Relevant bibliographies by topics / Chlorinated hydrocarbons

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Chlorinated hydrocarbons'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 28 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

Huang, Li Kun, and Guang Zhi Wang. "Study on Species and Distribution of Volatile Organic Compounds in WWTP." Advanced Materials Research 864-867 (December 2013): 2035–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.864-867.2035.

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This study carried on a qualitative analysis on emission and distribution of VOCs and quantitative analysis on BTEX and chlorinated hydrocarbon emitted from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). At the same time, the variations of BETX and chlorinated hydrocarbon in three-phases in the biological treatment process in lab-scale were investigated. Results revealed that the low molecular weight hydrocarbon, BTEX (benzene, toluene, xylene) and chlorinated hydrocarbons (chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, chlorylene, tetrachloroethylene) were the main components of VOCs. Primary clarifier volatilized thirty-three species of VOCs, which was most in the WWTP. The remaining organic compounds in this unit belonged to refractory organics that was hardly decomposed by microbe. The more complex aromatic compounds in VOCs were detected.
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2

Doong, R. A., and S. C. Wu. "The Effect of Oxidation-Reduction Potential on the Biotransformations of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." Water Science and Technology 26, no. 1-2 (July 1, 1992): 159–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0396.

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Two batch experiments with acetate as the primary substrate and different combinations of chlorinated hydrocarbons as the secondary substrate were carried out to evaluate the effect of the redox potential of the environment on the biotransformations of chlorinated hydrocarbons. In both single and mixed contaminant(s) systems, biotransformations of 100 µg/L of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) and carbon tetrachloride (CT) were observed, but that of 1,1,1-trichloroethane(1,1,1-TCA) was not observed within 108 days. Chlorinated hydrocarbons acted as electron traps and scavenged the electrons when they underwent reductive dechlorination. Adequate activity of free available electrons is necessary for chlorinated hydrocarbons to undergo reductive dechlorination. The environment with low redox potential has relatively strong electron activity and therefore facilitates the biotransformation of the chlorinated hydrocarbons more readily. Disappearance of 17 to 62 % and 22 to 99.9 % of the original concentration of PCE and CT were observed when the redox potentials of the microcosms were ranged from 225 to -263 mV and 188 to -263 mV, respectively. The viable count of microorganisms determined by the epifluorescence technique showed that higher concentration of primary substrate produced more biomass than lower concentration of primary substrate did, but the DNA content of the microbes was not a good biochemical indicator for the biotransformability of the chlorinated hydrocarbons. It is concluded that oxidation-reduction potential is the major factor controlling the biotransformation efficiencies of chlorinated hydrocarbons. In the case of in-situ biorestoration, proper control of redox potential of the environment will give a good result of remediation of the groundwater contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons.
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Fan, Yanling, Zengjun Liu, Hefeng Xu, and Hongqi Wang. "Structure and Assembly Mechanism of Archaeal Communities in Deep Soil Contaminated by Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." Sustainability 15, no. 15 (July 25, 2023): 11511. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su151511511.

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Chlorinated hydrocarbons are typical organic pollutants in contaminated sites, and microbial remediation technology has attracted more and more attention. To study the structural characteristics and assembly mechanism of the archaeal community in chlorinated hydrocarbon-contaminated soil, unsaturated-zone soil within 2~10 m was collected. Based on high-throughput sequencing technology, the archaeal community was analyzed, and the main drivers, environmental influencing factors, and assembly mechanisms were revealed. The results showed that chlorinated hydrocarbon pollution altered archaeal community structure. The archaeal community composition was significantly correlated with trichloroethylene (r = 0.49, p = 0.001), chloroform (r = 0.60, p = 0.001), pH (r = 0.27, p = 0.036), sulfate (r = 0.21, p = 0.032), and total carbon (r = 0.23, p = 0.041). Under pollution stress, the relative abundance of Thermoplasmatota increased to 25.61%. Deterministic processes increased in the heavily polluted soil, resulting in reduced species richness, while positive collaboration among surviving species increased to 100%. These results provide new insights into the organization of archaeal communities in chlorinated hydrocarbon-contaminated sites and provide a basis for remediation activities.
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Sallmén, Markku, Sanni Uuksulainen, Christer Hublin, Aki Koskinen, and Markku Sainio. "O2D.5 Risk of parkinson disease in solvent exposed workers in finland." Occupational and Environmental Medicine 76, Suppl 1 (April 2019): A19.2—A19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oem-2019-epi.51.

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Epidemiologic studies indicate that occupational exposure to solvents may increase risk of Parkinson disease (PD).We constructed a population-based case-control study of incident PD using a register of Reimbursement of medicine costs of the Social Insurance Institution of Finland, along with the Population Information System, including census records for all Finnish residents. PD cases were diagnosed between 1995–2014. Controls were randomly selected from the population while matching on diagnosis year, birth year (1930–1950), and sex. A total of 11,757 PD cases and 23 236 controls had data from the occupational census in 1990, ensuring ≥4 years exposure lagging and 21 years of occupational history data (5 censuses from 1970–1990). We used the Finnish Job Exposure Matrix to assess cumulative exposure (CE) to four groups of solvents (aliphatic/alicyclic hydrocarbon, aromatic hydrocarbon, chlorinated hydrocarbon, other). We estimated PD-solvent odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using unconditional logistic regression, while adjusting for age, sex, socioeconomic status and smoking (a_OR), or additionally for CE to chromium and one of the other solvent groups (ab_OR).In total, 3758 cases (30.4%) and 7445 controls (32.0%) were potentially exposed to solvents (a_OR 0.99; CI: 0.94–1.05). Exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbons was associated with PD (a_OR 1.20; CI: 1.05–1.36; ab_OR 1.21 CI: 1.04–1.40) at the highest CE group (20–145 ppm-years, n=409 cases and 728 controls) but not at lower CE levels. Overall, CE to chlorinated hydrocarbons (n=1840 cases and 3693 controls) was associated with increased risk of PD (p-for-trend=0.01). There was no evidence of a positive association for any of the other solvent groups.We observed a positive association between occupational exposure to chlorinated hydrocarbons and risk of PD. This was especially true for greatest duration and/or level of exposure.
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GUPTA, A. K. "COMBUSTION OF CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS." Chemical Engineering Communications 41, no. 1-6 (April 1986): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00986448608911709.

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6

Huber, L. J. "Waste Water Treatment at the WACKER CHEMIE Chemical-Petrochemical Plant, Burghausen, F.R.G." Water Science and Technology 20, no. 10 (October 1, 1988): 13–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1988.0119.

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Waste water treatment in larger chemical and petrochemical plants affords the application of all available technologies for pollution abatement. Elimination of conventional and priority pollutants down to low concentrations in the effluent is necessary in the F.R.G. for the protection of surface waters. Special care is directed at chlorinated hydrocarbons. The WACKER-CHEMIE plant at Burghausen which produces especially chlorinated and organic silicon compounds uses a great number of in-plant measures, pretreatment steps and finally a two-stage biological purification to attain a high effluent quality. Important in-plant measures comprise the perchlorination of all significant chloro-hydrocarbon residues and the conversion to tetrachloroethylene and the reclamation of hydrogenchloride in the production of vinylchloride. Waste waters from the manufacture of chlorinated hydrocarbons are pre-treated by steam stripping or adsorbtion to macromolecular resins. Final treatment is effected by purification in a high rate activated sludge plant followed by an aerated lagoon.
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McCarty, Leslie P., Donal C. Flannagan, Scot A. Randall, and Keith A. Johnson. "Acute Toxicity in Rats of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons Given via the Intratracheal Route." Human & Experimental Toxicology 11, no. 3 (May 1992): 173–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096032719201100305.

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1 The approximate lethal dose (ALD) of six chlorinated hydrocarbons via the intratracheal route has been determined in rats and compared with published oral LD50 values. 2 The compounds tested in this study were dichloromethane, perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and ethylene dichloride. 3 A method of administering the materials intratracheally to unanaesthetized animals was developed. 4 The intratracheal ALD of the chlorinated hydrocarbons ranged from 3.1 to 17.5% of the oral LD 50 and death was peracute. 5 Aspiration of chlorinated hydrocarbons may present more of a hazard than oral toxicity and should be considered when rendering first aid or emergency medical treatment.
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Li, Hui, Zhantao Han, Yong Qian, Xiangke Kong, and Ping Wang. "In Situ Persulfate Oxidation of 1,2,3-Trichloropropane in Groundwater of North China Plain." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 15 (August 1, 2019): 2752. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152752.

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In situ injection of Fe(II)-activated persulfate was carried out to oxidize chlorinated hydrocarbons and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) in groundwater in a contaminated site in North China Plain. To confirm the degradation of contaminants, an oxidant mixture of persulfate, ferrous sulfate, and citric acid was mixed with the main contaminants including 1,2,3-trichloropropane (TCP) and benzene before field demonstration. Then the mixed oxidant solution of 6 m3 was injected into an aquifer with two different depths of 8 and 15 m to oxidize a high concentration of TCP, other kinds of chlorinated hydrocarbons, and BTEX. In laboratory tests, the removal efficiency of TCP reached 61.4% in 24 h without other contaminants but the removal rate was decreased by the presence of benzene. Organic matter also reduced the TCP degradation rate and the removal efficiency was only 8.3% in 24 h. In the field test, as the solution was injected, the oxidation reaction occurred immediately, accompanied by a sharp increase of oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) and a decrease in pH. Though the concentration of pollutants increased due to the dissolution of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) at the initial stage, BTEX could still be effectively degraded in subsequent time by persulfate in both aquifers, and their removal efficiency approached 100%. However, chlorinated hydrocarbon was relatively difficult to degrade, especially TCP, which had a relatively higher initial concentration, only had a removal efficiency of 30%–45% at different aquifers and monitoring wells. These finding are important for the development of injection technology for chlorinated hydrocarbon and BTEX contaminated site remediation.
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MORI, Takaaki. "Toxicity of chlorinated cyclic hydrocarbons." Okayama Igakkai Zasshi (Journal of Okayama Medical Association) 98, no. 9-10 (1986): 809–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4044/joma1947.98.9-10_809.

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MISHIMA, Satoko. "Separation Membrane for Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." Kobunshi 47, no. 12 (1998): 892. http://dx.doi.org/10.1295/kobunshi.47.892.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

Carter, Oliver William. "Molecular fluorescence based measurement of chlorinated hydrocarbons." Thesis, Cranfield University, 1998. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.267336.

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Mullick, Anjum. "Intrinsic bioremediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons at cold temperatures." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape8/PQDD_0021/MQ47074.pdf.

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Chavez-Rivera, Rafael Alfredo. "A biofilm reactor for degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.339503.

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Odutola, A. O. "Sorption of chlorinated and fuel derived hydrocarbons inlimestone." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.397881.

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5

Ticknor, Jonathan. "Analysis and Remediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Environmental Media." Scholar Commons, 2012. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4242.

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The two objectives of this work were to develop a simplified method for the analysis of chlorinated organics in water samples and to improve an existing soil remediation technology. The contaminants considered for these studies were chlorinated hydrocarbons because of their relative frequency of appearance at contaminated sites. The first half of this study involved the analysis of chlorinated ethenes by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). I tested the hypothesis that the FID response factor is the same for all chlorinated ethene compounds. The rationale for this investigation is that if the hypothesis is correct, a single calibration curve can be used for GC/FID analysis of all chlorinated ethene compounds, saving time and money during sample analysis. Based on my measurements, a single calibration curve fits PCE, TCE, and cis-DCE (R2=0.998). However, the apparent slope of the calibration curve for vinyl chloride is approximately 45% lower, indicating that a separate calibration curve must be used to quantify vinyl chloride. I believe this difference in vinyl chloride is due to loss of analyte mass due to volatilization. The second half of the study considered the effect of solvent composition for a soil remediation technology, entitled remedial extraction and catalytic hydrodehalogenation (REACH), developed by Dr. Hun Young Wee and Dr. Jeff Cunningham (Wee and Cunningham, 2008). The objective of this thesis is to convert 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene (TeCB) to cyclohexane, thus improving on the work of Wee (2007). Recent work by Osborn (2011) tested successfully the use of palladium and rhodium catalysts for this conversion, though it took twelve hours for full conversion. Osborn (2011) performed her experiments in a 50:50 water-ethanol solvent; previous work by Wee and Cunningham (2008) suggests that using a 67:33 water-ethanol composition may dramatically reduce the reaction time. Therefore, the goal of this research was to use palladium and rhodium catalysts with a 67:33 water-ethanol solvent composition, with an aim of reducing the reaction time required to fully convert benzene to cyclohexane. The data suggest that the time required for conversion of the analyte to its product was improved dramatically compared to previous experiments. However, powdered palladium catalyst was used in this study instead of pellet form as in previous studies. The powdered palladium allowed for full conversion of the target chemical, TeCB, to benzene in less than 5 minutes. Benzene was fully converted to cyclohexane within 45 minutes in the batch reactor when a rhodium catalyst was used jointly with palladium. This study suggests that the 67:33 water-ethanol solvent composition be utilized in continuous flow tests in the future to improve the efficiency of the REACH system. The results also suggest that powdered palladium catalyst be considered because of its ability to force the reaction to completion in significantly less time than previous experiments.
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Hunt, James. "Quantifying environmental risk of groundwater contaminated with volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/5138.

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Water quality guidelines (WQGs) present concentrations of contaminants that are designed to be protective of aquatic ecosystems. In Australia, guidance for assessment of water quality is provided by the ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. WQGs are generally provided for individual contaminants, not complex mixtures of chemicals, where interaction between contaminants may occur. Complex mixtures of contaminants are however, more commonly found in the environment than singular chemicals. The likelihood and consequences of adverse effects occurring in aquatic ecosystems resulting from contaminants are generally assessed using an ecological risk assessment (ERA) framework. Ecological risk assessment is often a tiered approach, whereby risks identified in early stages, using conservative assumptions, prompt further detailed and more realistic assessment in higher tiers. The objectives of this study were: to assess and investigate the toxicity of the mixture of volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons (VCHs) in groundwater to indigenous marine organisms; to present a ‘best practice’ ecological risk assessment of the discharge of contaminated groundwater to an estuarine embayment and to develop techniques to quantify the environmental risk; and to evaluate the existing ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) WQGs for VCHs and to derive new WQGs, where appropriate. Previous investigations at a chemical manufacturing facility in Botany, Sydney, identified several plumes of groundwater contamination with VCHs. Contaminated groundwater containing a complex mixture of VCHs was identified as discharging, via a series of stormwater drains, to surface water in nearby Penrhyn Estuary, an adjacent small intertidal embayment on the northern margin of Botany Bay. A screening level ecological hazard assessment was undertaken using the hazard quotient (HQ) approach, whereby contaminant concentrations measured in the environment were screened against published trigger values (TVs) presented in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000). Existing TVs were available for 9 of the 14 VCHs present in surface water in the estuary and new TVs were derived for the remaining 5 VCHs. A greater hazard was identified in the estuary at low tide than high tide or when VCH concentrations from both high and low tides were assessed together. A greater hazard was also identified in the estuary when the toxicity of the mixture was assessed, rather than the toxicity of individual contaminants. The screening level hazard assessment also identified several limitations, including: the low reliability of the TVs for VCHs provided in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000); the limited applicability of the TVs to a complex mixture of 14 potentially interacting contaminants; the use of deterministic measures for each of the exposure and toxicity profiles in the HQ method and the associated lack of elements of probability to assess ‘risk’. Subsequent studies were undertaken to address these identified shortcomings of the screening level hazard assessment as described in the following chapters. A toxicity testing methodology was adapted and evaluated for suitability in preventing loss of VCHs from test solutions and also for testing with 6 indigenous marine organisms, including: oyster (Saccostrea commercialis) and sea urchin larvae (Heliocidaris tuberculata); a benthic alga (Nitzschia closterium); an amphipod (Allorchestes compressa); a larval fish (Macquaria novemaculeata); and a polychaete worm (Diopatra dentata). The study evaluated possible VCH loss from 44 mL vials for small organisms (H.tuberculata, S.commercialis and N.closterium) and 1 L jars for larger organisms (M.novemaculeata, A.compressa and D.dentata). Vials were effective in preventing loss of VCHs, however, an average 46% of VCHs were lost from jars, attributable to the headspace provided in the vessels. Test jars were deemed suitable for use with the organisms as test conditions, i.e. dissolved oxygen content and pH, were maintained, however, variability in test organism survival was identified, with some control tests failing to meet all acceptance criteria. Direct toxicity assessment (DTA) of groundwater contaminated with VCHs was undertaken using 5 indigenous marine organisms and site-specific species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) and TVs were derived for the complex mixture of VCHs for application to surface water in Penrhyn Estuary. Test organisms included A.compressa, H.tuberculata, S.commercialis, D.dentata and N.closterium. The SSD was derived using NOEC data in accordance with procedures presented in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) for deriving WQGs. The site-specific SSD adopted was a log-normal distribution, using an acute to chronic ratio (ACR) of 5, with a 95% TV of 838 μg/L total VCHs. A number of additional scenarios were undertaken to evaluate the effect of including different ACRs (i.e. 5 or 10), inclusion of larval development tests as either acute or chronic tests and choice of SSD distribution (i.e. log-normal, Burr Type III and Pareto). TVs for the scenarios modelled varied from 67 μg/L to 954 μg/L total VCHs. A site-specific, quantitative ERA was undertaken of the surface water contaminated with VCHs in Penrhyn Estuary. The risk assessment included probabilistic elements for toxicity (i.e. the site-specific SSD) and exposure (i.e. a cumulative distribution function of monitoring data for VCHs in surface waters in the estuary). The joint probability curve (JPC) methodology was used to derive quantitative estimates of ecological risk (δ) and the type of exposure in the source areas in surface water drains entering the estuary, i.e. Springvale and Floodvale Drains, Springvale and Floodvale Tributaries and the Inner and Outer Estuary. The risk of possible adverse effects and likely adverse effects were each assessed using SSDs derived from NOEC and EC50 data, respectively. Estimates of risk (δ) of possible adverse effects (i.e. based on NOEC data) varied from a maximum of 85% in the Springvale Drain source area to <1% in the outer estuary and estimates of likely adverse effects (i.e. based on EC50 data) varied from 78% to 0%. The ERA represents a ‘best practice’ ecological risk assessment of contamination of an estuary using site-specific probabilistic elements for toxicity and exposure assessments. The VCHs identified in surface water in Penrhyn Estuary are additive in toxicity and act under the narcotic pathway, inhibiting cellular processes through interference with membrane integrity. Lethal toxicity to 50% of organisms (i.e. LC50) is typically reported at the internal lethal concentration (ILC) or critical body residue (CBR) of ~2.5 mmol/kg wet weight or within the range of 1 to 10 mmol/kg wet weight. To evaluate the sensitivity of the test organisms to VCHs and to determine if toxicity in the DTA was due to VCHs, the internal residue for 6 test organisms was calculated for the mixture of VCHs in groundwater and toxicity testing with seawater spiked individually 2 VCHs, chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane. Calculated residues (at LC50/EC50) were typically between 1 and 10 mmol/kg, with the exception of the algal and sea urchin toxicity tests, which were considerably lower than the expected minimum. Mean internal residues for the groundwater, chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane were 0.88 mmol/kg, 2.84 mmol/kg and 2.32 mmol/kg, respectively, i.e. close to the predicted value of ~2.5 mmol/kg, indicating that the organisms were suitably sensitive to VCHs. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) between the mean residues of each of the three treatments and the study concluded that the additive toxicity of the VCHs in groundwater was sufficient to account for the observed toxicity (i.e. VCHs caused the toxicity in the DTA undertaken). Evaluation of the existing low reliability ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) TVs for chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane was undertaken to determine if these guidelines were protective of indigenous marine organisms. NOECs, derived from toxicity testing of 1,2- dichloroethane and chloroform with 6 indigenous marine organisms, were screened against the existing low reliability TVs. The TVs for 1,2-dichloroethane and chloroform were protective of 4 of the 6 species tested (A.compressa, D.dentata, S.commercialis and M.novemaculeata), however, the TVs were not protective of the alga (N.closterium) or the sea urchin larvae (H.tuberculata). As the existing TVs were not considered to be adequately protective, SSDs were derived using the NOEC data generated from the testing in accordance with procedures outlined in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000). Moderate reliability TVs of 3 μg/L and 165 μg/L were derived for chloroform and 1,2- dichloroethane, respectively, i.e. considerably lower than the existing TVs of 770 μg/L and 1900 μg/L. Differences between the existing and newly derived TVs were considered to result from the sensitive endpoints selected (i.e. growth and larval development rather than survival) and from variability inherent when deriving SSDs using a small number of test species. Ongoing groundwater monitoring indicated that the plumes of VCHs in groundwater, identified in the 1990s, were continuing to migrate towards Botany Bay. Discharge of these groundwater plumes into Botany Bay would result in significant increases in the concentrations of VCHs in the receiving environment and would likely lead to significant environmental impacts. In 2006, a groundwater remediation system was commissioned to prevent the discharge of groundwater containing VCHs into Penrhyn Estuary and Botany Bay. The success of the project had only been measured according to chemical and engineering objectives. Assessment of changes in ecological risk is vital to the success of ERA and central to the ERA management framework. Whereas monitoring of chemical concentrations provides qualitative information that risk should decrease, it cannot quantify the reduction in ecological risk. To assess the ecological risk following implementation of the groundwater treatment system, the risk assessment was revised using surface water monitoring data collected during 2007 and 2008. The ERA indicated that, following remediation of the groundwater, ecological risk in Penrhyn Estuary reduced from a maximum of 35% prior to remediation, to a maximum of only 1.3% after remediation. Using the same methodology applied in the initial risk assessment, the success of the groundwater remediation was measured in terms of ecological risk, rather than engineering or chemical measures of success. Prior to the present investigation, existing techniques for assessing ecological risk of VCH contamination in aquatic ecosystems were inadequate to characterise ecological risk. The current study demonstrated that through monitoring of surface water at the site and DTA using indigenous marine organisms, ecological risk can be assessed using site-specific, quantitative techniques for a complex mixture of VCHs in groundwater. The present investigation also identified that existing ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) low reliability TVs were less protective of indigenous test organisms than previously thought and therefore, new TVs were derived in the current work. The present study showed that revision of the risk assessment as conditions change is crucial to the success of the ecological risk management framework.
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7

Hunt, James. "Quantifying environmental risk of groundwater contaminated with volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons." University of Sydney, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/5138.

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Doctor of Philosophy
Water quality guidelines (WQGs) present concentrations of contaminants that are designed to be protective of aquatic ecosystems. In Australia, guidance for assessment of water quality is provided by the ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. WQGs are generally provided for individual contaminants, not complex mixtures of chemicals, where interaction between contaminants may occur. Complex mixtures of contaminants are however, more commonly found in the environment than singular chemicals. The likelihood and consequences of adverse effects occurring in aquatic ecosystems resulting from contaminants are generally assessed using an ecological risk assessment (ERA) framework. Ecological risk assessment is often a tiered approach, whereby risks identified in early stages, using conservative assumptions, prompt further detailed and more realistic assessment in higher tiers. The objectives of this study were: to assess and investigate the toxicity of the mixture of volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons (VCHs) in groundwater to indigenous marine organisms; to present a ‘best practice’ ecological risk assessment of the discharge of contaminated groundwater to an estuarine embayment and to develop techniques to quantify the environmental risk; and to evaluate the existing ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) WQGs for VCHs and to derive new WQGs, where appropriate. Previous investigations at a chemical manufacturing facility in Botany, Sydney, identified several plumes of groundwater contamination with VCHs. Contaminated groundwater containing a complex mixture of VCHs was identified as discharging, via a series of stormwater drains, to surface water in nearby Penrhyn Estuary, an adjacent small intertidal embayment on the northern margin of Botany Bay. A screening level ecological hazard assessment was undertaken using the hazard quotient (HQ) approach, whereby contaminant concentrations measured in the environment were screened against published trigger values (TVs) presented in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000). Existing TVs were available for 9 of the 14 VCHs present in surface water in the estuary and new TVs were derived for the remaining 5 VCHs. A greater hazard was identified in the estuary at low tide than high tide or when VCH concentrations from both high and low tides were assessed together. A greater hazard was also identified in the estuary when the toxicity of the mixture was assessed, rather than the toxicity of individual contaminants. The screening level hazard assessment also identified several limitations, including: the low reliability of the TVs for VCHs provided in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000); the limited applicability of the TVs to a complex mixture of 14 potentially interacting contaminants; the use of deterministic measures for each of the exposure and toxicity profiles in the HQ method and the associated lack of elements of probability to assess ‘risk’. Subsequent studies were undertaken to address these identified shortcomings of the screening level hazard assessment as described in the following chapters. A toxicity testing methodology was adapted and evaluated for suitability in preventing loss of VCHs from test solutions and also for testing with 6 indigenous marine organisms, including: oyster (Saccostrea commercialis) and sea urchin larvae (Heliocidaris tuberculata); a benthic alga (Nitzschia closterium); an amphipod (Allorchestes compressa); a larval fish (Macquaria novemaculeata); and a polychaete worm (Diopatra dentata). The study evaluated possible VCH loss from 44 mL vials for small organisms (H.tuberculata, S.commercialis and N.closterium) and 1 L jars for larger organisms (M.novemaculeata, A.compressa and D.dentata). Vials were effective in preventing loss of VCHs, however, an average 46% of VCHs were lost from jars, attributable to the headspace provided in the vessels. Test jars were deemed suitable for use with the organisms as test conditions, i.e. dissolved oxygen content and pH, were maintained, however, variability in test organism survival was identified, with some control tests failing to meet all acceptance criteria. Direct toxicity assessment (DTA) of groundwater contaminated with VCHs was undertaken using 5 indigenous marine organisms and site-specific species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) and TVs were derived for the complex mixture of VCHs for application to surface water in Penrhyn Estuary. Test organisms included A.compressa, H.tuberculata, S.commercialis, D.dentata and N.closterium. The SSD was derived using NOEC data in accordance with procedures presented in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) for deriving WQGs. The site-specific SSD adopted was a log-normal distribution, using an acute to chronic ratio (ACR) of 5, with a 95% TV of 838 μg/L total VCHs. A number of additional scenarios were undertaken to evaluate the effect of including different ACRs (i.e. 5 or 10), inclusion of larval development tests as either acute or chronic tests and choice of SSD distribution (i.e. log-normal, Burr Type III and Pareto). TVs for the scenarios modelled varied from 67 μg/L to 954 μg/L total VCHs. A site-specific, quantitative ERA was undertaken of the surface water contaminated with VCHs in Penrhyn Estuary. The risk assessment included probabilistic elements for toxicity (i.e. the site-specific SSD) and exposure (i.e. a cumulative distribution function of monitoring data for VCHs in surface waters in the estuary). The joint probability curve (JPC) methodology was used to derive quantitative estimates of ecological risk (δ) and the type of exposure in the source areas in surface water drains entering the estuary, i.e. Springvale and Floodvale Drains, Springvale and Floodvale Tributaries and the Inner and Outer Estuary. The risk of possible adverse effects and likely adverse effects were each assessed using SSDs derived from NOEC and EC50 data, respectively. Estimates of risk (δ) of possible adverse effects (i.e. based on NOEC data) varied from a maximum of 85% in the Springvale Drain source area to <1% in the outer estuary and estimates of likely adverse effects (i.e. based on EC50 data) varied from 78% to 0%. The ERA represents a ‘best practice’ ecological risk assessment of contamination of an estuary using site-specific probabilistic elements for toxicity and exposure assessments. The VCHs identified in surface water in Penrhyn Estuary are additive in toxicity and act under the narcotic pathway, inhibiting cellular processes through interference with membrane integrity. Lethal toxicity to 50% of organisms (i.e. LC50) is typically reported at the internal lethal concentration (ILC) or critical body residue (CBR) of ~2.5 mmol/kg wet weight or within the range of 1 to 10 mmol/kg wet weight. To evaluate the sensitivity of the test organisms to VCHs and to determine if toxicity in the DTA was due to VCHs, the internal residue for 6 test organisms was calculated for the mixture of VCHs in groundwater and toxicity testing with seawater spiked individually 2 VCHs, chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane. Calculated residues (at LC50/EC50) were typically between 1 and 10 mmol/kg, with the exception of the algal and sea urchin toxicity tests, which were considerably lower than the expected minimum. Mean internal residues for the groundwater, chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane were 0.88 mmol/kg, 2.84 mmol/kg and 2.32 mmol/kg, respectively, i.e. close to the predicted value of ~2.5 mmol/kg, indicating that the organisms were suitably sensitive to VCHs. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) between the mean residues of each of the three treatments and the study concluded that the additive toxicity of the VCHs in groundwater was sufficient to account for the observed toxicity (i.e. VCHs caused the toxicity in the DTA undertaken). Evaluation of the existing low reliability ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) TVs for chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane was undertaken to determine if these guidelines were protective of indigenous marine organisms. NOECs, derived from toxicity testing of 1,2- dichloroethane and chloroform with 6 indigenous marine organisms, were screened against the existing low reliability TVs. The TVs for 1,2-dichloroethane and chloroform were protective of 4 of the 6 species tested (A.compressa, D.dentata, S.commercialis and M.novemaculeata), however, the TVs were not protective of the alga (N.closterium) or the sea urchin larvae (H.tuberculata). As the existing TVs were not considered to be adequately protective, SSDs were derived using the NOEC data generated from the testing in accordance with procedures outlined in ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000). Moderate reliability TVs of 3 μg/L and 165 μg/L were derived for chloroform and 1,2- dichloroethane, respectively, i.e. considerably lower than the existing TVs of 770 μg/L and 1900 μg/L. Differences between the existing and newly derived TVs were considered to result from the sensitive endpoints selected (i.e. growth and larval development rather than survival) and from variability inherent when deriving SSDs using a small number of test species. Ongoing groundwater monitoring indicated that the plumes of VCHs in groundwater, identified in the 1990s, were continuing to migrate towards Botany Bay. Discharge of these groundwater plumes into Botany Bay would result in significant increases in the concentrations of VCHs in the receiving environment and would likely lead to significant environmental impacts. In 2006, a groundwater remediation system was commissioned to prevent the discharge of groundwater containing VCHs into Penrhyn Estuary and Botany Bay. The success of the project had only been measured according to chemical and engineering objectives. Assessment of changes in ecological risk is vital to the success of ERA and central to the ERA management framework. Whereas monitoring of chemical concentrations provides qualitative information that risk should decrease, it cannot quantify the reduction in ecological risk. To assess the ecological risk following implementation of the groundwater treatment system, the risk assessment was revised using surface water monitoring data collected during 2007 and 2008. The ERA indicated that, following remediation of the groundwater, ecological risk in Penrhyn Estuary reduced from a maximum of 35% prior to remediation, to a maximum of only 1.3% after remediation. Using the same methodology applied in the initial risk assessment, the success of the groundwater remediation was measured in terms of ecological risk, rather than engineering or chemical measures of success. Prior to the present investigation, existing techniques for assessing ecological risk of VCH contamination in aquatic ecosystems were inadequate to characterise ecological risk. The current study demonstrated that through monitoring of surface water at the site and DTA using indigenous marine organisms, ecological risk can be assessed using site-specific, quantitative techniques for a complex mixture of VCHs in groundwater. The present investigation also identified that existing ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000) low reliability TVs were less protective of indigenous test organisms than previously thought and therefore, new TVs were derived in the current work. The present study showed that revision of the risk assessment as conditions change is crucial to the success of the ecological risk management framework.
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Brewster, Ryan Jude Stephen. "Cometabolic Modeling of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons using SEAM3D Cometabolism Package." Master's thesis, Virginia Tech, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/37103.

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Bioremediation of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon (CAH) compounds commonly found at contaminated sites has been an area of focus in recent years. The cometabolic transformation of CAH compounds is important at sites where the redox condition does not favor natural attenuation or populations of indigenous microorganisms are relatively low. At sites where the ground-water system is aerobic, monitored natural attenuation strategies will not meet remediation objectives, or both, enhanced bioremediation via cometabolism is an option. Models are needed to simulate cometabolism in an effort to improve performance and design. The SEAM3D Cometabolism Package was designed to address this need. The objective of this report is to model field data to determine the ability of SEAM3D to simulate the performance of cometabolism. A ground-water flow and transport model was designed based on reported parameters used in the field experiments at Moffett Field. Electron donor and acceptor breakthrough curves were also simulated in an effort to calibrate the model. Several data sets describing the cometabolism of CAHs were used in the cometabolism modeling for calibration to field data. The cometabolism modeling showed areas of best fit calibration with modification to the model parameters reported for the pilot tests at Moffett Field. The overall performance of the SEAM3D Cometabolism Package described in this report establishes validation of the model using field experiment results from the literature. Additional model validation is recommended for other contaminants.
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Johansson, Glenn. "Using PCA to reveal hidden structures in the remediation steps of chlorinated solvents." Thesis, Högskolan i Halmstad, Akademin för ekonomi, teknik och naturvetenskap, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hh:diva-33397.

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Chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethene (TCE) and perchloroethene (PCE) are commonly found in industrialized areas and can have major impact on human health and groundwater quality. The techniques for removing these substances from the subsurface environment is constantly being tuned and revised, and as such, the need for monitoring at such remediation sites is crucial. To find important correlations and hidden patterns between variables principle component analyses (PCA) and correlations matrixes were used on sets of field data from an existing remediation site in southern Sweden. Four important components were extracted in the following order; End products of dechlorination (EPD), second wave of dechlorination (SWD), first wave of dechlorination (FWD) and indicators of dechlorination (ID). The underlying pattern found in the data set was most likely derived from thermodynamic preference, explaining important correlations such as the correlation between iron and sulfate, the correlation between redox and degree of dechlorination. The law of thermodynamic preference means that we can (roughly) estimate the level of difficulty and/or the time it will take to remediate a polluted site.  These findings show that similar results shown in theory and laboratory environments also applies in the field and also that PCA is a potent tool for evaluating large data sets in this field of science. However, it is of great importance that the correlations are examined thoroughly, as correlation it not equal to causation.
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Qin, Tianyu. "Comparison of in-situ bioremediation of soil contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons." Thesis, Högskolan i Halmstad, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hh:diva-43062.

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In recent years, due to the continuous development of machinery, electronics, leather, chemical companies and dry-cleaning industry, more and more chlorinated hydrocarbons accumulate in the soil, causing serious harm to the environment. The accumulation of chlorinated hydrocarbons and the teratogenic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic hazards seriously threaten human health. Therefore, the remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons is imminent. Under this premise, in-situ bioremediation has gradually received attention. For in situ bioremediation of soil contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons, the most commonly used methods are biostimulation alone, bioaugmentation alone, and a combination with biostimulation and bioaugmentation. The removal rate of trichloroethylene in the case of using biostimulation products alone is significantly lower than that of using bioaugmentation products alone. The removal rate of trichloroethylene by biostimulation products alone does not exceed 60%, and “DCE pause” occurred, but did not occur in the case of using bioaugmentation products. The removal rate of trichloroethylene by bioaugmentation products is generally higher than 98%, and it will promote the degradation of trichloroethylene or tetrachloroethylene to non-toxic ethylene. Therefore, only cases containing bioaugmentation can achieve non-toxic degradation of chlorinated hydrocarbons and take into account the high removal rate of them. In addition, the biostimulation duration is significantly shorter.
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Books on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

United States. Environmental Protection Agency, Life Systems Inc, and Clement Associates, eds. Toxicological profile for bromodichloromethane. [Atlanta, Ga.]: [Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control], 1989.

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IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Chlorinated drinking-water, chlorination by-products: Some other halogenated compounds, cobalt and cobalt compounds. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1991.

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United States. Environmental Protection Agency, Syracuse Research Corporation, and Clement Associates, eds. Toxicological profile for 1,1,2-trichloroethane. [Atlanta, Ga.]: [Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control], 1989.

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A, Palazzolo M., and Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, eds. Destruction of chlorinated hydrocarbons by catalytic oxidation. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, 1987.

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International Program on Chemical Safety. Kelevan health and safety guide. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1987.

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United States. Environmental Protection Agency and Clement Associates, eds. Toxicological profile for 1,2-dichloroethane. [Atlanta, Ga.]: [Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control], 1989.

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Offenhartz, Barbara H. Enzyme-based detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory, 1985.

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Offenhartz, Barbara H. Enzyme-based detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory, 1985.

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Offenhartz, Barbara H. Enzyme-based detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory, 1985.

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Offenhartz, Barbara H. Enzyme-based detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory, 1985.

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Book chapters on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

Gooch, Jan W. "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, 140. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6247-8_2309.

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Lumpkin, Michael H. "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 541–66. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118834015.ch58.

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Gabrys, Beata, John L. Capinera, Jesusa C. Legaspi, Benjamin C. Legaspi, Lewis S. Long, John L. Capinera, Jamie Ellis, et al. "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Encyclopedia of Entomology, 863. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_638.

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Robin, A. "Incineration of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Chemical Waste, 267–76. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-69625-1_10.

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Senkan, S. M. "Combustion of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Pollutants from Combustion, 303–38. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4249-6_15.

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Baechmann, K., and J. Polzer. "Degradation Products of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Physico-Chemical Behaviour of Atmospheric Pollutants, 215–19. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0567-2_33.

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Drago, Russell S., S. C. Petrosius, G. C. Grunewald, and William H. Brendley. "Deep Oxidation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Environmental Catalysis, 340–52. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bk-1994-0552.ch028.

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Müller, Jürgen. "Aromatic and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Forest Areas." In Mechanisms and Effects of Pollutant-Transfer into Forests, 133–39. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1023-2_15.

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Henschler, D. "Mechanisms of Genotoxicity of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons." In Selectivity and Molecular Mechanisms of Toxicity, 153–81. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-08759-4_7.

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Alfán-Guzmán, Ricardo, Matthew Lee, and Michael Manefield. "Anaerobic Bioreactors For The Treatment of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In Industrial Biotechnology, 421–51. Toronto ; [Hackensack?] New Jersey : Apple Academic Press, 2016.: Apple Academic Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315366562-14.

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Conference papers on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

Rohlfing, E. A., and D. W. Chandler. "Laser spectroscopy of jet-cooled chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons." In AIP Conference Proceedings Volume 160. AIP, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.36871.

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Rohlfing, E. A., and D. W. Chandler. "Laser spectroscopy of jet-cooled chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons." In International Laser Science Conference. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ils.1986.tue5.

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The ultrasensitive and isomerically selective detection of chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons is currently a problem of particular concern due to the toxic and/or carcinogenic nature of these species and their widespread presence in the environment. In this work laser-induced fluorescence and resonantly enhanced multi photon ionization (REMPI) are applied to a series of mono- and dichloronaphthalenes that are rotationally cooled in a free jet expansion. Both techniques provide isomeric selectivity in the S1-S0 spectral region; however 1 + 2 REMPI is more sensitive. In the REMPI spectra of the dichloronapthalenes (DCNs) the S1-S0 origins of different positional isomers are separated by as much as 424 cm-1. Low resolution time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectra of the DCNs show the REMPI ion fragmentation pattern to be isomer dependent. The additional selectivity that isomer-dependent frag mentation provides is demonstrated by the different relative intensities observed in the parent and fragment ion REMPI spectra of a three-component DCN mixture. Possible extensions of the REMPI technique, including two-color, 1 + 1 REMPI for enhanced sensitivity and high-resolution TOF mass spectrometry for enhanced isomeric selectivy, are discussed.
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Jeffries, Jay B., George A. Raiche, and Leonard E. Jusinski. "Laser Fragmentation/Laser Induced Fluorescence Detection Of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons*." In Laser Applications to Chemical Analysis. Washington, D.C.: Optica Publishing Group, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/laca.1992.wc13.

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Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHC) have a myriad of industrial applications including solvents, feedstocks, and the components of polymeric materials. The byproduct of these industrial uses is an enormous quantity of liquid waste. Incineration is an attractive treatment process for this hazardous waste, however, the current technology is costly and highly empirical. Better fundamental knowledge of incinerator chemistry and improved diagnostic techniques will improve incinerator design and help evaluate innovative CHC destruction schemes. The development of real-time monitors of the effluent stream is necessary to satisfy environmental concerns and insure compliance of emission regulations.
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Liu, Guorui, Minghui Zheng, Rong Jin, Lili Yang, Cui Li, and Xiaoyun Liu. "Chlorinated and Brominated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on the Tibetan Plateau." In Goldschmidt2020. Geochemical Society, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.46427/gold2020.1583.

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Lin, Ching-Chun, Pau-Chung Chen, Meng-Shan Tsai, Yu Chan Chen, and Yu Ling Ren. "0198 The chlorinated hydrocarbons contaminated groundwater and the reproductive hazard." In Eliminating Occupational Disease: Translating Research into Action, EPICOH 2017, EPICOH 2017, 28–31 August 2017, Edinburgh, UK. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2017-104636.156.

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Miller, John A., Rick Deuell, and Steven J. Linse. "Zinc-Iron Reactive Aeration Trench: Passive Treatment of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons." In SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production. Society of Petroleum Engineers, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/46583-ms.

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Walsh, James E., Brian D. MacCraith, M. Meaney, Johannes G. Vos, F. Regan, Antonio Lancia, and Vjacheslav G. Artioushenko. "Midinfrared fiber sensor for the in-situ detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons." In European Symposium on Optics for Environmental and Public Safety, edited by Annamaria V. Scheggi. SPIE, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.221736.

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Bilodeau, Tom G., Kenneth J. Ewing, I. P. Kraucunas, J. Jaganathan, Gregory M. Nau, Ishwar D. Aggarwal, Fred R. Reich, and Stephen J. Mech. "Fiber optic raman probe detection of chlorinated hydrocarbons in standard soils." In Optical Tools for Manufacturing and Advanced Automation, edited by Robert A. Lieberman. SPIE, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.170672.

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Wu, De-Li, Hong-Wu Wang, Jin-Hong Fan, and Lu-Ming MA. "Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Water by Cu/Fe Bimetallic Reductant." In 2008 2nd International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering. IEEE, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icbbe.2008.254.

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Krska, R., and Robert A. Kellner. "Multicomponent analysis of chlorinated hydrocarbons in water with an infrared fiber optic sensor." In Fourier Transform Spectroscopy: Ninth International Conference, edited by John E. Bertie and Hal Wieser. SPIE, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.166583.

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Reports on the topic "Chlorinated hydrocarbons"

1

Strand, Stuart E., and Milton P. PI: Gordon. USING TREES TO REMEDIATE GROUNDWATERS CONTAMINATED WITH CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), June 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/827250.

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Semprini, Lewis, Jonathan Istok, Mohammad Azizian, and Young Kim. Push-Pull Tests for Evaluating the Aerobic Cometabolism of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada439084.

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Garrett, Bruce C., Edgar E. Arcia, Yurii A. Borisov, Christopher Cramer, Thom H. Dunning, Michel Dupuis, Jiali Gao, et al. Chemical Fate of Contaminants in the Environment: Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Groundwater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), August 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/15007021.

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Truhlar, Donald G., Christopher Cramer, Jiali Gao, Bruce C. Garrett, Michel Dupuis, TP Straatsma, Keiji Morokuma, et al. Chemical Fate of Contaminants in the Environment: Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the Groundwater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), September 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/967019.

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Strand, Stuart E. Genetic Engineering of Plants to Improve Phytoremediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Groundwater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), December 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/850327.

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Gallagher, J. R., and M. D. Kurz. Bubbleless gas transfer technology for the in situ remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), October 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/774499.

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Semprini, Lew. Push-Pull Tests for Evaluating the Aerobic Cometabolism of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, September 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada468544.

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Gordon, M. P., L. A. Newman, and S. E. Strand. Using trees to remediate groundwaters contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons. 1997 annual progress report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/13708.

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Strand, S. E., and M. P. Gordon. Using trees to remediate groundwaters contaminated with chlorinated hydrocarbons. 1998 annual progress report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), June 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/13709.

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Hicks, John. Impact of Landfill Closure Designs on Long-Term Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, October 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada604033.

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