causa; alienates from existence and forms the basis for other levels of the mythological structure. The history of human rights is not complete: It seems that today humanity is on the eve of fundamental transformations, whose content and final result are difficult to predict.

Upon annexing Kenya as a colony, the British colonial administration established different structures to support its political and economic agenda. One of those structures was the office of colonial chiefs. Among the Nandi of Kenya, indigenous leaders, especially the office of the Orkoiyot, were maintained where most of them were appointed as chiefs at the onset of colonial rule. However, the new appointees were no longer leaders derived from the traditional processes of the Nandi. Yet, the transformative role of these chiefs in Kenya during the colonial period cannot be overlooked as they were referred to as the agents of social change. Therefore, the study investigated the transformative role of colonial chiefs in Nandi, Kenya from 1902-1963. The study employed the Elite theory and Principal-Agent theories. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The target population comprised former colonial chiefs, Nandi community elders, current chiefs who knew the history of their office of chieftaincy in the community. The inclusion criteria comprised variables such as geographical distribution, age and command of historical knowledge of the Nandi colonial chiefs. Data was collected using a questioning guideline, interviews and secondary sources. Therefore, apart from the respondents, the primary sources included archival material on colonial and post-colonial chiefs as well as their roles, collected at the Kenya National Archives in Nairobi and Kakamega, and the information from the County Government offices. Oral interviews were tape-recorded. Secondary sources were obtained from research libraries in Kenya and subjected to content analysis. Data from the interviews and document analysis was analysed thematically. The themes were derived from the objectives of the study and from the reviewed literature. Data from the questionnaire was analysed using descriptive statistics. The results showed that that the Nandi colonial chiefs played significant roles in the social transformation of their people. These included introduction of education, health care and Christianity. From these results, more studies are needed to develop a comprehensive documentation of the contribution of colonial chiefs to different aspects of socio-economic and political transformation, such as security, tourism, agriculture, education, health care, transport infrastructure, politics, substance abuse-related issues and environmental conservation. Such a documentation will provide a reference point for evaluating contemporary leadership challenges in Kenya’s ongoing history.

The article describes the main thesis of the teaching of the Chuvash ethnic religion Sardash, which is based on the key principles of Zoroastrianism; highlights some of its history and research issues; analyzes the current state of the traditional faith and its importance in the life of the people. An attempt was also made to reveal the role of the religious factor in ethnic identification and the formation of the ethnic mentality of the Chuvash people from the historical and socio-cultural perspective. The problem is considered in three aspects: 1) the interaction of traditional religious belief of the Chuvashes with Orthodox Christianity; 2) the influence of Islam (the religion of the related Turkic peoples – Tatars and Bashkirs) on the mentality of the Chuvashes; 3) the functioning of the Chuvash ethnic religion Sardash in modern conditions. The authors conclude that ethnic religion, which is preserved in the daily life of the Chuvashes in the form of «teaching of ancestors», as well as in prayers, mythology and folklore, forms the basis of centuries-old ethnic mentality, expressing spiritual values, behavioral principles and life aspirations of people. Ethnic religion contains the psychological roots of the Chuvash mentality, the phenomenon of the Chuvash inflexibility and the Chuvash character. Traditional faith has a profound impact on the lifestyle and behavior of many modern Chuvashes, determines their worldview and ethnic identity. The adherence of the Chuvash people to the «teaching of ancestors» is explained by the need to survive in difficult geopolitical and demographic conditions, the desire to preserve the lifestyles and social arrangements that have been established for centuries, and the aspiration to communal and economic well-being. In modern conditions, the rites of the Chuvash ethnic religion can be a significant factor in the development of ethnic tourism in the Chuvash Republic.

Настоящая статья посвящена обзору важного исторического события в жизни народностей Чувашского края - христианизации, в период с середины XVI в. до начала XVIII в. Как будет указано далее, этническая и культурная среда Средневолжских народностей отличается богатым составом, объединяя в себе черты разных религий. Процесс же введения христианской религии занял довольно долгое время, а результаты просветительской деятельности подвергаются оцениванию до сих пор. С точностью можно сказать, что основной импульс христианизации был задан двумя источниками: миссионерами Русской Православной Церкви и государственной властью. Интересы Первой распространялись в первую очередь в связи с необходимостью исполнения слов Иисуса Христа в Евангелии (идите, научите все народы, крестя их (Мф. 28, 19)), в то время как властям необходимо было решать свои насущные проблемы. Так, для царской, а затем и имперской системы, принципиально важно было стабилизировать социальную и экономическую стороны жизни во всех регионах - в связи с этим вопрос добровольного и поощряемого Крещения в Православие вышел на новый уровень. Исходя их имеющихся сведений, достаточно затруднительно дать точную оценку трансформации чувашских народов из языческих в христианские, поскольку и сам фундамент социокультурного и религиозного опыта народов, и не слишком эффективный метод просвещения оказались недостаточно продуктивны, приводя к росту общин лишь на малое время, после чего так называемые новокрещены вновь возвращались к религии предков, адаптируя к ней новые образы и терминологию из христианства. This article is devoted to an overview of an important historical event in the life of the peoples of the Chuvash region - Christianization, in the period from the middle of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th century. As will be indicated below, the ethnic and cultural environment of the Middle Volga peoples is distinguished by a rich composition, combining the features of different religions. The process of introducing the Christian religion took quite a long time, and the results of educational activities are still being evaluated. It can be said with certainty that the main impetus for Christianization was given by two sources: the missionaries of the Russian Orthodox Church and the government. The interests of the First spread primarily in connection with the need to fulfill the words of Jesus Christ in the Gospel (go, teach all nations by baptizing them (Matthew 28, 19)), while the authorities needed to solve their pressing problems. So, for the tsarist, and then the imperial system, it was fundamentally important to stabilize the social and economic aspects of life in all regions - in this regard, the issue of voluntary and encouraged Baptism into Orthodoxy reached a new level. Based on the available information, it is rather difficult to give an accurate assessment of the transformation of the Chuvash peoples from pagan to Christian, since the very foundation of the socio-cultural and religious experience of peoples, and the not very effective method of enlightenment turned out to be insufficiently productive, leading to the growth of communities only for a short time, after which the newly-baptized ones again returned to the religion of their ancestors, adapting new images and terminology from Christianity to it.

The interest to analyse the phenomenon of the exposure of religious symbols, particularly of the crucifix, in state schools in Italy and the principle of secularism, derives from the cultural and constitutional peculiarities that this system presents, as a consequence of the historical and cultural events that have influenced its ordering. First of all, it must be pointed out, as indeed it is evident, that Catholicism was the dominant faith for about two thousand years, and until recently, almost the only one. The Catholic religion has crossed the entire history of the country, penetrating and intertwining with the socio-cultural dynamics. For this reason, the Italian constitutional history has been crossed by the principle of tolerance. The latter can be considered clearly out-dated only with the Republican Constitution of 1948, thus the legal system emptied itself of its confessionalism. The last few years, as a result of strong migratory flows, the religious-cultural landscape, not only in Italy, but throughout Europe it seems to have changed. Other cultures have brought their own customs, languages and religions like a wave. Thus we are witnessing an extraordinary social, economic and juridical transformation. In this multicultural mosaic, the clash between civilizations could not be missing. Minorities have in many cases felt they were discriminated against, bullied and offended by the display in public buildings (schools, courtrooms, hospitals, etc.) of the symbol par excellence of Christianity, namely the crucifix, arousing the protest of parents of different faiths. All this has produced legal conflicts and jurisprudential rulings that have involved the European Court of Human Rights itself. This discussion aims to analyze from a socio-juridical point of view, the consequences of religious symbology external to educational institutions and to be able to give a juridical truth, stripped of religious indoctrination. This path will not be easy since every element inherent to religion touches delicate aspects, linked in particular with what is most profound in the people and culture of a country. Received: 2 March 2021 / Accepted: 14 April 2021 / Published: 10 May 2021

Summary. Religious differences may rise and actually historically rose tensions and even wars. In the history, Christians also caused wars and were a threat to social integration and peace, despite the fact that Christianity is a religion of peace. God in Christians’ vision is a God of peace, and the birth of Son of God was to give peace «among men in whom he is well pleased» (Lk 2,14b). Although Christians themselves caused wars, died in them, were murdered and had to fight, the social doctrine of Christianity is focused on peace. Also the social thought of the Roman Catholic Church strives to build peace. Over the years, the social teaching of the Roman Catholic Church was formed, which sees the conditions and foundations for peace. These are: the dignity of the human person, the natural law, human rights, common good, truth, freedom, love and social justice. The development of the Roman Catholic Church’s teaching on peace was contributed by popes of XX century: Pius XI (1922–1939), Pius XII (1939–1958), with high impact – John XXIII (1958–1963), Paul VI (1963–1978), Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) and Pope Benedict XVI (2005–2013). After Pope Benedict XVI’s resignation, the most important role of the preceptor in the Church of Rome fulfills Francis – the pope from Argentina. Although his pontificate is not long, and teaching is not complete, but you can tell that he continues to build the social doctrine of the Roman Church in matters of peace through the development of so-called «culture of encounter». Based on selected speeches and letters of two years’ pontificate of Francis, the first figure of «culture of encounter» can be lined out as a way of preventing and resolving tensions in the contemporary world. Fundamentals of the concept of dialogue Francis created in the days of being a Jesuit priest and professor at Jesuit universities. He based it on the concept of Romano Guardini’s dialogue. Foundations of the look at the dialogue – in terms of Jorge Mario Bergoglio are strictly theological: God enters into dialogue with man, what enables man to «leaving himself» and enter into dialogue with others. Bergoglio dealt with various aspects of the dialogue: the Church and the world, culture and faith, dialogue between religions and cultures, dialogue inter-social and inter-national, dialogue rising solidarity and co-creating the common good. According to him the dialogue is a continuous task, not a single event; is overcoming widespread «culture of effacement» and «culture of fight» towards a «culture of encounter»; it releases from autism, isolation, gives strength and meaning of life, renews the ability to listen, lets looking at community in the perspective of the whole and not just selected units. As Bishop of Rome Jorge Mario Bergoglio continues and develops his idea of «a culture of dialogue and encounter». In promoting dialogue, he sees his own mission and permanent commitment imposed on him. He promotes the atmosphere – a kind of «music» – of dialogue, by basing it on emotions, respect, intuition, lack of threat and on trust. The dialogue in this sense sees a partner in each person, values the exchange always positively, and as a result it leads to making life ethical, bringing back respect for life and rights of every human being, granting the world a more human face. «Culture of encounter» has the power of social integration: it removes marginalization, the man is the goal not the means of actions, it does not allow a man to be reduced to a mere object, tools for profit or authority, but includes him into a community that is created by people and for their benefit. Society integrated in this way, constantly following «culture of encounter» rule, renews itself all the time and continually builds peace. All people are called to such building: believers and those who do not believe, all of good will. Also, the heads of state have in this effort of breaking the spiral of violence and a «culture of conflict» – both in economic and political dimension – big task and responsibility. Pope Francis reminded about this in a special letter to president of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on September 14, 2014 year. In the letter he wrote: «it is clear that, for the world’s peoples, armed conflicts are always a deliberate negation of international harmony, and create profound divisions and deep wounds which require many years to heal. Wars are a concrete refusal to pursue the great economic and social goals that the international community has set itself, as seen, for example, in the Millennium Development Goals. Unfortunately, the many armed conflicts which continue to afflict the world today present us daily with dramatic images of misery, hunger, illness and death. Without peace, there can be no form of economic development. Violence never begets peace, the necessary condition for development». On thebasis of the current teaching of PopeFrancisthe following conclusion can be drawn, thatthe key topeace in the worldin many dimensions- evenbetweenreligions–isadialoguedeveloped under «cultureof encounter».

Abstract There is an increasing acceptance that every theology is contextual. There is an equally commensurate rising concerns whether contextualization in theology is not undermining Christianity and devaluing the concept of ‘the Truth’. Among the reasons for this problem are the consequence of a blemished Christian history, the eternal truth of God in an ephemeral world, and the upsurge of pluralistic theologies with the ‘de-westernization’ of Christian theology. These have thematized contextualization in contemporary theology as important and at the same time, problematic. This work rather argues that contextualization has been part of Christianity in the interpretation and propagation of Christ’s message, and that as far as it is an indispensable aspect of Christian theologies, it must neither devalue Christian religiosity nor suggest that the eternal God who happened in history can be subjected to historicity. Through the exposé of the social-territorial, political, religious and economic contexts, and the analysis of the doctrinal, exegetical and missiological historicity of Christianity, this work reflects contextualization in different phases of Christian developments, and its relevance in the present time. It tries to establish that Christianity happened in context, and that it continues to happen in context to every person, group or culture it meets. Contextualization is a strength of Christianity.

The article analyzes the beliefs and practical activities of synthetic neo-religions on issues of family, marriage, marital life, children’s education, attitude to parents, etc. In particular, the position of Baha'i Faith, Unification Church and Church of Scientology is considered. The peculiarity of this research is the complex analysis of the doctrine and practice of these neo-religious movements and finding of common aspects in their views on family values, both among themselves and with traditional religions. It emphasizes their syncretism and refute the available warning in society about the destructive influence of neo-religions’ beliefs on established family values. In the teaching of the Unification Church, the issue of the family, marital relations, holiness and purity of marital ties, the inadmissibility of premarital and extra-marital relations occupy one of the central places. In the doctrine of the Baha'i Faith, the vital importance is given to the institution of the family. It emphasizes the sanctity of marriage, the equality of men and women in their rights, privileges, upbringing and social status. The Baha'i recognize the principle of equal rights, opportunities and privileges for men and women, the requirement of monogamy and marital fidelity. In the teaching of the Church of Scientology, the family is regarded as an important bricks of society: the biological model of family relationships and the development of an organism is that ensures the continuation of human existence. Marriage is the basis of a family. The family is the closest union in a society, which provides itself for the continuation of own existence and own protection. The family is also necessary for the society by an economic point of view. According to Scientologists, the whole culture will perish if its foundation - the family - will cease to exist. Thus, in their opinion, there is no doubt that the one who destroys the marriage union also destroys civilization. It is emphasized that despite the claims of these religious organizations to the exclusivity and authority of their own religious sources, their positions on family values ​​are quite similar to each other. Also they often overlap with the principles of Christianity and other world religions. The author draws attention to the lack of awareness of the general public with the basics of dogma of the Baha'i Faith, the Unification Church and the Church of Scientology. As a result, there is a fear in society about the spread of doctrines of synthetic neo-religions, despite the fact that their positions on family values ​​do not contradict the generally accepted norms of social morality and mostly accord with them.

ABSTRACTChristianity and Social Order was a creature of its time and, although influential over several decades, is challenged by today's plurality and globalization. Nevertheless, the ascendancy of Radical and Neo-Orthodoxy repeats imbalances of the Christendom Group which Temple was concerned to counter. Temple's greatest weakness for today is his failure to appreciate the trend towards profound social plurality, and its challenge to his strong idea of nationhood. However, today's global economy suggests that plurality must be held in tension with other aspects of the dominant market model. Temple's work reinforces important critiques of market economics, including scepticism about the alleged impossibility of moral agreement. This in turn suggests that total abandonment of Temple's Middle Axiom approach may be premature. A better-developed theology of correctives would reflect classic Christian vocabulary, cohere with Temple's approach, and offer a route toward the revitalization of the Anglican tradition of public theology.

Introduction: the article notes that the Ob Ugrians who converted to Christianity throughout the synodic period (XVIII – early XX centuries) interacted with the Orthodox clergy on a wide range of problems, including economic activity. The study of this interaction allows characterizing the factors that influenced the financial situation, occupations of the indigenous population of the Tobolsk North, and traditional culture in general. Objective: to characterize the forms, specifics and results of economic relations between the Orthodox clergy and the Ob Ugrians in the synodic period (XVIII – early XX centuries). Research materials: correspondence, accounts, reports of archpriests, heads of dioceses, diocesan bishops, as well as publications in periodicals about the interaction of the Orthodox clergy with the Ob Ugrians on economic issues. Results and novelty of the research: the study has shown that the clergy promoted the involvement of the Ob Ugrians in goods-money relations and the intensification of economic activities related to the need to provide for church needs. It was not the direct, but the indirect influence of the Orthodox clergy on the newly baptized. This influence evolved from exploitation mainly due to non-equivalent trade and various fees to the desire to use the potential of the Russian Orthodox Church to spread Russian culture and new economic activities among the «backward» peoples (as it was then considered) of the Tobolsk North. For the first time in Russian historiography, the evolution of forms, the specifics and results of economic relations between the Orthodox clergy and the Ob Ugrians in the synodic period are shown.

The meaning of an inter-religious dialogue has increased in the context of globalization, which has put different ethnicities and religions face-to-face within the fledging "planetary community". Furthermore, it encouraged a remarkably emerging role of religion, in particular in politics. The dialogue became of key importance in Western Europe due to the Muslims turning into the largest diaspora of the region, and Islam – into the second religion after Christianity. The author dedicated this work to investigation of this dialogue's aspects, since the unceasing growth of the Muslim migration and terroristic threats cause the expansion of islamophobia and ethnic tension that have become a destabilizing factor in the region.

The article is dedicated to the methodological aspects of the study of Christian churches political role in modern Europe, conducted by the Russian religious scholar R.N. Lunkin. In the monograph “Churches in Politics and Politics in Churches. How Modern Christianity is changing European Society” he presented a number of non-trivial and important ideas for academic discourse on the traditional topic “church and politics” in the external and internal transformations context of European society. The researcher applied the methodological technique by moving from the general (the basic concepts that reveal the political role of religious institutions) through the special (the Christian churches in Europe in crisis situations) to the individual (the role of churches in specific political conflicts, the religious factor in mass migration, the position of churches in the coronavirus pandemic). The processes identified in Europe are correlated with the political challenges of the Christian churches in the Russian Federation. The monograph sets a fairly wide range of problems important for reflection, discussion, and research perspectives. To what extent is political content organic to churches as religious organizations? To what extent is the political influence of the churches possible, and what are its likely consequences? Can Christianity, in its current ecclesiastical format serve as a basis of the socio-cultural identity of the indigenous population of European countries? These and a number of other fundamental questions arise due to R.N. Lunkin's interpretation of acute and ambiguous situations with religion in modern Europe and Russia.

December 2021 marks the 30th anniversary of the proclamation of Zambia a Christian nation. The leader of the Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD) party who came to power in 1991, a convinced Christian F. Chiluba, declared Zambia a Christian nation, arguing that Christianity was then professed by more than 70% of the population and that this was supposed to help the country to get rid of corruption and contribute to its prosperity. The article analyzes the reasons of decision to declare Zambia a Christian nation. It is emphasized that political goals prevailed then over religious ones, since the issue of preserving and strengthening power was high on the political agenda of the ruling MMD party. The economic background is also touched upon: as a pragmatic president Chiluba pursued a policy of economic liberalization and counted on financial assistance from Western countries and international donors. The following Christian presidents L. Mwanawasa, R. Banda and M. Sata used limited Christian rhetoric, but they collaborated with the Church with varying degrees of intensity. At the same time, the provision on the Christian nation in the Constitution was preserved. It is noted that the role of the religious factor in politics increased in the early 2010s. The politicization of religion, primarily Christianity, became apparent during the struggle for power led by the leader of the opposition Patriotic Front party Michael Sata, who was supported by some religious leaders. After Edgar Lungu (party Patriotic Front) came to power in 2015, Zambia was re-proclaimed a Christian nation, which was enshrined in the new edition of the 2016 constitution. At the same time, the country began the political rehabilitation of F. Chiluba, who, after leaving the presidency in 2001, was persecuted for corruption. The campaigns for the 2015 presidential elections and for the 2016 general elections have shown the relevance of the discourse on religion and politics in the political process, primarily in its aspect of the multiple relationships between religion, ethnicity and politics. The article shows that the issue of the proclamation of Zambia a Christian nation remains relevant in Zambian society and among African and Western theologians and researchers whose judgments and conclusions are often polar opposite. The author notes that the realities of the socio-political, socio-economic and cultural life in Zambia do not yet indicate the existence of the declared Christian nation. The high level of corruption, poverty, limited rights of some groups of the population do not correspond to Christian ideals and values and have become serious challenges for the modern Zambian society. The article emphasizes that, unlike a number of other countries south of the Sahara, where competition between Christianity and Islam has intensified in recent years, leading, among other things, to bloody conflicts, Zambia survives this conflict along the axis of competition between different directions of Christianity. The ruling PF’s manifesto for the August 2021 general election contains Christian rhetoric. The document states the PF’s commitment to partnership with the Church, which it recognizes as a key partner in the conversion of Zambians into a Christian nation. Further peaceful development of Zambia depends on a balanced internal policy of the authorities aimed at solving complex socio-economic problems in cooperation with representatives of all religions and their confessions.

Since 1955, South Sudan has had intermittent civil wars, and sustainable peace has been difficult to attain. There have been numerous attempts that include major international and national political and economic initiatives. Among the social initiatives, The New Sudan Council of Churches (NSCC), perceived to represent all religious practices and people, was considered an essential tool in uniting all South Sudanese, ending conflicts and achieving sustainable peace both within the communities and nationally. However, the inclusion of the NSCC, which represents mainly Christianity and includes Muslim religious leaders, has not delivered sustainable peace. This article utilises ethnographic data to present a socioreligious perspective. It seeks to argue that other South Sudanese indigenous or cultural religious everyday peace practices of ceremonies and rituals can present a robust peacebuilding initiative in the region. It concludes that the inter-relationships of socioreligious practices, an aspect the NSCC peacebuilding processes ignored, are essential in delivering sustainable peace.

Nowadays pluralistic theology of religion is rightly regarded as one of the greatest threats to Christianity. It specifically concerns Christology. A threat to the Christian belief in the Trinity, which is created by pluralistic theology of religion, is seen more rarely. Many scholars consider pluralistic theology of religion as a further step of the modern fight against Christianity and the Church. The increasing spread of religions of the Far East plays a significant role. Pluralistic theology of religion refers to the basic ideas of Buddhism, trying to create a universal religion of the world. Pluralist theology of religion treats every religion of the world with affection- with the exception of Christianity. It is Christianity that is supposed to be tolerant and to adapt to other religions by means of losing its own identity. Pluralistic theology of religion relativizes the Person of Jesus Christ, undermining the uniqueness of the incarnation of God. Jesus of Nazareth was only a prominent man standing near Reality itself (God). Since Jesus Christ was not an ontological Son of God, the doctrine of the Trinity is being undermined. Representatives of pluralistic theology of religion reject the idea of a personal God, at the same time hitting in all monotheistic religions. From their point of view, God is for the human mind unattainable reality which no revelation is able to bring. Various religions are only stages of searching for the final Reality itself. Father, Son and Spirit are nothing more than a projection of human yearnings and religious pursuits. Faced with such claims, Christian theology cannot remain silent. One should be reminded of development of faith in the Triune God in the life of the Church. This is a theoretical- scientific dimension of the problem. It also has its practical and existential meaning. Although Immanuel Kant claimed that the doctrine of the Trinity has no practical importance, contemporary theological reflection presents a new aspect of this problem. Communio- theology comprehends the mystery of the Trinity as an event of constant communication in which Father gives Himself to the Son and so they create the Holy Spirit. The mystery of diversity reconciled in the unity stands at the beginning of every reality. The mystery of the Holy Trinity has its significance not only inside (life of the Church) but also outside (life of the secular, political and economic community). Nowadays the latter has a special meaning in particular. It is a theological and moral surface of the reflection, showing that one should not be afraid of multiplicity and diversity but treat them as an opportunity. In the era of new conflicts and divisions that are increasing and the renewal of the old traumas, it turns out that appeals of the representatives of pluralist theology of religion are fake and are supposed to challenge the principles of Christianity, whereas Christian theology offers modern societies interesting proposals acceptable not only for those who believe.

Abstract Bensaïd’s interest in Marranism is part of his broader interest in Jewish mysticism, read in a profane and secularised way, and of his search for new theoretical paths with which to renew revolutionary Marxist theory. ‘Marrano’ refers to the Spanish–Portuguese Jews who were forcibly converted to Christianity in the fifteenth century and who were suspected of judaising in secret. The term has been increasingly used by many authors, including Bensaïd, in a broad sense, often as a metaphor that goes beyond the study of actual Marranos to acquire a broader meaning. Bensaïd uses Marranism to think about some aspects of political strategy and, at the same time, strategically uses Marranism to approach certain debates. The Marrano is the metaphorical and metonymic figure through which he tries to think a new internationalism that simultaneously transcends both an abstract universalism that legitimates inequalities and oppression and an anti-universalist communitarian withdrawal.

Intolerance was often pinned on communal societies such as Indonesia because it uses a liberal-secular tolerance perspective which is identical to Western Christian society. If the perspective is shifted, for example using communal tolerance, the communal community will also practice the opposite, tolerance. This paper is intended to reveal and analyze how the Muslim community in the Nagari KH which is considered the majority practices tolerance on a community scale in the context of religious moderation towards the Christian minority in the Nagari. In addition, it also analyzes why the model's tolerance can occur. This research is qualitative research that relies on interview data from elements of the nagari government, penghulu, youth leaders, religious leaders and adherents of Islam and Christianity from both communities. The data is reinforced by document data including journals and research reports that are relevant to the research topic. The results show that community tolerance as a form of religious moderation has been practiced by the Muslim community of KH in the socio-economic and religious realms. In the socio-economic aspect, community tolerance appears in the form of openness to business, buying and selling and ownership of land and houses. While in the religious realm it is limited to individual and family worship at homes. The ambivalence of tolerance practiced by the Muslim community of KH is rooted in the ambivalence of Minangkabau culture on a macro level and the ambivalence of the geographical position of Nagari KH on a micro basis. Minangkabau cultural ambivalence collides and synthesizes matrilineal customs and matrilineal Islam. Meanwhile, the ambivalence of being a coastal area is at the same time bordering on darek. Both have given birth to an inclusive attitude towards immigrants in the socio-economic realm and exclusive when it comes to communal worship.

The study investigated how Prisons Aspect of Criminal Justice System Influence Youth Radicalization in Isiolo County, Kenya. This study was premised on three theories: frustration-aggression, rational choice, and criminal justice. The study area was Isiolo County. Isiolo County, is located almost in the center of the country, 285 km north of Nairobi. Though Islam and Christianity are practiced in Isiolo County, the inhabitants are largely Muslim. The county is mostly arid with some semi-arid areas, economically poor and marginal. The study focused on Isiolo, Merit and Garbatulla sub-counties. Additionally, the study was underpinned by descriptive survey research design. The sample size was composed of 287 households, remandees and mainstream prisoners, key informants, youth returnees and radicalized and extremist youths. The sampling strategies used included simple random sampling, purposive sampling for key informants and snowballing for youth returnees and radicalized and extremist youths. Data was collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Quantitative data was analyzed through SPSS where descriptive and inferential statistics was generated while qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis with themes generated through verbatim triangulation. In line with specific objective one, the study concludes that demographic elements were critical in establishing the nexus between the criminal justice systems and youth radicalization. The study found that poverty, economic marginalization, religious fanatism, and overcrowding of the prisons were major drivers for youth radicalization in Isiolo County. Overall, the study concludes that despite various efforts and strategies adopted by the government, both national and County, to militate against youth radicalization in Isiolo County, Prisons aspect of criminal justice system has continued to face multiple challenges that have stymied its efficacy. Thus, the situation has continued unabated, to the detriment of the greater population of Isiolo County. The study recommends that a criminal justice framework be put in place to address the endemic factors for specific objective one to address radicalization.

Education is a human right and essential for realization of all other human rights. It is a basic right which helps the individual to live with human dignity the right to education is a fundamental human rights. Every individual, irrespective of race, gender, nationality, ethnic or social origin, religion or political preference, age or disability, is entitled to a free elementary education. Hence the present study has attempted to find out awareness of right to education among secondary school teachers. The sample of 200 secondary school teachers was taken. A self made questionnaire comprising 34 multiple choice items was used by the investigator. It was found that both Government and Private secondary teachers have equal information regarding RTE, whereas Male school teachers are more aware of RTE than Female secondary school teachers Education is the foundation stone of national development. No nation can develops without education. The function of education is to accelerate the progress and development of nation. Education is the only means which brings about national integration. Educational achievement of a nation is also an indicator of national pride. During the pre-british Indian the indigenous secondary education was imparted in Pathshalas, Gurukuls, Gurudwaras and other religious organization. Education was banned for women and for scheduled classes and poor people. After sometimes Christian missionaries and East Indian Company established a few schools with the purpose of spreading Christianity in India. The first organized step to established planned primary schools of four years duration in India was established when Macaulay presented his famous minutes in 1835 with a view to popularize English education. In 1854 Woods Dispatch laid stress on imparting education atleast upto the primary level to the Indians. Later many commissions and committees were set up like India Education Commission 1882, Government resolution on education policy 1904, Gopal Krishan Gokhales Resolution 1911,Hartog committee 1929, Wardha Scheme 1938 and Sargent report 1944. All of them laid stress on free & compulsory primary education. After independence India adopted Article-45 directive principle of state policy laid down in Indian Constitution. The Article says, The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of the constitution free & compulsory education for all children untill they complete the age 6 to 14 years. Kothari Commission (1964-66) recommended qualitative improvement for the purpose of science education, work experience, vocalization of education and development of social, moral and spiritual values, improvement in methods of teaching curriculum, teacher training etc. were recommended. National Policy on Education (1986) emphasized on two aspects. One on the universal enrollment and universal retention of children upto 14 years of age and another on the substantial improvement in teaching quality of education. In order to improve the education of school, Operation, Blackboard was introduced by National Policy on Education. The programme of action (1986) was laid down, the purpose of Operation Blackboard is to ensure provision of minimum essential facilities in secondary schools, material facilities as learning equipment, use of blackboard implies that there is an urgency in this programme. In India, the desire for compulsory education figured in the writing and speeches of our leader before independence. But for national development and national integration, creation of good citizens, preparation for life, development of character, development of individuality, adaptation to environment and making man civilized. India just implemented the Right to Education on 27rd August (Thursday), 2009 by 86th Constitutional amendent. It says, the state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children the age of 6 to 14 years in such manner as the state may, by law, determine. Today education is considered an important public function and the state is seen as the chief provider of education through the allocation of substantial Budgetry resources and regulating the provision of education. The pre-eminent role of the state in fulfilling the Right To Education is enshrined in 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights. With regards to realizing the Right to Education the World Declaration on Education for All states that partnerships between government and non-government organizational, the private sector, local communities, religious groups, and families are necessary. The realization of Right to Education on a national level may be achieved through compulsory education or more specifically free and compulsory primary education as stated in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. So as India is first to made education compulsory and free for all. Formal Education is given to everybody without any discrimination of sex, caste, creed and colour. Education is the powerful tool. which accelerates the process of national growth and development. Moreover, economically and socially marginalized adults and children can left themselves out of miseries of darkness and participate fully as variable assets for their nation only with the help of education. Thus, education is a key towards a successful life. Keeping in view the importance of education, the secondary education in India has been made compulsory through 86th constitutional amendment. Moreover Right to Education has declared as fundamental right by this amendment under Article-emerge as a global leader in achieving the millennium development goal of ensuring that all children complete their secondary education by 2015 as set by UNESCO. The secondary stake holders for providing education are the parents and social authorities and both these entities have to be active: parents, by sending education is supported, thus, it is important that teacher should be aware of Right to Education. If teacher are well aware of Right to Education then only he/she can make the students to enjoy its benefits and motivate them to enroll in education. Moreover, if the teacher is fully awakened about the Right Education only then he/she will not dare to exploit the child.

Poetry is greatly influenced by the cultural background and personal experiences of the poets. Emily Dickson’s poems exemplify this because she draws a lot of her motivation from her heritage of New England and her life experience which had harsh incidents such as loss of friends and relatives. She lives a life of seclusion, where she rarely has face-to-face encounter with her friends as she prefers communicating through letters. Her limited interaction with the society gives her adequate space to reflect and write about different aspects of life. Emily’s poetry is also influenced by the doubts she holds about Christianity, especially in relation with survival of the soul after death. "Because I Could Not Stop for Death" and "I Heard a Fly Buzz- when I Died" are among her popular poems that indicate her religious doubt. She agrees with some of the Calvinist religious beliefs, but still has some doubts about the innate depravity of mankind and the concept of the afterlife.Dickinson’s spiritual background is indicated by her religious beliefs, which form the basis of her preoccupation with death. Although Dickinson is a religious person who believes in the inevitability of death and afterlife, she is a non-conformist as she is skeptical and curious about the nature of death. Transcendentalism is the other factor that contributes to Dickinson’s preoccupation with death as indicated in her poems. Dickinson’s preoccupation with death also results from her obsession, which is greatly contributed by the life experiences she has with death including loss of her family, mentors and close friends.

Wilhelm Dilthey, the first scholar to study Hegel's early writings, most of which have been published by Herman Nohl under the title Hegels Theologische Jugendschriften, examined the thought of the young Hegel in the light of German idealism; Dilthey was interested in establishing the Kant-Fichte-Schelling-Hegel Entwicklungsgeschichte. Another line of interpretation, no doubt encouraged by the tide of Nohl's compendium, has been to see these writings as dealing with a religious experience and religious issues. Unique in the literature stands Laurence Dickey's study of intellectual history, in which he shows that the young Hegel was influenced by the culture of Old Württemberg – more specifically, by Württemberg's ideal of Protestant civil piety. Finally, Georg Lukács and Raymond Plant concentrate on the social and political concerns of the young Hegel. On the one side, Lukács, writing from a Marxist perspective, explores the political and economic ideas of the young Hegel as well as the way these have contributed to the development of the dialectical method. For his part, Plant has put forward the view that the essays compiled by Nohl in his collection constitute a series of attempts on the part of the young Hegel to comprehend and account for the cultural and socio-political crisis of his time. For Plant, Hegel sought the causes thereof in religion.I propose to look at the young Hegel from yet another angle. I shall argue that what lies beneath Hegel's exegesis of the Scriptures is a Platonism. H. S. Harris has noted this aspect of Hegel's thought in his seminal study of Hegel's development, but the Platonism of the young Hegel has generally been under-researched. In this paper I shall try to bring this out. To do this, I shall explore the meaning and significance of ‘life’ and ‘love’ by focusing on ‘The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate’ essay, the fragment on ‘Love’, as well as some of the fragments in the appendix of Nohl's volume. Let us not forget that, despite his practical concerns, Hegel was also interested in theological doctrine, which, he thought, expressed substantial truths in metaphorical language; so in the ‘Spirit of Christianity’ essay, as well as providing an historical account of Judaism and a description of Christian ethics, Hegel also discusses theological tenets. Hegel always believed that theory and practice go hand in hand, and he was convinced that religion was as much about dogma as it was about practice. For this reason I deem it necessary to look at Hegel's interpretation of Christian theology in the course of this paper.

<p>One of the prospective results of the ESF project „Linguoculturological and Socio-economic Aspects of Territorial Identity in the Development of the Region of Latgale” (2009–2012) is a linguo- territorial dictionary of Latgale, which would reveal particularity of Latgale’s historical, economic, folkloric, and literary factors in 300 cultural signs and concepts (when referring to selection of entries and the dictionary concept further see Šuplinska 2010). In the developed questionnaire „Latgola is…” (466 units) the word ‘susātivs’ (in Latgalian means ‘a shadow’)was included due to two reasons: 1) as infrequently used word in the cognition of the 21st century user of Latgalian literary language, being ousted by the word ‘āna’, which is closer to the Latvian literary language; 2) as a symbol of dualism/entirety apprehension of a personality activated in the latest literature and music (according to K. G. Jung’s archetype).</p><p>When tracing formation of the concept of ‘susātivs’ the following sources have been reviewed (see the enclosed overview of sources): folkloric collections (S. Uļanovska, P. Smelters, B. Opincāne, et al.), periodical publications of the beginning and middle of the 20th century (most of the examples are found in „Drywa” newspaper (1908–1917) and its annexes) as well as the works of M. Andžāne, K. Nautris, O. Zvīdris, P. Jurciņš, J. Klīdzējs, R. Mūks; publications where the word ‘susātivs’ has been used in the title: modern poetry anthology „Susātivs” (2008) and CD „Bolts susātivs” (lyrics by A. Kūkuojs, music by Sovvaļnīks, 2010).</p><p>The article is aimed at review of the concept of ‘susātivs’ (meaning ‘shadow’ in the Latvian literary language), revealing the conception of its lexical meanings, context and symbolic significance in folklore (mainly in riddles), literature, periodicals and stereotypes prevailing in the society. Semantic and symbolic ambiguity of ‘susātivs’ is demonstrated by Latgalian riddles, under the impact of Christianity’s as symbol of negation used in the early 20th century periodicals, interpretation of spiritual ‘susātivs’ appears in writings of K. Nautris, O. Zvīdrs. Shadow as the genuine (often banned or hidden) part of the personality in their texts is revealed by M. Andžāne, J. Klīdzējs, R. Mūks. White shadow as search of the self is activated in two publications: the modern poetry anthology „Susātivs” and CD „Bolts susātivs”.</p><p>Some analytical psychology insights are worth to be highlighted that to e great extent have influenced the interpretation of the concept of ‘susātivs’ in this article. Firstly, according to the principle of analogy, the individual structure of psyche (consciousness, personal unconsciousness, collective consciousness; Jung 1996: 165) can be perceived as a psyche of ethnos, nation, supposedly of a country or of the world. Secondly, since the shadow includes hidden, suppressed, undesirable (even villainous) sides of personality and at the same time the normal instincts and impulses of creativity (Henderson 1997: 117), then exactly this unconscious side of psyche of Latgalian as a representative of the ethnos has affected the lack of self-esteem and has exacerbated the problems to which explanation in the reality of consciousness is not found anymore, or is not so simply detectable. Thirdly, being aware of the shadow, you can start to use it for revival of integrity and stability of the psyche, but the shadow can not be ignored, denied or suppressed for a long time. Even worse, if one opts for assimilation of it that has often happened to the Latgalian separate religious affiliation or language, or for exerting influence: when the first newspapers started, also new words were started to be mentioned frequently – Latgola and Latgalians. Why the old, real Latvians had to be started to call in other names? What to do! The Courlanders have taken the name of Latvians for them. Latvians from Inflantia were called the „Polish”people. For that reason in order not to fight the Courlanders for the word of Latvians, young journalists from Inflantia started to call themselves Latgalians (Dekters 1970: 12).</p><p>When returning to the texts subject to analysis and understanding of the concept of ‘susātivs’, we should start with the analysis of this lexeme in folklore. It most frequently appears in the riddles and forms a ambiguous understanding of the lexeme: on the one hand, a sense of fatalism has been developed (You cannot escape your shadow by analogy with everybody should carry their own cross, or you cannot escape your fate), on the other hand, the notion of absolute good and absolute evil (obscure, inexplicable) as devil (also shadow). At the same time, several riddles underline that the shadow is a friend who never leaves, even more – one is walking, two will speak – is drawing attention to intuitive understanding of the creator of this riddle with regard to the fact that shadow is a part of the human psyche. Periodicals at the beginning of the 20th century underline the link of lexeme ‘susātivs’ with the human life, which is temporary, according to cognitions of Christianity, it is just a preparation for the real life, therefore exactly the negative, condemnable connotation is gradually pointed out in use of figurative meanings of lexeme ‘susātivs’.</p><p>During 20’s and 30’s of the 20th century the stereotype that ‘shadow’ is something condemnable (e. g., undesirable phenomena of social or economic life are represented by a shadow: life shadows – backwardness, obscurantism, envy (Madsolas J. 1944)), or something that cannot exist separately, dependent entity (e. g., slave, servant, dog), is prevailing in periodicals, gradually also in the reader’s conscience. And this is just the time when not the most complimentary views with regard to Latvians from Latgale are developed and maintained at a national level (including today) that have established a preconceived attitude in Latvians from other regions and created the inferiority complexes in Latvians from Latgale.</p><p>Initially in Latgalian himself his „shadow” was put to shame – different language (the opinion is gradually strengthened and only supported by Soviet times that this is a distorted Latvian literary language, also mixture of Slavic and Latvian language), which may not be Latvian (denial of the designation and introduction of the term Latgalian dialects), underdeveloped agriculture (cheap labour) and comparatively low level of education, certainly, also belonging to another faith and large families as a phenomenon of certain obscurantism. Gradually (most explicitly after K. Ulmanis’ coup in 1934 and unfortunately also after Latvia’s accession to the EU) the shadow was not put to shame in Latgalian himself or in individual from Latgale, but applied to the whole region (after accession to the EU also the other regions quite often are in this status of shadow).</p><p>At the beginning of 20th century, with the growth in numbers of anthropology, psychology and psychoanalytical studies, also the understanding of shadow is affected by the change. In Latgalian literature it was commenced by M. Andžāne in her story „A black man, white shadow” (1947), where the main character Aleksandrs Rynčs demonstrates that it is important not to lose oneself, one’s substance. even if the society, the people do not understand it or it is not topical for the age. From this story comes the designation „white shadow”, which means the true, the deepest substance of an individual, harmony with oneself as a result of adopting and refining one’s own shadow – the inner human being.</p><p>Maybe the Latgalian literature would never had seen the possibility to reduce the negative connotation of shadow, which is historically developed and strengthened in consciousness of the language user, unless there are two strong personalities, theoretically – shadow philosophers J. Klīdzējs and R. Mūks, whose works are known mainly to Latvians from other regions, in the case of R. Mūks, throughout the world. Of course their impact is indirect, at the same time in the works of the 21st century Latgalian authors there is a strong feeling of the reflection of their outlooks.</p><p>Both authors emphasize the importance of respect for the shadow in development of an individual, as well as of the peoples and cultures at large. For the most part it means transformation of fear, feelings, instinctive hunches, ideas into creative energy. Exactly this meaning of shadow as question/ response about the true nature of a human being, society, is activated in two Latgalian publications: the modern poetry anthology „Susātivs” and CD „Bolts susātivs”.</p><p>Strengthening of the shadow as a concept in the Latgalian literature at the beginning of the 21st century is due to the fact that, after going through a long way of transformation and getting rid of the negative connotation, Latgalians are beginning anew to recognize it as an integral part of their nature that allows them to retain their otherness – in language, tradition, attitude towards the world, which is still impressive with its naturalness and emotionality.</p>

Introduction. Since the 17th c. as part of the Russian Empire, Buryats found themselves in the sphere of influence of Western secular culture and Orthodox Christianity. Depending on the local natural and climatic conditions, some basic features of agriculture, mining, and Russian culture were introduced into the Buryat economic activities and everyday life, but, in general, the people persisted in their extensive nomadic and semi-nomadic economy and patriarchal culture. In 1923, with the birth of the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (BMASSR), the processes of transformation of their culture and life began in every sphere of their traditional life, such as economic activities, material culture, family and marriage relations, religious beliefs, public leisure, etc. The article aims to study the processes of modernization of Buryat culture and everyday life at the initial stage of Soviet construction. Materials and methods. Major sources for the study were documents from the State Archives of the Republic of Buryatia; also, published sources and media materials were of great importance for the discussion. In its methodology, the study proceeds from the principles of historicism, consistency, objectivity, and reliability, helpful in approaching the process of Soviet modernization of Buryat culture as a multidimensional, contradictory process, hence avoiding both one-sided criticism and idealization. Results. The undertaken analysis of pertinent media materials and archival sources shows that two stages may be singled out in the Soviet construction in Buryatia. The first stage, that began with the formation of the BMASSR and continued to the late 1920s, was the time of radical transformations introduced in the lifestyle of the Buryats, but, still, their traditional culture and life persisted. They were to finally give up, with the policy of collectivization and the process of settlement of the nomadic Buryats pursued by the Soviet authorities at the next stage marked by Velikii perelom (Great turning point) and the beginning of “militant atheism”, i. e. in the period of intensive construction of a new life and the eradication of traditional lifestyles. The study concludes that the Soviet modernization embraced every aspect of the Buryat society, and its impact was deep, comprehensive, and effective. The project was implemented, with objectives and hopes assigned to it fulfilled.

Da`wah – usually spelt dakwah in Indonesian – has been an important aspect of Islam from its very birth. Since the late nineteenth century, however, as a result of political and social transformations it has taken new forms. In one form or others, da`wah has been practised by a large variety of Islamic movements and organizations. Although complementary to each other in certain cases, in others their relations have rather been characterized by competition for authority and power, not only between various da`wah organizations, but also, through these organizations, between regimes, categories of religious and social leaders, and social categories of Muslims. For this reason, da`wah has had important dimensions beyond the domain of religion proper. Moreover, da`wah has been connected to political and social causes such as the struggle against communism and Christianity – sometimes emulating them in certain respects – and community development. Quite a few da`wah initiatives, state-sponsored or non-governmental, have taken transnational scopes. Indonesian dakwah has shared most of the above features. This article, analyzing dakwah in Indonesia, confirms their existence and adds to their understanding. It substantiates theories on the objectification of Islam in modern societies: the spread of mass education has led to the fragmentation of religious understanding, which has stimulated a fierce competition for religious authority and the control of religious institutions and organizations. Just as in many other Muslim-majority countries, in Indonesia the state has played a prominent role in the development of mass education, the ensuing competition for religious authority, as well as the functionalization of religion. As was the case elsewhere, in Indonesia dakwah has had important dimensions beyond the religious domain. On the other hand, Indonesian dakwah has shown a number of particularities. In order to illustrate the combination of similarities with da`wah as it developed elsewhere and Indonesian particularities, the article pays particular attention to dakwah pembangunan – development da`wah – of the New Order period. It concludes that, although both the functionalization of Islam for the benefit of economic development and state involvement in religious beliefs and practices have been known in other countries, dakwah pembangunan was a unique, Indonesian phenomenon.

Drinks and customs related to their consumption play a special role in the social history (essentially, that of the human community). However, research of the customs of alcohol consumption in Lithuania (along with the history of daily life in general and the culture of the nobility’s daily life in particular) is rather sporadic so far. The article presents a research work in cultural anthropology on the alcohol consumption as means (or prerequisite) of achieving more important aims of religious, social, economic or other kind. Because of the big scope of research and low level of prior investigation, the subject of this article is limited to a single aspect – namely, the custom of drinking from the same glass; to the culture of only one social layer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) – the nobility; and to a distinct period – the 17th–18th centuries. The aim of analysis is revealing sources of this custom, its development and meaning in the social community of the given period.According to the research, the GDL presented a sphere of interaction between the local pre-Christian Lithuanian culture, which had been developing for an incredibly long period – even until the end of the 15th century, and the Western European cultural tradition. The Western European culture, formed in the course of joining together elements of the antique heritage, the Christian worldview and the inculturized “Northern barbarism”, acquired in the 14th–16th century Lithuania one of its essential constituents – namely, the culture of the “Northern barbarism” still alive and functioning. On the other hand, the nobility of the GDL, raised in pre-Christian Lithuanian culture, had no trouble recognizing elements of its local heritage in the Western Christian culture. The local custom of drinking from the same glass characteristic to the higher social layers supposedly stemmed from the drinking horns. Along with Christianity and spread of the wine culture, the local pre-Christian custom of drinking from the same glass should have been abandoned by the nobility, surviving instead solely in the lower social classes. The western custom of drinking from the same glass spread in Lithuania along with Christianity and the wine consumption. However, its influence on the nobility was rather limited. In the 15th–16th centuries, when this custom was still rather widespread in Europe, the Lithuanian nobility was just beginning its acquaintance with the wine culture, while in the 17th–18th centuries, when the wine culture grew popular in Lithuania, the western-like custom of drinking from the same glass had already waned in other European countries. Therefore, the western custom of drinking from the same glass was rather a marginal phenomenon among the Lithuanian nobility, affected by the cultural exchange with the Polish nobility (which grew especially intense following the union of Lublin) and the ideology of Sarmatianism. The custom of drinking from the same glass disappeared in the culture of the Lithuanian nobility at the turn of the 18th–19th century due to the ideas of Enlightenment and the altered notions of healthy lifestyle and hygiene. However, drinking from the same glass, as a distant echo of the ancient customs representing social community was quite popular in the peasant culture as late as the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st centuries.

The article presents how three great Alexandrian writers (Clemens, Origen and Didymus the Blind) estimated possession of material wealth. The first of them in Quis dives salvetur? assures Alexandria’s rich Christians that they also can achieve salvation, although under certain circumstances. Clemens explains Jesus’ words to the rich young man: „Sell everything you have, and give to the poor” (Mk 10, 21) allegorically. This order means that the wealthy should remove from the heart attachment to material goods and extirpate all passions which are bound up with them. The author wonders rhetorically: Who will help the poor, if we all will be devoid of material goods? Clemens regards earthly riches as things which are in themselves indifferent (adiafora). Christians should use them in moderation and for God’s glory. Besides, they must look for the poor and help them. Origen, in his turn, first interprets literally the pericope of the rich young man (Mt 19, 16-26). Considering the question from the ascetic perspective, the great writer thinks that it’s impossible to reconcile riches with Christian perfec­tion. Origen accepts also the allegorical interpretation, according to which „pos­sessions” symbolize evil passions and deeds. However to him such explanation seems to be overdone. Besides, in his opinion, the man who didn’t give up his riches, will never be able to free himself from evil passions. Therefore, according to Origen, it’s hard for the wealthy to achieve salvation. That will be possible only thanks to God’s omnipotence. So Origen’s words could infuse worry and uncer­tainty into the rich. Didymus, the last teacher of the Alexandrian school, following the Stoics and Clemens, defines material goods as adiafora. He adds also that these aren’t goods in the proper sense. Moreover, the author admits that riches are a secondary gift of God. Obviously they are that, if one uses them as far as they are necessary. But the most important aspect is that Didymus emphasizes resolutely a positive potential of material wealth. By means of it one may help other people, includ­ing for example the support of the sage. Riches if used right – asserts the author following the Platonic and Aristotelian tradition – can contribute to moral virtue of their owner. This way material goods become an instrument through which one may merit eternal life. Surely with such rhetoric Didymus could impress the rich. We must admit that his stance was due to the historical context as well, since Christianity became in the IV century the official state religion. Its new condition certainly contributed to a more mature look at social and economic questions.

Full TextIn contemporary, North American society, what it means to be ‘human’ is often taken for granted; in other words, ‘humanness’ is usually accepted as a readily knowable, uncomplicated and stable aspect of social reality. Ivone Gebara argues that because we believe that we already know the meaning of ‘humanness,’ reflecting on this notion often appears to be of little interest, need or value. “Since we imagine that everyone already knows what a [‘human’] is, we might have the feeling that we are wasting our time on notions that are already familiar, and that we ought to be seeking solutions to the urgent problems that [currently] face us” (Gebara, 1999: 67). Like Gebara, I argue that the concept of ‘human,’ is not ‘natural,’ stable or straightforward, rather it is a culturally-specific and historical invention, one intimately implicated within contemporary, environmental problems. In other words, although the category of human is often understood as readily comprehensible and fundamentally elevated above, and detached from, nature and ‘more-thanhuman’I beings, I maintain that the human subject is positioned within what I will term ‘the web of life,’ that is, the worldwide, ecological community which encompasses both human and more-than-human subjects. I believe the term, ‘becoming’ is a useful adjective to describe the human; becoming allows us to consider the human not as a natural or stable entity, but as one which is emerging and transforming in relation to environmental and social contexts. As a being situated within an ecological web of life, the human is not distinct from nature and more-than-human animals, but exists and changes in continuous relation to them. Long before the onset of European colonization of what is now considered North America, various dualisms permeated the European, historical imagination. Within this worldview, aspects of these dichotomies were understood to exist in fundamental distinction from one another; that is, not only were divisions of each dualism conceptualized as inherently disconnected and independent, but one aspect of each dichotomy was always understood as naturally and intrinsically superior to the other. Sallie McFague argues that the primary dualism within this imagination was the conceptualization of ‘reason’ and ‘nature’ as fundamentally distinct entities, in which reason was positioned in hierarchical relation to nature. However, this dichotomy has been broadened to represent, incorporate and interconnect with multiple other dichotomies, including, spirit/body, male/female, reason/ emotion, and human/nature (McFague, 1997: 88). According to McFague, “the [reason/nature] dualism illuminates most of the other dualisms: whatever falls on the top side of a dualism has connections with ‘reason,’ and whatever falls on the bottom side is seen as similar to ‘nature’” (1997: 88). In this sense, the projection of these constructions onto seemingly-different aspects of reality, including ‘different’ bodies, functioned to hierarchically organize both European society and the universe at large. It is important to recognize that because these dualisms were constructions of a very particular and ethnocentric group within European history, namely elite, white men, such subjects were also imagined to embody the superior aspects of various dichotomies; in other words, characteristics associated with reason were presumed to adhere to white, European males (McFague, 1997: 88). Within this imagination, the rational capacities and spiritual natures of white, masculine and European humans were imagined to prevent them from being confined by or to their bodies, or influenced by emotional or sexual responses. Importantly, because such racialized and gendered subjects were the only subjects envisioned to embody these and other superior dimensions of various dualisms, white, European men were positioned as the ideal modes of humanness within a great chain of being. In this sense, as the white, European masculine subject was assumed to embody humanness, subjects who were constructed to embody the opposing dimensions of these dichotomies were regarded as his nonhuman Others. Arguably, as the human was constructed to embody whiteness, masculinity and European ancestry, his Other may be regarded as the colonized, non-white woman. Through her gendered, racialized and cultural difference from the human, she was constructed to embody characteristics he did not. According to this dualistic relationship of interconnected difference(s), because she embodied matter, or solely bodily existence, she possesses neither inherent consciousness nor spirituality allowed by such consciousness. Because she was conceptualized as the Other to the sole, normative human, she was categorized as nonhuman. In this sense, it may be recognized how there has existed a significant, conceptual connection between non-white women and nature, as both were understood as nonhuman material beings in relation to the European, white man, who was presumed to embody true humanness. Through this ideology of the normative human subject, women and nature are conceptually demoted to a subordinate position because of what they are assumed to be (Primavesi, 1991: 142). However, this connection between nature and Aboriginal women is not only ideological: because both are regarded to exist in solely material form, and therefore to lack spiritual natures or capacities for consciousness, various manifestations of colonial violence against both nature and Aboriginal women have been historically disregarded, undermined or recognized as justified. This construction of the masculine human subject as the one who alone inhabits higher realms of reason and spirit served to legitimize and stabilize future social and religious structures of subordination and dominance. Women and nature have been placed under male domination and rule by the compelling and authoritative force of this prevailing ideology (Primavesi, 1991: 142-147). Within contemporary, North American academe, this historical, European construction of the human has been greatly interrogated, denaturalized and critiqued by postcolonial, critical race and psychoanalytic theorists, including Frantz Fanon and Sylvia Wynter, among many others. Within their theories, great energy is focused on how the articulation of humanness has, and continues to affect subjects who have been historically excluded by this rigid definition at the level of social, emotional, psychic and bodily realities. These theorists are correct in their assertions that the purpose of the human construction was to reduce the modes of being, embodied by nonwhite and non-European/nonwestern subjects, in order to elevate the mode of being embodied by their cultural Others. However, it must be recognized that there exists a subtle, but continued, hierarchical and dualistic relationship between human and nonhuman within these theories. Not only do human beings continue to be understood as stably and inherently different from nonhuman beings, principally animals, but human experiences of colonial violence, and therefore, human modes of being, are essentially recognized as more significant than the modes of being and lived realities of more-than-human beings. In fact, as the conflation of racialized humans with more-thanhumans is articulated as undermining the violence experienced by such human subjects, violence against animals and nature, in such forms as human invasion, objectification, exploitation and voracious consumption, is disregarded as violence per se. Gebara calls this trend an anthropocentric “hierarchicalizing of knowing [that actually] runs parallel to the hierarchicalizing of society, [which is] itself a characteristic of the patriarchal world” (1999: 25). In this sense, within such criticism, there is an attempt to destabilize one conception of the boundary between human and nonhuman, while a second human/nonhuman dualism is (re)produced and supported; ultimately, the traditional border, employed in colonial fantasies to distinguish what counts as (a) human and what does not, is kept intact. These attempts to distinguish the human, along with having a colonial genealogy, are built on the assumption of a distinct sphere in which humans act, and blind to ideas of significant interconnection and interdependence: dimensions of each dualism are considered not only unrelated to, but to actually oppose, one another. However, each element of social reality is constructed in relation to others; in other words, every aspect of each dichotomy involves a reference to that which is supposedly opposite, distinct from, or Other to, the primary category (See Hewitt Suchocki, 1982). In this sense, all aspects of the dichotomies require reference beyond them in order to develop as intelligible categories and, therefore, cannot be understood, or even exist, outside the relationships within which they are implicated (Hewitt Suchocki, 1982: 6—7). More importantly, there are material interrelationships that are not captured by these dichotomies. As an example we can think of contemporary environmental threats, such as global warming and Colony Collapse Disorder in North America, that illustrate how humans are not ultimately separate from nature, but dependent on it for our survival, and that ‘natural’ phenomena has the potential to powerfully and disastrously affect humans. In this sense, it must be recognized that there is danger within denial: by assuming that we are not part of nature, we ultimately deny the significance of ecological problems on their own bodies and lived realities. However, I think it necessary at this point to remark on the (neo)colonial anthropo-centrism within many conceptions of human/nature relationality. Similar to the consciousness of more-than-human animals, when ecological problems are recognized as problems per se, and especially, when such issues are recognized to transcend the human/nature divide and create an impact in the lives of humans, such problems tend to be understood in human terms. In other words, nature often becomes the subject of human attention, concern, and care when humans acknowledge the fact that we are intimately related to, and ultimately dependent on, the earth for our survival and wellbeing, and that by abusing and destroying nature and more-than-human subjects, humans ultimately bring about their own destruction. Although within such types of care, the interrelatedness among all beings within the web of life is recognized, such care for nature often develops because humans fear the effects of environmental disasters on our lives, and not because we genuinely care about the lives and wellbeing of Other creatures or the earth, in and of themselves. And even within environmental concerns, the recognition of the interrelatedness of all living subjects often leads to a hierarchy of environmental issues. Within conceptions of human/ more-than-human relations, there is often a hierarchy of environmental issues and social issues, including the (neo)colonial treatment of humans outside the dominant, white, European/western man as nonhuman, strengthening the conceptual disconnect between these human and more-than-human. These aspects of environmental interrelatedness must be regarded as not only anthropocentric, but violent, contemporary manifestations of the historically-dominant, European construction of the normative and viable human subject. In this sense, it is evident that a new consciousness must emerge. Humans must begin to recognize that, as Paula Gunn Allen states, “we are the land… the land and the people are the same… The earth is the source of being of the people and we are equally the being of the earth. The land is not really a place separate from ourselves… The land is not a mere source of survival, distant from the creatures it nurtures” (Allen, as quoted in Christ, 1997: 114). Christ employs the term ‘interdependence’ in order to characterize the connection between all beings in the web of life. Yet the word interdependence must be used cautiously, for although humans are dependent on nature, animals, plants and other more-than-humans, as well as other humans for our survival, the earth is not reciprocally dependent on humans. In fact, the presence of (certain) humans on the earth has historically prevented, and continues to threaten, the flourishing and wellbeing of Others, including both human and more-than-human beings within the web of life. In this sense, concepts such as interdependence undermine the reality of power relations that exist between and among different modes of being, including human relationships and those between humans and nature. For this reason, ecofeminists’ use the notion interdependence to illustrate that humans are not separate from, but intimately implicated within, the natural world. This concept helps to demonstrate that “‘human’ beings are essentially relational and interdependent. We are tied to [‘human’ and ‘more-than-human’] Others from the moment of birth to the moment of death. Our lives are dependent in more ways than we can begin to imagine on support and nurture from the web of life, from the earth body” (Christ, 1997: 136). Because the interdependent relation between human subjects and the earth is conceptualized as so intimate, human actions can have significant, and often disastrous effects on nature. However, the agency and power of nature in creating significant phenomena in the lived realities, societies and experiences of humans must also be recognized. This concept destabilizes colonial, western (and gendered) conceptions of the earth as a passive object, to be owned, harnessed, excavated and harvested in order to increase the economic and social flourishing of humans. In other words, the notion of interdependence demonstrates that humans are also affected by more-than-human lives, and that the earth is not a passive, receptive instrument to be exploited by and for human cultures. Examples such as decreased air quality and Colony Collapse Disorder illustrate the power of the earth to violently fight back against human abuse in order to protect itself. In order for a more life-affirming, harmonious relationship between the natural world and human beings to emerge and, therefore, in order to ensure the survival of all beings within the web of life, what ultimately needs to emerge is a new conception of the relationship between human and more-than-human life. McFague proposes the notion of subject-subjects relations, which encompasses a radical and life-affirming way of transforming this hierarchical relationship. According to this model, human subjects must relate to nature as a subject. While recognizing their own intrinsic relation to Other subjects, grounded in their interconnection within the web of life, human subjects must recognize morethan- human subjects’ own intrinsic value and right to live, quite apart from human interests and lives. In other words, we must recognize the otherness of morethan- humans, yet simultaneously feel a connection and recognize an affinity with such subjects. This connection “underscores both radical unity and radical individuality. It suggests a different, basic sensibility for all our knowing and doing and a different kind of know-ink and doing… It says: ‘I am a subject and live in a world of many other different subjects’” (McFague, 1997: 38). According to McFague, this will involve “the loving eye [as well as] the other senses, for it moves the eye from the mind (and the heavens) to the body (and the earth). It will result in an embodied kind of knowledge of other subjects who, like ourselves, occupy specific bodies in specific locations on this messy, muddy, wonderful, complex, mysterious earth” (Mc Fague, 1997: 36). Practicing this type of relationship will implicitly and explicitly embody a radical challenge to what it has historically meant to be both a human and nonhuman subject. It will require an erosion of the imagined boundary, grounded in the perception of difference, between human and nature, and the other, interconnected dichotomies within the European, colonial, historical imagination. It will also involve re-valuing the both sides of classic western dualisms as significant and worthy in and of themselves. This type of relationship will necessitate the erosion of concepts such as intrinsic inferiority and superiority, and potentially end the embodied and lived power relations that such concepts sanction. Perhaps most importantly, the subject-subjects relationship will allow a new understanding of the relations between all beings within the web of life to emerge; the human, that is, the normative, white, European man of the (neo)colonial imagination, and the human of the human/nature dichotomy, and his wellbeing, subjectivity, knowledge and mode of being, will be displaced of from the dominant center. Beginning to recognize and relate to more-thanhumans as subjects will inevitably represent a strong challenge to the coherence of the traditional, anthropocentric, colonial paradigm. The fantasy of humans as the sole, normative subjects within the universe has historically, and continues to provide powerful senses of security and identity to many of us; we are therefore deeply attached to this conception of humanness. However, in order for a more life affirming, harmonious relationship between the natural world and human beings to emerge, we must begin to practice such models within all of our relationships, including relationships with more-than-human beings and other human subjects. Such an endeavor is crucial for the flourishing, and ultimately, the survival of all beings within the web of life. Bibliography Christ, Carol P (1997). Rebirth of the Goddess: Finding Meaning in Feminist Spirituality. California, Massachusetts and New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing. Gebara, Ivone (1999). Longing for Running Water: Ecofeminism and Liberation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Hewitt Suchocki, Marjorie (1982). “Why a Relational Theology?” In God, Christ, Church: A Practical Guide to Process Theology. New York: Crossroad Publishing, 3-11. McFague, Sallie (1997). Super, Natural Christians: How We Should Love Nature. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Primavesi, Anne (1991). From Apocalypse to Genesis: Ecology, Feminism and Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. i The term, ‘more-than-human’ will be used in place of the term, ‘nonhuman’ in certain areas within this paper. For a number of reasons, I believe the former term is more appropriate. Firstly, nonhuman carries connotations of difference from an explicitly human norm, and a related sense of deficiency and deviance. For this reason, I will employ nonhuman in areas in which I describe traditional, colonial human perceptions of more-than-humans. However, I believe that more-than-human conveys a sense that there literally exists significantly more than simply human realities in the world. More-than-human is also more comprehensive than related terms, such as animals or nature, as it can encompass many diverse expressions of realities, experiences and subject(ivitie)s that transcend traditional constructions of humanness.

Pese a la influencia del catolicismo en el mundo popular peruano, son pocos los estudios sobre su participación en los movimientos obreros. Basado en diversas fuentes documentales, en este artículo se exploran algunas facetas y aportes del pensamiento social católico, junto con ciertas iniciativas desarrolladas para enfrentar la cuestión obrera entre 1891 y 1931. Para ello, se analiza la influencia de la encíclica Rerum Novarum y la adaptación del social cristianismo en el contexto latinoamericano y peruano. Luego, se examinan las ideas de algunos representativos líderes católicos respecto a las consecuencias de la modernización económica y la expansión capitalista en Perú. Finalmente, se estudian los Círculos de Obreros Católicos (COC), los cuales desarrollaron una experiencia asociativa donde se buscó generar una cultura y una identidad obrera cristiana que contribuyera a la mejora de las condiciones laborales de este sector y que contrarrestara la influencia de las ideologías radicales.Rerum Novarum and its influence on Peruvian social Catholicism: The experience of the Círculos de Obreros Católicos (1891-1931)AbstractDespite the influence of Catholicism in the Peruvian popular world, there are few studies addressing the Peruvian participation in workers’ movements. According to various sources, this article explores the contributions and phases of Catholic social thinking and some initiatives developed to address the workers’ labor problems between 1891 and 1931. To this end, we analyze the influence of the Rerum Novarum encyclical and the adaptation of social Christianity in Latin American and Peruvian contexts and review ideas of some representative Catholic leaders regarding the consequences of economic modernization and capitalist expansion in Peru. Finally, we study the Círculos de Obreros Católicos (COC, for the Spanish acronym) which developed an associative experience in order to generate a culture and a Christian worker identity that contributed to the improvement of the sectorial working conditions and that counteracted the influence of radical ideologies.Keywords: Circles of Catholic Workers; Church History; Peru; Peruvian Social Thinking.A Rerum Novarum e sua influência no catolicismo social peruana: a experiência dos Círculos de Obreros Católicos (1891-1931)ResumoApesar da influência do catolicismo no mundo popular peruano, existem poucos estudos sobre a sua participação nos movimentos operários. Com base a diversas fontes documentais, neste artigo se exploram alguns aspectos e contribuições do pensamento social católico, conjuntamente com certas iniciativas desenvolvidas para abordar a questão obreira entre 1891 e 1931. Para fazer isso, analisa-se a influência da Encíclica Rerum Novarum e a adaptação do social cristianismo no contexto latino-americano e peruano. Em seguida, são examinadas as ideias de alguns líderes católicos representativos sobre as decorrências da modernização económica e de expansão capitalista no Peru. Finalmente, são estudados os Círculos de Obreros Católicos (COC), que desenvolveram uma experiência associativa onde procurou-se gerar uma cultura e uma identidade obreira cristã que contribuísse para melhorar as condições de trabalho deste sector para neutralizar a influência das ideologias radicais.Palavras-chave: Círculos dos Obreiros Católicos; História da Igreja; Peru; pensamento social peruano.

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This article focuses on the controversial issue of apostasy pertaining to the alleged family of Shaykh Yusuf of Makassar, the Indonesian pioneer of Islam in colonial South Africa, after his demise at the Cape in the late 17th century during a period of Dutch occupation of both countries. It is reported in local and international historical and scholarly sources that the second generation grandchildren of this political exile and learned Islamic scholar converted from Islam to Christianity at the Cape and thereafter entered into marriages with Christian spouses. Their mother is alleged to have been the Shaykh’s daughter, Zytie Sara Marouff (alias Care Sale), and their father, the Rajah or King of Tambora (alias Abulbasi Sultan), a fellow exiled countryman. The marriage between the Rajah and Zytie is alleged to have taken place shortly after his arrival at the Cape in 1698 but before the death of Shaykh Yusuf in 1699. The conversions are recorded to have taken place within two decades of the Shaykh’s death and shortly after the death of their father, the Rajah, in 1719; both averted death sentences but died during exile at the Cape. The main aim of this article is to critically analyse these sources, which contain both conflicting information, and whose authors express ambivalent views, in an attempt to unravel the mystery surrounding their conversion and the marriage of their parents. Although some local Muslim religious authorities (ulama) at the Cape are aware of these conversions, many are not. In fact, these conversions were overlooked in a publication on the very topic. Local Muslims have therefore not been fully apprised by them of this aspect of their history because the topic is understandably also a sensitive one. The aim of this article is therefore not to dispute these facts or even that these conversions may have been a voluntary exercise and a consequence of freedom of choice. Although an analysis of some of the policies of the then Dutch colonial government which were enforced at the Cape (for example, those pertaining to interracial and interreligious marriages amidst limited religious freedom) are referred to, this article highlights that socio-economic reasons (poverty) and practical expediency (marriage) may indeed have precipitated such conversions. A detailed critical analysis, including of the Islamic law (Shari’a) pertaining to freedom of religion and apostasy, is unfortunately beyond the scope of this article due to space constraints. [Artikel ini membahas kontroversi pindah agama pada keluarga Syekh Yusus Makassar selepas diasingkan di Afrika Selatan pada masa kolonial Belanda akhir abad 17. Menurut sumber lokal dan tulisan sarjana internasional menyatakan bahwa generasi kedua keturunan Syekh Yusuf telah memeluk Kristen serta menikah dengan pasangan Kristen. Cucu yang dimaksud adalah anak dari putri Syekh Yusuf, Zytie Sara Marouff, yang menikah dengan Raja Tambora yang juga ikut dalam pengasingan di Cape Town. Pernikahan itu diperkirakan terjadi setelah rombongan tiba di Cape Town tahun 1698 dan sebelum wafatnya Syekh Yusuf tahun 1699. Sedangkan konversi agama yang terjadi sekitar dua dekade setelah wafatnya Syekh Yusuf dan selepas wafat ayah mereka Raja Tambora tahun 1719. Fokus utama artikel ini adalah mengkritisi sumber-sumber informasi yang bertentangan dan pandangan-pandangan para penulis yang ambivalen dalam rangka memperjelas misteri mengenai konversi dan pernikahan kedua orang tua mereka. Walaupun ulama lokal di Cape Town menyadari tentang konversi tersebut, namun sebagian besar tidak memperdulikannya. Sayangnya konversi ini dilihat berlebihan dalam berbagai tulisan. Lagipula penduduk muslim setempat tidak menjelaskan informasi hal ini pada catatan sejarah mereka karena dipahami sebagai hal yang sensitif. Oleh karena itu, artikel ini tidak bermaksud untuk memperdebatkan atau bahkan menguji fakta mengenai konversi agama yang memang bagian dari hak kebebasan beragama. Walaupun artikel membahas pelaksanaan kebijakan kolonial Belanda (misal pembatasan pernikahan antar ras dan antar agama ditengah pembatasan kebebasan beragama), artikel ini juga membahas sekilas soal kemiskinan dan praktik kebijaksanaan pernikahan dalam mengendapkan persoalan konversi. Namun karena keterbatasan halaman maka artikel ini tidak membahas persoalan hukum Islam mengenai kebebasan beragama dan pindah agama.]

RESUMENEl objetivo de este artículo es reflexionar sobre los mecanismos de financiación y de control de las instituciones religiosas por los laicos en las primeras décadas de la conquista y colonización de Hispanoamérica. Investigar sobre la inversión laica en lo sagrado supone en un primer lugar aclarar la historiografía sobre laicos, religión y dinero en las sociedades de Antiguo Régimen y su trasposición en América, planteando una mirada desde el punto de vista de las motivaciones múltiples de los actores seglares. A través del ejemplo de restituciones, donaciones y legados en losAndes, se explora el papel de los laicos españoles, y también de las poblaciones indígenas, en el establecimiento de la densa red de instituciones católicas que se construye entonces. La propuesta postula el protagonismo de actores laicos en la construcción de un espacio cristiano en los Andes peruanos en el siglo XVI y principios del XVII, donde la inversión económica permite contribuir a la transición de una sociedad de guerra y conquista a una sociedad corporativa pacificada.PALABRAS CLAVE: Hispanoamérica-Andes, religión, economía, encomienda, siglos XVI y XVII.ABSTRACTThis article aims to reflect on the mechanisms of financing and control of religious institutions by the laity in the first decades of the conquest and colonization of Spanish America. Investigating lay investment in the sacred sphere means first of all to clarifying historiography on laity, religion and money within Ancien Régime societies and their transposition to America, taking into account the multiple motivations of secular actors. The example of restitutions, donations and legacies inthe Andes enables us to explore the role of the Spanish laity and indigenous populations in the establishment of the dense network of Catholic institutions that was established during this period. The proposal postulates the role of lay actors in the construction of a Christian space in the Peruvian Andes in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, when economic investment contributed to the transition from a society of war and conquest to a pacified, corporate society.KEY WORDS: Hispanic America-Andes, religion, economics, encomienda, 16th and 17th centuries. BIBLIOGRAFIAAbercrombie, T., “Tributes to Bad Conscience: Charity, Restitution, and Inheritance in Cacique and Encomendero Testaments of 16th-Century Charcas”, en Kellogg, S. y Restall, M. 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At the beginning of the 21st century, religion has not lost its influence. For years or even centuries, religion and the church have played an important role in society, politics and the development of countries. Historically, religion has played an important role in the individual beliefs of people, culture, norms and values of social groups and organizations. Significant influence on political and military power. But it is important not only the influence of religion on socio-political processes, but also the influence of religion on the economy. Scientists have been researching this issue for a long time. A. Smith was one of the first scholars to point out the important influence of religion on the economy. A. Smith in «Studies on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations», considered among various issues, including aspects of the functioning of markets, monetary economy and factors of production, the scientist also noted the economic aspect of Christianity. Subsequently, a significant contribution to the development of science on the influence and interaction of religion and economics was made by Max Weber in the work «The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism» (1905). The scientist studied the issues of religion and social stratification, the relationship between different religious ideas and the economy. Rodney Stark and Roger Finke also studied the diversity of churches and religious denominations and the competition between them, which, according to scientists, is a positive phenomenon. Chiswick C. U. in «Economics and Religion» (2010) and Wang Q. and Lin X. in «Does Religious Belief Affect Economic Growth?» (2014) analyzed the features of the interaction of economics and religion. The concept of «religious economy» is investigated in the article. The role and place of religion in the economic development of the world are analyzed. The influence of religion on the factors of economic growth. The views of Adam Smith, Max Weber, Rodney Stark, Roger Finke and others on the impact of religion on the economy and the economy on religion have been studied. The importance and place of religion in the economic life of society is important, because of its impact on the value system of the individual, which in turn determines certain economic behavior. As in turn affects the development of the economy and the participation of the individual in economic processes.

Abstract Through an assessment of the data recorded in two books of habices (Span., libros de habices – inventories of goods from Islamic pious endowments) dated 1527 and 1530, this study examines the situation of Morisco women in the Alpujarra, a rural area of Granada, just three decades after the forced conversion of the Muslim population to Christianity. Various aspects of the economic and social position of these women are explored, paying particular attention to their participation in the legal framework related to property ownership and the transfer of their possessions in the form of bequests. Although the study focuses primarily on the Morisco period, its most immediate precedent, Islamic and Mudéjar Granada, is not forgotten.

As the modern world is getting more diverse in its sociopolitical, economic and cultural aspects in a variety of ways, the concept of religious pluralism is gaining more traction than ever before. This study explores different responses to the religious diversity developed in Christianity by theologians. It also aims to critically analyze the discourses of the Christian pluralistic approaches as the discussion on religious pluralism began in, and is still dominated by, the Christian tradition. The current study employs a qualitative methodology and content analysis approach has been used to collect and analyze the data. The research has concluded there are three basic responses to religious plurality in Christianity: “Exclusivism”, “Inclusivism” and “Religious Pluralism”. The findings also reveal that Christian pluralists embrace that religious pluralism in its general meaning recognizes the diversity of religious beliefs and systems co-existing in the society. Though there are some inadequacies in their approach, yet the pluralists consider it as a positive phenomenon and acknowledge that there are many ways to salvation in order to accept the religious other as they plead for interreligious dialogue to mitigate the religious conflicts for the sake of peaceful co-existence.

As the modern world is getting more diverse in its sociopolitical, economic and cultural aspects in a variety of ways, the concept of religious pluralism is gaining more traction than ever before. This study explores different responses to the religious diversity developed in Christianity by theologians. It also aims to critically analyze the discourses of the Christian pluralistic approaches as the discussion on religious pluralism began in, and is still dominated by, the Christian tradition. The current study employs a qualitative methodology and content analysis approach has been used to collect and analyze the data. The research has concluded there are three basic responses to religious plurality in Christianity: “Exclusivism”, “Inclusivism” and “Religious Pluralism”. The findings also reveal that Christian pluralists embrace that religious pluralism in its general meaning recognizes the diversity of religious beliefs and systems co-existing in the society. Though there are some inadequacies in their approach, yet the pluralists consider it as a positive phenomenon and acknowledge that there are many ways to salvation in order to accept the religious other as they plead for interreligious dialogue to mitigate the religious conflicts for the sake of peaceful co-existence.