Journal articles on the topic 'China – History – Colonization'

Determining the evolutionary history and population drivers, such as past large-scale climatic oscillations, stochastic processes and ecological adaptations, represents one of the aims of evolutionary biology. Hipposideros larvatus is a common bat species in Southern China, including Hainan Island. We examined genetic variation in H. larvatus using mitochondrial DNA and nuclear microsatellites. We found a population structure on both markers with a geographic pattern that corresponds well with the structure on mainland China and Hainan Island. To understand the contributions of geography, the environment and colonization history to the observed population structure, we tested isolation by distance (IBD), isolation by adaptation (IBA) and isolation by colonization (IBC) using serial Mantel tests and RDA analysis. The results showed significant impacts of IBD, IBA and IBC on neutral genetic variation, suggesting that genetic variation in H. larvatus is greatly affected by neutral processes, environmental adaptation and colonization history. This study enriches our understanding of the complex evolutionary forces that shape the distribution of genetic variation in bats.

The practice of neo-colonialism was initially introduced by the United States through the establishment of institutions like the Bretton Woods Institutions (IMF and World Bank) and continuing the legacy, China soon took over and had been using FDI to further its neo-colonial agenda in various parts of the world, including Pakistan. This research explores the history of colonization in the Sub-Continent and traces the origins of neo-colonization with a focus of the United States as a pioneer of the practice and China as the contemporary neo-colonizer. The research traces the transition from colonialism to neo-colonialism and examines the case of Pakistan as a victim of neo-colonialism, presenting the case based on evidence. The paper concludes that neo-colonialism is indeed colonialism with a changed outlook and proposes certain recommendations for Pakistan to minimize the impact of Chinese colonialism.

An assessment is made of the prospects for Russia’s perception of advanced technological knowledge borrowed in industrialized countries for technological modernization of enterprises in the real sector of the economy. A review of the episodes of 2017–2019, which suggest that the policy of technological mercantelism is becoming more and more distinct and rigid forms, is presented. Especially frankly, it manifests itself in the example of relations between the USA and China, the USA and Russia.The history of the formation and evolution of technological protectionism, starting from the seventeenth century, is considered to the present day. It has been suggested that technological colonization, which is carried out by the technology-leading countries with respect to the countries of the technological periphery, is the highest evolutionary form of technological protectionism.

Artworks record history. The images of women’s fashion and beauty presented in the art history of modern China illustrate explicitly the challenging, changing and circuitous development of women’s rights and feminism in the country. In this study, I analyse and contextualize the most widespread representations of Chinese ‘modern women’s fashion’: (1) the geisha-like ladies of news illustrations before the 1911 Revolution, (2) the poster-calendar girls in the republican aesthetics of an early commercial society, (3) the papercutting folk art that profiles ‘half the sky’ in the uniform aesthetics of Marxist‐Leninist‐Maoist propaganda, (4) the gender-specific art themes and materials applied by female artists after the opening-up policy and (5) the feminist art in the Chinese contemporary art world. The resulting analysis helps to elucidate the interconnections among fashion, art and women’s status in China, in pursuit of modernity, the radical expansion of western colonization, domestic political turmoil and, in particular, longstanding patriarchal cultural norms and values.

Species dispersal patterns and population genetic structure can be influenced by geographical features. Qinling Mountains (QM) provide an excellent area for phylogeographic study. The phylogeography of Asian-wide wild boars revealed the colonization route. However, the impact of the QM on genetic diversity, genetic structure and population origin is still poorly understood. In this study, genetic analysis of wild boar in the QM was conducted based on the mitochondrial control region (943 bp) and twelve microsatellite loci of 82 individuals in 16 sampling locations. Overall genetic haplotype diversity was 0.86, and the nucleotide diversity was 0.0079. A total of 17 new haplotypes were detected. The level of genetic diversity of wild boars in QM was lower than in East Asia, but higher than in Europe. Phylogenetic analysis showed the weak genetic divergence in QM. Mismatch analysis, neutrality tests, and Bayesian Skyline Plot (BSP) results revealed that the estimates of effective population size were under demographic equilibrium in the past. Spatial analysis of molecular variance indicated no obvious phylogeographic structure.

AbstractThis paper examines the relationship between three religio-legal traditions and their interactions and responses to the concept of gender equality as reflected in their inheritance practices. Specifically, questions of accommodation and authenticity will be explored through the Hindu, Confucian and Islamic traditions as they exist in contemporary India, Singapore and Hong Kong. While the primary focus will be on the current state of law and practice, the paper will begin personal laws during the period of British colonization. The impact of British jurisprudence will be recounted as background to understanding the contemporary state of the three traditions. For India and Singapore this history will include the impact of their independence movements on their personal laws. Hong Kong's history will include the impact of the territory's return to China.

Abstract Through this contribution of a geopolitical approach, the author intends to propose an updated and accurate framework on the relations between China and Africa as well as some critical reflections on various geopolitical and geo-economic aspects concerning the intense development of the diversified economic relations between China and the different African States. China’s foreign economic policy in Africa has laid solid foundations through the implementation of the various Sino-African Cooperation Forums that have taken place since 2000 and that have seen an increasing involvement of the Chinese government in the process. This paper intends to make a brief reflection on China’s visible economic and geopolitical interest in the African Continent as a whole. The analysis that follows traces the main stages in the history of relations between China and Africa, emphasizing the increased importance of the Sino-African forums that led to what is now known as Chinese neo-colonization. In addition, the case studies of the Silk Road and the Rare Lands are highlighted. Finally, some of the social impacts of the Chinese presence in Africa are also examined such as the construction of new cities for the Chinese migrant population and the teaching of the Chinese language (Mandarin) in schools in some African Countries.

Coilia grayii is the anadromous form of anchovy that is distributed in the East and South China Seas. It is a common fish species in the estuarine area of the Pearl River. Nevertheless, freshwater populations appear upstream in the Pearl River, but the migratory pathway has been mostly impeded by dam construction. Behavioral differences and constrained habitat within tributaries are suspected of promoting genetic divergence in these populations. In this study, we investigated the migratory behavior and genetic divergence of six populations of C. grayii fragmented by dams based on the otolith strontium/calcium (Sr/Ca) ratio, mitochondrial DNA, and microsatellite genotyping. All populations were in freshwater with low Sr/Ca ratios, except the estuarine population (Humen population) hatched in brackish water. Reduced nucleotide diversity corresponding to distance was observed. Populations from distant hydrological regions exhibited a decline in genetic diversity and a significant difference with the remaining populations after fitting the isolation by distance model. Pairwise fixation indices confirmed these results and moderate and significant differentiation was found between Hengxian site and downstream sites. Furthermore, STRUCTURE analyses revealed that all separated populations exhibited an admixed phylogenetic pattern except for individuals from the Hengxian locality. The upstream sites showed significantly increased resistance to gene flow from the estuarine population because of isolation by the dam. The results of the neutrality test and Bayesian skyline plots demonstrated complex demography—individuals’ experienced historical expansion and partial upper-dam populations had recently undergone a colonization, forming a new genetic structure. Accordingly, this study demonstrates differences in the migration pattern and genetic differentiation of C. grayii as a consequence of demographic history and current processes (habitat fragmentation and colonization).

This book is a personalized search by the author for a reconciliation between the "Islamic ideal" and the vast variety of ethnically, economically, politically and socially diverse muslim societies the world over. The research is conducted with reference to "six socia-historical categories", which constitute for the author "a theory of Islamic History". These are: 1. the time of the Prophet and the ideal caliphs (Le., the fIrst four caliphs called Rashidun); 2. the Arab dynasties (meaning the Umayyads and the Abbasids); 3. the three muslim empires (or the Ottomans, the Saffavids and the Mughals); 4. Islam of the periphery (referring to societies in which muslims are in minority, nameiy, the USSR, China, Southeast Asia and South of the Sahara in Africa); 5. Islam under European rule (Le., under the impact of colonization by England, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal and Italy on ''muslim society"); and 6. contemporary Islam. (p. 33).

AbstractChina has always occupied a special place in the history of Christian Missions. The second half of the nineteenth century was a time of especially intense missionary interest in China that coincided with a rapid overseas economic, military, and political expansion of the Western world. Conventionally, there have been two approaches to the question of the relationship between Christian missions and Western expansion. One paints missionaries as the vanguard of Western colonization, while the other stresses the detached idealism of the missionaries. In fact, the relationship between Christian missions and Western expansionism is a complicated one. This article considers this problematic relationship from a diplomatic perspective based on the views of Max von Brandt, a veteran German diplomat and expert in East Asian affairs at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. Retiring from diplomatic service after thirty-three years in East Asia, Brandt served as an adviser to the German Foreign Office, and wrote a dozen books and over a hundred periodical articles on East Asian and other topics. The article briefly sketches Brandt's involvement with the mission question as a diplomat, and then analyses his writings on the subject. It shows how complicated the relationship between Christian missions and the policies of the Western governments really was. On the one hand, as the German envoy in China, Brandt promoted the German government protection of Catholic missionaries and intervened with the Chinese government repeatedly for the safety and security of Western missionaries when it suited the basic aims of government policy. At the same time, however, Brandt's diplomatic reports and later writings clearly reveal a basically negative appraisal of the effects of missionary activity. From Brandt's diplomatic perspective, Christian missions in China were both boon and bane.

While it is generally believed that the agricultural colonization of the middle Yangzi wetlands began in Tang-Song times, newly discovered texts show that the early Han state administered river dikes in the region. The texts, which were written between 192 and 121 bce, calculate dike sizes in order to estimate corvée requirements for dike maintenance and discuss the area of new farmland to be created. Our picture of the early history of the Yangzi region has been distorted by the northern focus of early texts, but archaeological discoveries are correcting this bias and suggest that the conversion of the Central Yangzi lowlands to farmland began many centuries earlier than previously believed. On pense en général que la mise en valeur agricole des marais du moyen Yangzi a commencé sous les Tang et les Song. Or, des textes récemment découverts montrent que dès le début des Han l’État administrait des digues dans la région. Rédigés entre 192 et 121 avant notre ère, ces textes contiennent des calculs sur les dimensions des digues servant à évaluer les besoins en travail corvéable pour leur entretien, ainsi que des considérations sur la superficie de nouvelles terres cultivées à ouvrir. Alors que nous nous faisions une image de l’histoire ancienne du bassin du Yangzi déformée par les textes anciens, qui privilégient la Chine du Nord, les découvertes archéologiques remettent les choses en perspective et suggèrent que la mise en valeur des basses terres du moyen Yangzi a démarré de nombreux siècles plus tôt qu’on ne croyait.

In existing scholarship, the formation of the Vietnamese Diaspora is often described as a result of the Second Indochina War. In this essay I examine other national and international historical events, such as the Vietnamese government's persecution of ethnic Chinese, the Cold War and French colonization of Vietnam, that contributed to the internal multiplicity and diversity of the Vietnamese Diaspora. Reading Thuận's novel Chinatown within the theoretical framework of freedom, I argue that a centuries-long history of political negotiation between Vietnam and international actors such as China and France has resulted in the oppression, internal exile and displacement of not only Vietnamese people, but also ethnic Chinese. Through an analysis of the relationship between the Vietnamese narrator and her ethnic Chinese husband, I reflect on the difficulties and potential of diasporic subjects to imagine a different kind of freedom that can challenge the different power dynamics regulating their life in both Vietnam and in the diaspora.

The ancient tale of Joseph, son of Jacob, and Zulaykha was a "best seller" on the Silk Road from Russia to China. Before the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, the Tatars, a Turkic-speaking people living in the middle Volga, used this tale to propagate Islam among the animistic and Eastern Orthodox Finno-Ugric and Turkic peoples. Tatars drew upon this famous tale to address the internal communal fractures caused by Russian colonization, which opened the doors to Eastern Christianity, a far stronger competitor than the local indigenous religions. While scholars have shown interest in the tale's literary value and linguistic history, there has been no effort to investigate its readership. Yet the story of Joseph and Zulaykha as presented in popular poems and religious books empowered both men and women on the Volga frontier to refashion their religious and national identities. Today proponents of national revival call for the reappropriation of such tales to restore boundaries between Tatars and Russians.

The article analyses the research work of Chinese scientist Su Beihai on Kazakh history, one of the oldest nationalities in Eurasia. This work has been preserved as a manuscript and its main merit is the study of Kazakh history from early times to the present. Moreover, it shows Chinese scientists’ attitude to Kazakh history. Su Beihai’s scientific analysis was written in the late 1980s in China. At that time, Kazakhstan was not yet an independent country. Su Beihai drew on various works, on his distant expedition materials and demonstrated with facts that Kazakh people living in their modern settlements have a 2,500-year history. Although the book was written in accordance with the principles of Chinese communist historiography, Chinese censorship prevented its publication. Today, Kazakh scientists are approaching the end of their study and translation of Su Beihai’s manuscript. Therefore, the article first analyses the most important and innovative aspects of this work for Kazakh history. It focuses on the stages of Kazakh history, traditions of statehood, economy, and culture. The Chinese scientist`s research on Kazakh history goes back to the ancient Saka period, to modern southern Kazakhstan, the emergence of the states of Dayuezhi and Wusuns in Zhetisu, Kangli state, the West Turkic Kaganate, the Turkic steppe, unification of Kara khan and Kara kidan (Western Liao), Genghis Khan’s invasion into Central Asia and the Kazakh steppes, Russian colonization, resettlement of Kazakhs in Russia and the Man Qin Empire, and others. In addition to Su Beihai’s positive research on the entire Kazakh history, the article provides critical reviews in the historiographical and source-study of several Chinese-centrist points of view.

The Soufrière Hills Volcano, on the island of Montserrat, has an eruption history spanning over 2 million years. During this time the volcano has undergone multiple eruptions with intervening periods of low activity or dormancy. The most recent activity began in 1995 and has seen a series of major eruptive events. One of the most recent of these, and the focus of this study, occurred on the 20th May 2006. This major dome collapse produced 90 million m3 of volcanic material in only 3 hours, propelling ash clouds through the air and pyroclastic flows down the side of the volcano and into the sea. In this study of benthic foraminifera, cores from four sites off-shore Montserrat are analysed, including those collected from a location within the path of the 2006 ash cloud, around 10 km west of the Montserrat coast. In this area, one core contained 6-7 cm of ash overlying hemipelagic sediments. Volcanic ash is present in two distinct layers, one 3 cm layer produced by the 2006 eruption and the other, 3-4 cm layer, from an earlier eruption in 2003. Other cores were collected from areas unaffected by recent ash fall deposits and provide a base line for comparisons within the affected areas. To the east and south-east of Montserrat there is a different situation as this is the direction of travel of massive pyroclastic flows down the Tar Valley and the impact on the sea floor is more dramatic. There are also two extinct volcanic centres that allow the investigation of sea floor re-colonization on different time scales. The sites to the west of Montserrat record rapid colonization by benthic foraminifera of opportunistic taxa, comparable to that seen near Mt Pinatubo in the South China Sea while the sites to the east record a slower pattern of re-colonization by a wider spectrum of taxa, similar to that recorded at Deception Island in the Southern Ocean, with different benthic taxa performing the pioneering role.

AbstractThe early Cambrian Period was a key interval in Earth history with regard to changes in both ocean chemistry and animal evolution. Although increasing ocean ventilation has been widely assumed to have played a key role in the rapid appearance, diversification and spatial colonization of early animals, this relationship is in fact not firmly established. Here, we report a high-resolution Fe-C-S-Al-Ti geochemical study of the lower Cambrian Wangjiaping section from an outer-shelf setting of the Yangtze Sea of South China. Iron speciation data document a redox transition from dominantly euxinic to ferruginous conditions during Cambrian Age 3 (c. 521–514 Ma). Interpretation of coexisting pyrite sulphur isotope (δ34Spy) records from Wangjiaping reveals relatively high marine sulphate availability at Wangjiaping. Furthermore, Wangjiaping section shows lower δ34Spy (‒2.1±5.3‰) and lower TOC (2.4±1.1%) values but higher positive correlation (R2 = 0.66, p < 0.01) between TOC and Fepy/FeHR relative to deeper sections reported previously, suggesting that euxinia developed at Wangjiaping in response to increasing marine productivity and organic matter-sinking fluxes. Our reconstructed redox conditions and fossils at Wangjiaping in comparison with previously well-studied strata in the inner-shelf Xiaotan and Shatan sections suggest that planktonic and benthic planktonic trilobites with bioturbation appeared in the oxic water columns, whereas only planktonic trilobites without bioturbation occurred within the anoxic (even euxinic) water columns during Cambrian Age 3. This finding indicates that spatial heterogeneity of redox conditions in the shelves had an important effect on early animal distribution in the Yangtze Block.

No less than in modern times, law under imperial systems can do many things. Its enactment can be a focus for bureaucratic debate and struggle. Its implementation may provoke bitter resistance or creative adaptations. It can be ignored or it can spur unpredictable social change. In eighteenth-century southwestern China, law did all this: issues of law are paramount in the burst of Qing (1644–1911) expansion and Han Chinese colonization which brought many local non-Han societies directly under imperial governance for the first time. This paper examines both its development and its effects in the remote region of the Eastern Miao (Hmong) (see map), a group based on settled agriculture in the Hunan/Guizhou provincial border zone west of the Yuan river. It begins with administrative incorporation (which occurred in two stages in 1703–4 and 1727–32) and ends on the eve of the Miao uprising and its suppression in the 1790s.

The influence of aridification and climatic oscillations on the genetic diversity and evolutionary processes of organisms during the Quaternary in northwestern China is examined using Haloxylon ammodendron. Based on the variation of two cpDNA regions (trnS-trnG and trnV) and one nDNA sequence (ITS1-ITS4) in 420 individuals from 36 populations, the spatial genetic structure and demographic history of H. ammodendron in arid China is examined. Median-joining network and Bayesian inference trees enabled the identification of three diverged lineages within H. ammodendron from 24 different haplotypes and 16 ribotypes, distributed across western (Xinjiang), eastern (Gansu and Inner Mongolia) and southern (Qinghai) regions. AMOVA analysis demonstrated that more than 80% of observed genetic variation related to lineage split was based on cpDNA and nDNA variation. Allopatric divergence among the three groups was mainly triggered by geographical isolation due to Xingxingxia rock and uplift of the Qilian Mountains during the Quaternary. Local adaptive differentiation among western, eastern and southern groups occurred due to gene flow obstruction resulting from arid landscape fragmentation accompanied by local environmental heterogeneity of different geographical populations. The southern margin of the Junggar Basin and the Tengger Desert possibly served as two independent glacial refugia for H. ammodendron. The distribution of genetic variation, coupled with SDMs and LCP results, indicated that H. ammodendron probably moved northward along the Junggar Basin and westward along Tengger Desert at the end of the last glacial maximum; postglacial re-colonization was probably westward and southward along the Hexi Corridor.

Objective.To determine the prevalence, risk factors, and molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) colonization at the time of admission to acute medical units and to develop a cost-effective screening strategy.Methods.Nasal and groin screening cultures were performed for patients at admission to 15 acute medical units in all 7 catchment regions in Hong Kong. All MRSA isolates were subjected tospatyping.Results.The overall carriage rate of MRSA was 14.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.5–15.1). MRSA history within the past 12 months (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 4.60 [95% CI, 3.28–6.44]), old age home residence (adjusted OR, 3.32 [95% CI, 2.78–3.98]), and bedbound state (adjusted OR, 2.19 [95% CI, 1.75–2.74]) were risk factors selected as MRSA screening criteria that provided reasonable sensitivity (67.4%) and specificity (81.8%), with an affordable burden (25.2%).spatyping showed that 89.5% (848/948) of the isolates were clustered into the 4spaclonal complexes (CCs):spaCC1081,spaCC032,spaCC002, andspaCC4677. Patients colonized with MRSAspatypes t1081 (OR, 1.77 [95% CI, 1.49–2.09]) and t4677 (OR, 3.09 [95% CI, 1.54–6.02]) were more likely to be old age home residents.Conclusions.MRSA carriage at admission to acute medical units was prevalent in Hong Kong. Our results suggest that targeted screening is a pragmatic approach to increase the detection of the MRSA reservoir. Molecular typing suggests that old age homes are epicenters in amplifying the MRSA burden in acute hospitals. Enhancement of infection control measures in old age homes is important for the control of MRSA in hospitals.

This chapter is devoted to the ethnography of the Russian Far East. Russian explorers reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean around the middle of the 17th century. Here they met many local peoples, previously unknown to them, some of which were “yasaked”, that is, imposed a tax in kind. On the other hand, the local population got acquainted with the Russian culture, which was new for them. The first contacts were sometimes accompanied by conflicts and misunderstanding of the customs and traditions of each other, but gradually the practice of mutually beneficial coexistence developed, friendly, marriage and economic relations were established. After military clashes with Qing China and the defeat of the defense of the Albazin fort, Russia and China signed the Nerchinsk peace treaty (1689), according to which the Russians had to leave the Amur River, and the fort itself was subject to “ruin to the ground”. Therefore, until the middle of the 19th century, the main sources on the ethnography of the Russian Far East relate mainly to the peoples of the Chukotka-Kamchatka cultural region who lived north of the Stanovoy Range. The situation changed with the beginning of the “Amur alloys” in 1854—1858, initiated by the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N. N. Muravyov, and the signing later of the Aigun (1858) and Peking (1860) treaties with China, as well as the firm consolidation of Sakhalin Island for Russia. From that time on, the development of the Amur and Primorye regions began, which led not only to military, but also to civilian colonization of the region and the beginning of the “golden age” of Far Eastern ethnography. Since that time, the peoples of the Amur-Sakhalin ethnographic region are also included in the orbit of Russian culture. About why and who exactly are referred to as indigenous peoples, about the features of their material and spiritual culture, as well as about modern ethnocultural landscapes of the Russian Far East will be discussed within the framework of this topic.

Introduction. The article considers the government policy for the Cossacks in the 1860s. During this period, the processes of organization/reorganization of the Cossack troops were most brightly shown. These processes were developed against the background of discussions between imperial officials about the roles and values of the Cossacks from the point of view of his military and colonization potential. Only the Semirechensky (Almaty) army created in 1867 was a “new” Cossack army for the empire. Methods and materials. As the main material for writing the article the contemporary records found in the 330th fund of the Russian state military and historical archive (Moscow) and the Historical archive of Omsk region (Omsk) served. The note of the chief of Tersky region in 1863–1875 M.T. Loris-Melikov “About education of the Transcaucasian Cossack army”, prepared in December, 1868, is of particular importance. The specifics of the sources attracted required the use of methods of source studies in accordance with the type of documents under consideration, followed by the structural analysis of the identified data based on the systematic approach. Discussion. The announced subject is poorly developed in historical literature, and only the studying of Semirechensky Cossack army history has a long tradition. Separately, the question of the place of the Cossacks in the projects for the administrative structure of the Central Asian possessions of the empire and plans for the training of new troops, except for Semirechensk, has not yet been considered in historiography. Analysis. At the initiative of the governor general of Western Siberia A.P. Khrushchov in 1867–1868, projects on the organizations of the Irtysh, Akmola, Semipalatinsk Cossack troops, as well as plans for the resettlement of the Cossacks to the lands bordering Western China, were prepared. Despite the support of the initiatives of A.P. Khrushchov from the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin and the Steppe commission, the projected Cossack troops nevertheless were not created, and the Cossack colonization of border territories did not take place. The negative decision of the authorities was also made on the note of the chief of Tersky region M.T. Loris-Melikov “About education of the Transcaucasian Cossack army” (1868). Conclusions. The article examines the reasons why colonization plans and projects for the creation of new Cossack troops were unclaimed in the 1860s.

In the late stages of the global dispersal of dogs, dingoes appear in the Australian archaeological record 3500 years BP, and dogs were one of three domesticates brought with the colonization of Polynesia, but the introduction routes to this region remain unknown. This also relates to questions about human history, such as to what extent the Polynesian culture was introduced with the Austronesian expansion from Taiwan or adopted en route, and whether pre-Neolithic Australia was culturally influenced by the surrounding Neolithic world. We investigate these questions by mapping the distribution of the mtDNA founder haplotypes for dingoes (A29) and ancient Polynesian dogs (Arc1 and Arc2) in samples across Southern East Asia ( n = 424) and Island Southeast Asia ( n = 219). All three haplotypes were found in South China, Mainland Southeast Asia and Indonesia but absent in Taiwan and the Philippines, and the mtDNA diversity among dingoes indicates an introduction to Australia 4600–18 300 years BP. These results suggest that Australian dingoes and Polynesian dogs originate from dogs introduced to Indonesia via Mainland Southeast Asia before the Neolithic, and not from Taiwan together with the Austronesian expansion. This underscores the complex origins of Polynesian culture and the isolation from Neolithic influence of the pre-Neolithic Australian culture.

The aim of this paper is to study the species composition, structure and seasonal dynamics of the cladoceran fauna and species associations in inland water bodies of Jeju Island (Republic of Korea). Only 47 taxa were found in 199 samples. Such faunal paucity could be explained by the existence of only a few types of aquatic environments on Jeju Island as compared to continental China and the Far East of Russia, with their great diversity of water types. We have demonstrated a high significance of the tropical species on Jeju. Our data confirm seasonal faunistic changes in the continental waters of Jeju Island. The rate of tropical taxa is highest in September, after the monsoon season, while the Far Eastern endemic taxa are more common in winter. At the same time, the contribution of Boreal taxa to the fauna of the island is low even in winter. Species associations have been revealed based on binominal distribution; they change significantly from summer to winter. However, a contribution of Boreal taxa to the species associations also is minimal (even in winter), whereas tropical taxa contribute to them greatly (including in winter). We can propose a rough scheme of faunal formation exploring the whole set of obtained information. Initially, at the earlier stages of the island formation, its fauna was consisted of some pre-Pleistocene taxa. Then, during the Pleistocene time, Jeju Island was secondarily interconnected with more southern territories, and tropical species have colonized it. Recent Boreal cladoceran invaders arrived at the island water bodies later when they were already inhabited by formed associations, and for this reason only few of them were able to settle down there. Such a scheme is a hypothesis which needs to be checked by the future phylogeographic studies.

<p>香港在1997回歸中國後，由於有「一國兩制」的保護傘，基本上仍是與西方倡議的「普世價值」接軌的社會，自由、人權、法治、乃至民主，都是主流的「集體意識」，而2014年風起雲湧的「反送中」運動，可說是一個分水嶺。2021年開始，北京當局則開始強力施行「國安法」，香港就此不再具有由英國殖民開始的某種「異例」地位。</p> <p> 相對而言，台灣的民主化成果，是否代表華人群居社會的另外一種「異例」？本篇評論嘗試借用韋伯論述基督新教倫理和資本主義精神之間歷史脈絡的方法論，以「世界史異例之想像」來探討特殊條件下形成的「因果鎖鏈」，或可協助我們進行某種攸關中國、台灣和香港未來命運的思想實驗。</p> <p> 本篇評論分析，台灣過去基於種種因緣際會的組合元素，成為克服威權體制、落實自由民主價值的成功案例。這使得台灣具備了目前全球「抗中」形勢下的戰略位置，並有資格被視作是「世界史的異例」。然而究竟在「普世價值」和「中華民族偉大復興」兩種意識形態的鬥爭下，孰能真正勝出？恐怕就如韋伯所承認，歷史進展中處處隱含著「理性化的弔詭」，除了人為的「責任倫理」努力外，恐怕仍存在若干不可知力量(如理念式的「卡里斯瑪」)，有如轉轍器般，改變了軌道的方向。且讓世人拭目以待！</p> <p>&nbsp;</p><p>At the time of Hong Kong&rsquo;s return to China in 1997, freedom, human rights, the rule of law, and democracy, which are among the universal values of Western culture, were mainstream values in Hong Kong&rsquo;s collective consciousness. However, the Umbrella Movement in 2014 was a watershed moment in Hong Kong&rsquo;s history. Beginning in 2021, the People&rsquo;s Republic of China began to enforce the National Security Act, with Hong Kong no longer maintaining the special status it had held since British colonization.</p> <p> In the context of Chinese communities, is Taiwan&rsquo;s democratization exceptional? In this review, Weber&rsquo;s theory of the historical connection between Protestant ethics and the capitalist spirit is applied to explore the causal chain of the world’s historical process. This exploration entails a thought experiment of sorts, the conclusions of which may have vital implications for the future of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.</p> <p> This review analyzes how Taiwan has succeeded in overcoming an authoritarian system and implementing the values of liberal democracy. As a polity that successfully transitioned to liberal democracy, Taiwan is perceived to be strategically important by other democracies in under a climate of rising tension with China. It remains unknown whether the global order created and fostered by liberal democracies will continue to occupy a central position in world affairs or if China will succeed in carving out an increasingly significant role in world affairs. Based on the Methodology of Max Weber, this review article tries to analyze the current situation in Hong Kong and Taiwan, then point out the special meaning of these two examples in the world history.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p>

The paper features the interaction of archaeological science and textbooks on archeology. It successively examines the history of textbooks on archeology in Russia published for higher education institutions of history, from the XIX century to the present. The author stresses the importance of textbooks in the formation and development of archeology as one of the main subjects of university historical education. Archeology and its textbooks play a key role in the reconstruction of important historical events of the three million years of human history, especially in cases when archaeological materials are the only source. Archeology discovered civilizations of the Ancient East, e.g. China, India, Iran, as well as Archaic Greece and ancient Rome. The paper states the significance of the archaeological heritage of Russia. Since 1970s, only two universities in Russia, Lomonosov Moscow State University and Kemerovo State University (Department of Archeology), have been publishing university textbooks on archeology to be used in universities nationwide. The list involves nine publications prepared by Kemerovo State University. These textbooks are unique from the point of view of the content and methodology of the presentation. The article focuses on the interaction of archaeological science and university textbooks. This concerns the explanation of global historical events, e.g. the early colonization of Eurasia, ethnogenesis in the Middle Paleolithic Era, human migration to America in the Upper Paleolithic, the formation of cultural in the early Holocene, revolution of the producing economy in the Paleometallic Era, etc. The author describes the effect of archeological textbooks on the formation of the conceptual foundations of modern archeology as a historical science. The section "One History – Two Sciences" features the shortcomings of modern Russian historical science, in particular, the lack of alternative to the concept of formational explanation of history in school and university textbooks. History is currently being demonstrated exclusively as a social-class development process, which makes it impossible to understand the role of the fundamental foundations of historical development, as well as the role of discoveries, innovations, achievements in the field of material culture and productive economy. As a result, the human achievements of the past, which are indicated in archeology textbooks, do not find proper application in explaining the historical processes in Russia and Eurasia in modern history textbooks.

From the Americas to Asia, neoliberal policy restructuring continues to present major challenges to educational equity. In Hong Kong, teacher educators grapple with training students in pedagogy they believe in, versus the daily status quo of high-stakes exam prep, privatized “shadow education,” and a system seemingly pushed to the brink of neoliberal social efficiency. Indeed, in recent years, Hong Kong has recorded top rankings on the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study and the Programme for International Student Assessment, along with record-setting protests and student suicides. Like in the USA, neoliberalization of teacher education in Hong Kong has proffered dilemmas of standardized curricula, evaluation, and licensure, often under the guise of “21st century skills and technology.” Both regions also face perpetual threats of being under- or de-funded, based on “data-driven” decision-making and leadership that are supposedly more accountable and efficient. Unsurprisingly, neoliberal policies and practices have often exacerbated inequities in teaching and learning, especially for communities labelled as minority or working-class. Within traditions of critical pedagogy, this article’s authors engage in a discussion on how educators and students are navigating the neoliberal behemoth and developing more inclusive spaces across local contexts of language, class, and culture. Based on the authors’ research in the Americas and Greater China, this article interrogates some of the junctures and ruptures of neoliberal education in Hong Kong, long-held as bridge between “East” and “West.” The article draws from the first author Benji Chang’s action research projects with pre-and in-service teachers in the region, which examines how they are critiquing and challenging dominant discourses of neoliberalism (e.g., positivism, standardization, and market-economy), and what brings hope. Given Hong Kong’s history of colonization with Europe and the USA, and the ever-expanding dominance of mainland China, this article makes a contribution to international scholarship concerned with teacher education and social justice.

Abstract Nestedness is a pattern frequently reported for faunal assemblages in fragmented systems. Although nestedness has been documented for a wide range of taxa, it is rarely tested in snake assemblages. To arrive at robust generalizations about processes and mechanisms structuring island biotas, it is important to examine under-represented taxa such as snakes for the insights they may offer. We tested for the existence of nestedness and underlying causal mechanisms using snake data collected on islands in the Thousand Island Lake, China. We used the line-transect method to survey snake occupancy and abundance on 20 islands during two breeding seasons in 2009 and 2010. We used the recently developed metric WNODF to estimate nestedness. We used Spearman rank correlations to examine the associations of nestedness and habitat variables (area, isolation, and habitat diversity) as well as life-history traits (body size, clutch size, geographical range size and area requirement) related to species extinction and immigration tendencies. Snake assemblages were significantly nested and were shaped by extinction processes mediated through area effects and habitat nestedness. The nestedness of snake assemblages was not due to passive sampling or selective colonization. From a conservation viewpoint, our results indicate that we should protect both the largest island with the most species-rich community and habitat-rich islands to maximize the number of species preserved.

The influence of Quaternary climate fluctuation on the geographical structure and genetic diversity of species distributed in the regions of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) has been well established. However, the underlying role of the East Asian monsoon system (EAMS) in shaping the genetic structure of the population and the demography of plants located in the arid northwest of China has not been explored. In the present study, Nitraria tangutorum, a drought-tolerant desert shrub that is distributed in the EAMS zone and has substantial ecological and economic value, was profiled to better understand the influence of EAMS evolution on its biogeographical patterns and demographic history. Thus, the phylogeographical structure and historical dynamics of this plant species were elucidated using its five chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) fragments. Hierarchical structure analysis revealed three distinct, divergent lineages: West, East-A, and East-B. The molecular dating was carried out using a Bayesian approach to estimate the time of intraspecies divergence. Notably, the eastern region, which included East-A and East-B lineages, was revealed to be the original center of distribution and was characterized by a high level of genetic diversity, with the intraspecific divergence time dated to be around 2.53 million years ago (Ma). These findings, combined with the data obtained by ecological niche modeling analysis, indicated that the East lineages have undergone population expansion and differentiation, which were closely correlated with the development of the EAMS, especially the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM). The West lineage appears to have originated from the migration of N. tangutorum across the Hexi corridor at around 1.85 Ma, and subsequent colonization of the western region. These results suggest that the EAWM accelerated the population expansion of N. tangutorum and subsequent intraspecific differentiation. These findings collectively provide new information on the impact of the evolution of the EAMS on intraspecific diversification and population demography of drought-tolerant plant species in northwest China.

O objetivo do trabalho é analisar como o Oriente figura nos escritos de Marx. Partimos das contribuições de Edward Said que identifica Marx como um autor orientalista, para averiguar em que medida o palestino acerta em seu diagnóstico. Said parte dos escritos de Marx de 1853 a respeito do colonialismo britânico na Índia e chega à conclusão que o alemão, assim como toda a intelligentsia europeia do século XIX, enxerga o Oriente como um local estático, bárbaro e violento, em oposição à Europa, onde se localizaria a civilização. Neste sentido, embora matizado pelas condenações de cunho moral das atrocidades cometidas pelos colonizadores britânicos, Marx observa as perspectivas futuras da colonização por um viés em última instância positivo. Influenciado por uma filosofia da história hegeliana, Marx entende que, se a revolução comunista é o estágio final da história, tanto melhor que os países periféricos sejam tragados para o progresso e para a história universal pelas metrópoles. Haveria, de fato, um sentido na história e o colonialismo colocaria nela povos até então “fixos”, estanques. Said, porém, se limita aos artigos sobre a Índia de 1853. Gostaríamos, neste trabalho, de explorar textos de Marx sobre a China do mesmo período, além dos escritos da segunda metade da década de 1850 sobre os dois países e comparar a análise marxiana a respeito da situação indiana e chinesa nestes dois momentos distintos. A partir daí, procuraremos responder se a hipótese saidiana de inclusão de Marx como autor orientalista se sustenta ou não. Abstract: The purpose of the paper is to analyze how the East figures in Marx's writings. We start with the contributions of Edward Said who identifies Marx as an Orientalist author, to ascertain to what extent the Palestinian is correct in his diagnosis. Said departs from Marx's writings of 1853 on British colonialism in India, and he comes to the conclusion that the German, like the whole European intelligentsia of the nineteenth century, sees the Orient as a static, barbaric and violent place, as opposed to Europe, where the civilization would be located. In this sense, although tempered by the moral condemnations of the atrocities committed by the British settlers, Marx observes the future prospects of colonization by an ultimately positive bias. Influenced by a Hegelian philosophy of history, Marx understands that if communist revolution is the final stage of history, so much better that peripheral countries are swallowed up by progress and put into the universal history by metropolises. Indeed, there would be a meaning in history, and colonialism would place in it peoples that were previously "fixed", watertight. Said, however, is limited to the articles on India of 1853. We would like to explore Marx's texts about China from the same period, in addition to the writings of the second half of the 1850s on the two countries, and compare Marxian analysis about the Indian and Chinese situation in these two different moments. From there, we will try to answer if the saidian hypothesis of inclusion of Marx as orientalist author supports or not. Key words: Marx; Orientalism; Colonialism. Recebido em: dezembro/2018. Aprovado em: maio/2019.

Abstract We investigated the potential role of ballast sediment from coastal and transoceanic oil tankers arriving and de-ballasting in Port Valdez as a vector for the introduction of invasive benthic foraminifera in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Forty-one ballast sediment samples were obtained during 1998–1999 from 11 oil tankers that routinely discharged their ballast in Prince William Sound after sailing from other West Coast (Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor, San Francisco Bay, and Puget Sound) or foreign ports (Japan, Korea, and China) where they originally ballasted. Forty of these samples contained benthic foraminifera, including 27 (66%) with the introduced species Trochammina hadai Uchio from nine (81%) of the ships. In all, 59 species were recovered and foraminiferal abundance peaked at 27,000 specimens per gram dry sediment. Of the 41 samples, three were stained and living benthic foraminifera were recovered in all three of them. The entrained foraminifera reflected the number of times ballasting occurred (single or multiple sources), the location of ballasting (estuarine or offshore), and post-acquisition alteration of the sediment (i.e., growth of gypsum crystals at the possible expense of calcareous tests). In temperate regions, sediment samples resulting from single-source ballasting in estuaries (SSBE), multiple-source ballasting in estuaries (MSBE), single-source ballasting offshore (SSBO), and a combination of SSBO and SSBE or MSBE, typically contained increasingly higher species richness, respectively. The potential for foreign species invasion is dependent on the presence of viable candidates and their survivability, their abundance in the ballasting location, and the number of times ballasting occurs, most of which are evident from the ship's ballasting history. We estimate that 442.1 billion to 8.84 trillion living foraminifera were introduced into Port Valdez in a single year, suggesting it is quite likely that an invasive species could be successfully established there. Trochammina hadai is a good example of a successful invasive in Prince William Sound for the following reasons: 1) the species is abundant enough in U.S. West Coast and foreign ports where ballasting occurs that sufficient individuals needed for reproduction may be transported to the receiving waters; 2) Port Valdez, in particular, receives repeated and frequent inoculations from the same source ports where T. hadai is present; 3) large quantities of sediment are taken up by commercial vessels during ballasting and benthic foraminifera occur in abundance in ballast sediment; 4) ballast sediment provides a suitable environment in which benthic foraminifera can survive for extended periods of time during transport; 5) T. hadai flourishes in a wide range of temperatures and environmental conditions that characterize both the ports where ballasting takes place as well as in Port Valdez where de-ballasting occurs; and 6) the species is capable of asexual reproduction and possibly the ability to form a dormant resting stage, both of which have the potential to lower the threshold for colonization. Clearly, ballast sediment is a viable vector for the introduction of T. hadai and other invasives into Alaskan ports and elsewhere worldwide.

This article focuses on the colonial context of China, which led to a monumental loss of Chinese cultural objects by three means: looting and plundering; cultural expeditions; and illicit trafficking. The loss of cultural objects caused severe deprivation to the country of origin (i.e. China) from the perspective of culture, and active decolonization could helpheal the wounds and rebuild the cultural independency of China.In order to recover cultural objects removed during the colonial era, at the present time countries of origin are faced with difficulties at two levels. In terms of provenance research, the history and ownership trajectory of the cultural objects is difficult to establish in light of the fact that significant time has elapsed. In terms of legal claims, evidence needs to be collected in order to prove the original ownership, while at the same time issues of private law create obstacles to claims. Moreover, current international conventions fail to provide a legally-binding obligation on the part of current possessors to return objects lost due to colonialism. This article proposes mutual respect for cultural sovereignty as a way to make up for the absence of cultural sovereignty during past colonizations.

PurposeThe increasing globalization of business has led to increasing demand for executives who can function in cultural milieus different from their own. This demand has been exacerbated by the fact that globalization has not led to cultural homogenization and hence, for good or bad, executives are not able to universally apply the home country's conceptualizations of rights, responsibilities and duties and must operate within the constraints of host country's cultural environments. Hence, business scholars and global executives increasingly need to reflect on the conceptualization of rights, responsibilities and duties; understand the historical context which has led to different conceptualizations across geographies and appreciate and harness these differences for improving business effectiveness. This paper helps in this endeavor by explaining the differences and similarities that exists between the Indian and Western cultures regarding the concepts of roles, responsibilities and duties. This exposition will help multinational organizations improve their internal practices and employee training methods.Design/methodology/approachThis study attempts to trace the differences and similarities in the conceptualization of rights, duties and responsibilities between the Western tradition and the Indic tradition by literature review. The Indic tradition refers to the broad cultural paradigm that shapes the thinking of the people of Indian subcontinent. The prominent sources of the Indic tradition include Hinduism and Buddhism. India was a British colony for two hundred years and is home to one of world's largest English-speaking population. There are more Muslims in the Indian subcontinent than in the Middle East (Grim and Karim, 2011). Hence, the Indic tradition has also been substantially influenced by the Western and Islamic traditions.FindingsThe paper argues that Westerners and Indians have different conceptualization of rights, duties and responsibilities and their relative importance. Broadly speaking, Indian ethos focuses on context-specific responsibilities while the Western attitude focuses on universal rights. These differing conceptualizations have been shaped by the cultural history of the two regions and are manifested in the decision-making styles, levels of individual autonomy and views on the ethicality of actions. There is a need to train expatriate Western and Indian managers on these issues to enable smooth functioning.Research limitations/implicationsThe cross-cultural literature has tended to lump together all non-Western civilizations under the category of East thereby ignoring significant differences between them. The Far-East countries of China, Korea, Taiwan and Japan have been highly influenced by the Confucian ethics. India-specific social systems like the caste system, division of human life span into stages with specific responsibilities, enduring worship of nature and Western influence through colonization have been absent in these countries or much less marked. The paper aims to bring forward the distinguishing features in Indian thought that contributes to its distinctive attitude toward rights, responsibilities and duties; contrast it with the Western views on rights and duties and identify the relevance of the discussion to the business context.Practical implicationsThe cross-cultural training needs to emphasize both conflict resolution and behavioral aspects. For example, the conflict resolution process in Western countries can be more algorithmic with conflicts being rationally determined by consistent application as well-defined rules (as nature of duties is more universal in Western tradition). On the other hand, conflict resolution practices in India need to be contextual and may require appeals to higher ideals (as nature of duties is more contextual and idealistic in Eastern tradition).Social implicationsThe differences in attitudes regarding rights, responsibility and duties between the West and India suggest the need for cross-cultural training of managers and contextual conflict resolution techniques. The need is exacerbated by the increase in the number of multinational corporations (MNCs). Earlier, most MNCs were headquartered in the West and hence cross-cultural training was primarily geared to help Western expatriates fit into the host country culture (Nam et al., 2014). The growth of Asian MNCs has increased the need of cross-cultural training for Asian expatriates (Nam et al., 2014).Originality/valueThe training processes can be customized to supplement cultural strengths and promote behaviors that are culturally inhibited. Employees in India can be trained to emphasize the value of assertiveness in communication, the need to articulate one's personal success and appreciate the rigid nature of rules in Western contexts. Similarly, Westerners can be trained to emphasize the importance of context in business interactions, the need to forge personal relations for business success and the importance of paternalistic behavior in securing employees commitment.

Frederick H. Smith; Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History (Franklin W. Knight)Stephan Palmié; Wizards and Scientists: Explorations in Afro-Cuban Modernity and Tradition (Julie Skurski)Miguel A. De la Torre; The Quest for the Cuban Christ: A Historical Search (Fernando Picó)L. Antonio Curet, Shannon Lee Dawdy & Gabino La Rosa Corzo (eds.); Dialogues in Cuban Archaeology (David M. Pendergast)Jill Lane; Blackface Cuba, 1840-1895 (Arthur Knight)Hal Klepak; Cuba’s Military 1990-2005: Revolutionary Soldiers during Counter-Revolutionary Times (Antoni Kapcia)Lydia Chávez (ed.); Capitalism, God, and a Good Cigar: Cuba Enters the Twenty-First Century (Ann Marie Stock)Diane Accaria-Zavala & Rodolfo Popelnik (eds.); Prospero’s Isles: The Presence of the Caribbean in the American Imaginary (Sean X. Goudie)Alexandra Isfahani-Hammond (ed.); The Masters and the Slaves: Plantation Relations and Mestizaje in American Imaginaries (Danielle D. Smith) David J. Weber; Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (Neil L. Whitehead)Larry Gragg; Englishmen Transplanted: The English Colonization of Barbados, 1627-1660 (Richard S. Dunn)Jon F. Sensbach; Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World (Aaron Spencer Fogleman)Jennifer L. Morgan; Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Verene A. Shepherd)Jorge Luis Chinea; Race and Labor in the Hispanic Caribbean: The West Indian Immigrant Worker Experience in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800-1850 (Juan José Baldrich)Constance R. Sutton (ed.); Revisiting Caribbean Labour: Essays in Honour of O. Nigel Bolland (Mary Chamberlain)Gert Oostindie; Paradise Overseas: The Dutch Caribbean: Colonialism and its Transatlantic Legacies (Bridget Brereton)Allan Pred; The Past Is Not Dead: Facts, Fictions, and Enduring Racial Stereotypes (Karen Fog Olwig)James C. Riley; Poverty and Life Expectancy: The Jamaica Paradox (Cruz María Nazario)Lucia M. Suárez; The Tears of Hispaniola: Haitian and Dominican Diaspora Memory (J. Michael Dash)Mary Chamberlain; Family Love in the Diaspora: Migration and the Anglo-Caribbean Experience (Kevin Birth)Joseph Palacio (ed.); The Garifuna: A Nation Across Borders (Grant Jewell Rich)Elizabeth M. DeLoughery, Renée K. Goss on & George B. Handley (eds.); Caribbean Literature and the Environment: Between Nature and Culture (Bonham C. Richardson)Mary Gallagher (ed.); Ici-Là: Place and Displacement in Caribbean Writing in French (Christina Kullberg)David V. Moskowitz; Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall (Kenneth Bilby)John H. McWhorter; Defining Creole (Bettina M. Migge)Ellen M. Schnepel; In Search of a National Identity: Creole and Politics in Guadeloupe (Paul B. Garrett)

Frederick H. Smith; Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History (Franklin W. Knight)Stephan Palmié; Wizards and Scientists: Explorations in Afro-Cuban Modernity and Tradition (Julie Skurski)Miguel A. De la Torre; The Quest for the Cuban Christ: A Historical Search (Fernando Picó)L. Antonio Curet, Shannon Lee Dawdy & Gabino La Rosa Corzo (eds.); Dialogues in Cuban Archaeology (David M. Pendergast)Jill Lane; Blackface Cuba, 1840-1895 (Arthur Knight)Hal Klepak; Cuba’s Military 1990-2005: Revolutionary Soldiers during Counter-Revolutionary Times (Antoni Kapcia)Lydia Chávez (ed.); Capitalism, God, and a Good Cigar: Cuba Enters the Twenty-First Century (Ann Marie Stock)Diane Accaria-Zavala & Rodolfo Popelnik (eds.); Prospero’s Isles: The Presence of the Caribbean in the American Imaginary (Sean X. Goudie)Alexandra Isfahani-Hammond (ed.); The Masters and the Slaves: Plantation Relations and Mestizaje in American Imaginaries (Danielle D. Smith) David J. Weber; Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (Neil L. Whitehead)Larry Gragg; Englishmen Transplanted: The English Colonization of Barbados, 1627-1660 (Richard S. Dunn)Jon F. Sensbach; Rebecca’s Revival: Creating Black Christianity in the Atlantic World (Aaron Spencer Fogleman)Jennifer L. Morgan; Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Verene A. Shepherd)Jorge Luis Chinea; Race and Labor in the Hispanic Caribbean: The West Indian Immigrant Worker Experience in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800-1850 (Juan José Baldrich)Constance R. Sutton (ed.); Revisiting Caribbean Labour: Essays in Honour of O. Nigel Bolland (Mary Chamberlain)Gert Oostindie; Paradise Overseas: The Dutch Caribbean: Colonialism and its Transatlantic Legacies (Bridget Brereton)Allan Pred; The Past Is Not Dead: Facts, Fictions, and Enduring Racial Stereotypes (Karen Fog Olwig)James C. Riley; Poverty and Life Expectancy: The Jamaica Paradox (Cruz María Nazario)Lucia M. Suárez; The Tears of Hispaniola: Haitian and Dominican Diaspora Memory (J. Michael Dash)Mary Chamberlain; Family Love in the Diaspora: Migration and the Anglo-Caribbean Experience (Kevin Birth)Joseph Palacio (ed.); The Garifuna: A Nation Across Borders (Grant Jewell Rich)Elizabeth M. DeLoughery, Renée K. Goss on & George B. Handley (eds.); Caribbean Literature and the Environment: Between Nature and Culture (Bonham C. Richardson)Mary Gallagher (ed.); Ici-Là: Place and Displacement in Caribbean Writing in French (Christina Kullberg)David V. Moskowitz; Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall (Kenneth Bilby)John H. McWhorter; Defining Creole (Bettina M. Migge)Ellen M. Schnepel; In Search of a National Identity: Creole and Politics in Guadeloupe (Paul B. Garrett)

In 1533, Lady Qu, native prefect of Wuding Prefecture in northern Yunnan, sponsored the inscription of two texts on a cliff face at the center of her domain. One was in Nasu, the language of the ruling lineage; the other was in Chinese. Both commemorated the long, powerful line of Né (or Yi) native chieftains to which Lady Qu was heir. Yet they gave contradictory accounts of the forms of chiefly succession, sources of political authority, and geopolitical position of the native domain. The inscriptions show that chiefly sovereignty was neither merely embodied in ancestral authority nor simply endowed by the emperor. Sovereignty—particularly that of a female chieftain—was the capacity to master both modes of self-description while embodying their incompatibility. While we often understand colonialism through power-laden projects of translation, Lady Qu's inscriptions give evidence that Ming colonization of the southwest might require a different approach. Native chieftains were often intermediaries in encounters between indigenous peoples and imperial agents, garrisoned soldiers, and other migrants. Rather than merely understanding these elites as translators and mediators of colonialism, we might also ask how they emphasized and strategically deployed cultural and linguistic differences to achieve ends of their own.

AbstractThe fungus Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici causes wheat powdery mildew disease. Here, we study its spread and evolution by analyzing a global sample of 172 mildew genomes. Our analyses show that B.g. tritici emerged in the Fertile Crescent during wheat domestication. After it spread throughout Eurasia, colonization brought it to America, where it hybridized with unknown grass mildew species. Recent trade brought USA strains to Japan, and European strains to China. In both places, they hybridized with local ancestral strains. Thus, although mildew spreads by wind regionally, our results indicate that humans drove its global spread throughout history and that mildew rapidly evolved through hybridization.

ABSTRACT The emergence and spread of carbapenem-resistant hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae sequence type 11 (ST11-CR-HvKP) in China are a great concern in the public health community. However, the underlying mechanism that enables its wide dissemination in China remains unclear. Here, we investigated the prevalence of carriage of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (CPE) among inpatients with diarrhea in a teaching hospital over 1 year to identify ST11-CR-HvKP reservoirs and to understand the genetic background and plasmid profiles of these pathogens. As assessed by stool analysis, the CPE colonization rate (12.4%) among the inpatients with diarrhea was high (12.4%). Antibiotic exposure, surgical history, and CPE positivity were correlated. Genomic investigation of 65 carbapenem-resistant K. pneumoniae isolates indicated a shared bacterial population in various wards. According to maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree analysis, these isolates were partitioned into three major clades. Analysis of the wzi locus revealed three different K types (KL105, KL47, and K64) among the ST11 isolates, indicating the genetic diversity of these isolates. Genetic and sequence mapping revealed the complexity of virulence and resistance plasmid sets harbored by the isolates. These observations indicate that the dissemination of resistant bacteria is more complex than initially anticipated and possibly involves multiple K. pneumoniae ST11 lineages and a variety of virulence plasmids. Collectively, we show for the first time that stool may be a source of ST11-CR-HvKP isolates. Furthermore, the findings reveal the silent dissemination of ST11-CR-HvKP bacteria in Zhejiang Province, China. Future investigations are warranted to determine the association between rectal colonization by ST11-CR-HvKP and clinical infections. IMPORTANCE China has been experiencing a rapid increase in the number of nosocomial infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae ST11 (ST11-CRKP) for decades. The emergence of hypervirulent ST11-CRKP (ST11-CR-HvKP) strains is expected to become a serious public health issue in China, considering that carbapenem resistance and virulence have converged in an epidemic clone. K. pneumoniae strains that colonize the human intestinal tract may become a reservoir of virulence and carbapenemase-encoding genes. Here, we first characterized the genotypes and antimicrobial phenotypes of ST11-CR-HvKP strains isolated from diarrheal stool samples of inpatients in Zhejiang Province, China. Active surveillance approaches based on the findings of the present study should be implemented, particularly in intensive care units, to combat the spread of ST11-CR-HvKP and to improve treatment.

An uncommon case of monomicrobial Clostridioides difficile septicemia in a 63-year-old man was reported in Zhejiang, China. Once diagnosed, vancomycin treatment cleared the infections. The patient had no remarkable medical history, and the inspection showed no overt gastrointestinal symptoms, though C. difficile was detected in his stool samples. However, we later defined that the C. difficile strain isolated from the blood sample was different from the one isolated from his stool using the whole genome sequencing analysis. By retrospective analysis of his medical record, we noticed that the man had a recent tooth extraction thus the bacterium may have invaded through the root canal. Therefore, we suggest that oral C. difficile colonization may be a potential risk factor for severe C. difficile septicemia, which could be clinically alarming.

Threadfin porgy (Evynnis cardinalis) is one of the important commercial fishing targets of bottom trawl fishery in the northern South China Sea. It is mainly threatened by overexploitation and listed as endangered species in the IUCN Red List. To investigate the demographic history and genetic structure of E. cardinalis population, partial sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene were obtained from 162 individuals collected from Beibu Gulf, South China Sea. In total, 44 different haplotypes were identified, and the dominant haplotype was found in all sampling sites. Across the dataset, nucleotide diversity was low, whereas haplotype diversity was high. Low pairwise comparisons of ΦST and high gene flow among sampling sites revealed a genetically homogeneous population structure in Beibu Gulf, indicating a single panmictic stock of E. cardinalis in this area. The star-like haplotype network, unimodal mismatch distribution, and significantly negative Tajima’s D and Fu’s Fs values indicated recent population demographic expansion of E. cardinalis. The mismatch distribution and Bayesian skyline plot results indicated that E. cardinalis from Beibu Gulf might have experienced colonization and demographic expansion due to sea level fluctuations during the late Pleistocene.

Abstract Background An important aspect of studying evolution is to understand how new species are formed and their uniqueness is maintained. Hybridization can lead to the formation of new species through reorganization of the adaptive system and significant changes in phenotype. Interestingly, eight stable strains of 2nNCRC derived from interspecies hybridization have been established in our laboratory. To examine the phylogeographical pattern of the widely distributed genus Carassius across Eurasia and investigate the possible homoploid hybrid origin of the Carassius auratus complex lineage in light of past climatic events, the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) and one nuclear DNA were used to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationship between the C. auratus complex and 2nNCRC and to assess how demographic history, dispersal and barriers to gene flow have led to the current distribution of the C. auratus complex. Results As expected, 2nNCRC had a very close relationship with the C. auratus complex and similar morphological characteristics to those of the C. auratus complex, which is genetically distinct from the other three species of Carassius. The estimation of divergence time and ancestral state demonstrated that the C. auratus complex possibly originated from the Yangtze River basin in China. There were seven sublineages of the C. auratus complex across Eurasia and at least four mtDNA lineages endemic to particular geographical regions in China. The primary colonization route from China to Mongolia and the Far East (Russia) occurred during the Late Pliocene, and the diversification of other sublineages of the C. auratus complex specifically coincided with the interglacial stage during the Early and Mid-Pleistocene in China. Conclusion Our results support the origin of the C. auratus complex in China, and its wide distribution across Eurasia was mainly due to natural Pleistocene dispersal and recent anthropogenic translocation. The sympatric distribution of the ancestral area for both parents of 2nNCRC and the C. auratus complex, as well as the significant changes in the structure of pharyngeal teeth and morphological characteristics between 2nNCRC and its parents, imply that homoploid hybrid speciation (HHS) for C. auratus could likely have occurred in nature. The diversification pattern indicated an independent evolutionary history of the C. auratus complex, which was not separated from the most recent common ancestor of C. carassius or C. cuvieri. Considering that the paleoclimate oscillation and the development of an eastward-flowing drainage system during the Pliocene and Pleistocene in China provided an opportunity for hybridization between divergent lineages, the formation of 2nNCRC in our laboratory could be a good candidate for explaining the HHS of C. auratus in nature.

ABSTRACT Shigella flexneri is a major cause of bacillary dysentery in Beijing, China. The genetic features and population structure of locally circulating clones remained unclear. In this study, we sequenced the genomes of 93 S. flexneri isolates from patients in Beijing from 2005 to 2018. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a predominant lineage comprised of ST100 isolates that had acquired an extensive repertoire of antimicrobial resistance determinants. A rapid local expansion of the largest clade of this lineage began in 2008 and gradually resulted in the dominance of serotype 2a. Other clades showed substantial evidence of interregional spread from other areas of China. Another lineage consisting of ST18 isolates was also identified and appeared to have persisted locally for nearly 6 decades. These findings suggest that S. flexneri epidemics in Beijing were caused by both local expansion and interregional transmission. IMPORTANCE Beijing is the largest transportation hub in China, with a highly mobile population. Shigella flexneri is a major cause of bacillary dysentery in Beijing. However, little is known about the genetic features and population structure of locally circulating S. flexneri clones. Whole-genome sequencing of 93 S. flexneri isolates revealed that S. flexneri epidemics in Beijing were predominantly caused by an ST100 clone. Interregional spread, rapid local expansion, and acquirement of antimicrobial resistance determinants have cocontributed to the epidemics of this clone. Another ST18 clone was also identified and showed long-term colonization in Beijing. Our study provides comprehensive insights into the population structure and evolutionary history of S. flexneri in Beijing.

As a bio]diversity hotspot, the East Indies (Coral) Triangle possesses the highest biodiversity on the earth. However, evolutionary hypotheses around this area remain controversial; e.g., center of origin, center of accumulation, and center of overlap have been supported by different species. This study aims to answer the evolutionary influence of the Indonesian Seaway on the biodiversity of the Coral Triangle by recovering the evolutionary origins of a wide-ranging ommastrephid squid (Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis) based on integrated molecular and oceanographic clues from the Indo-Pacific. Three new clades were revealed; viz., clade I from the South China Sea, clade II from the northern East Indian Ocean, and clade III from the southern East Indian Ocean. These two Indian Ocean clades formed a monophyly closely related to clade IV from the Central-Southeast Pacific. Clade VI from the central Equatorial Pacific and clade V from the northern Eastern Pacific sit in basal positions of phylogenetic trees. Ancestral Sthenoteuthis was inferred to have originated from the Atlantic Ocean and sequentially dispersed to the northern East Pacific, central Equatorial Pacific, and West Pacific through the open Panama Seaway and being transported by westward North Equatorial Current. The East Indian Ocean was likely colonized by an ancestral population of clade IV from the Southeast Pacific. Westward South Equatorial Circulation could have promoted transoceanic migration of S. oualaniensis through the wide paleo-Indonesian Seaway. Sea level regression since the Miocene and the closure of the Indonesian Seaway at 4–3 Ma were responsible for the population genetic differentiation of S. oualaniensis in the Indo-Pacific. Therefore, the Indonesian Gateway played an important role in influencing marine organisms’ migration and population differentiation through controlling and reorganizing circulations in the Indo-Pacific.

Abstract Background Invasive species bring a serious effect on local biodiversity, ecosystems, and even human health and safety. Although the genetic signatures of historical range expansions have been explored in an array of species, the genetic consequences of contemporary range expansions have received little attention, especially in mammal species. In this study, we used whole-genome sequencing to explore the rapid genetic change and introduction history of a newly invasive brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) population which invaded Xinjiang Province, China in the late 1970s. Results Bayesian clustering analysis, principal components analysis, and phylogenetic analysis all showed clear genetic differentiation between newly introduced and native rat populations. Reduced genetic diversity and high linkage disequilibrium suggested a severe population bottleneck in this colonization event. Results of TreeMix analyses revealed that the introduced rats were derived from an adjacent population in geographic region (Northwest China). Demographic analysis indicated that a severe bottleneck occurred in XJ population after the split off from the source population, and the divergence of XJ population might have started before the invasion of XJ. Moreover, we detected 42 protein-coding genes with allele frequency shifts throughout the genome for XJ rats and they were mainly associated with lipid metabolism and immunity, which could be seen as a prelude to future selection analyses in the novel environment of XJ. Conclusions This study presents the first genomic evidence on genetic differentiation which developed rapidly, and deepens the understanding of invasion history and evolutionary processes of this newly introduced rat population. This would add to our understanding of how invasive species become established and aid strategies aimed at the management of this notorious pest that have spread around the world with humans.

Chinese chive has a long history of planting in China. At present, there are many studies on endophytic bacteria and rhizosphere microorganisms of Chinese chive, but the effects of ecological compartment and growth conditions on bacterial communities in Chinese chives are unclear. Here, we aimed to elucidate the differences in bacterial a-diversity, β-diversity, community structure, core species differences, interaction networks and predicted metabolic functions among bacterial communities in different ecological compartments (the phylloplane, leaf endosphere, stem endosphere, root endosphere, and rhizosphere) in Chinese chives in an open field, a solar greenhouse, an arched shed, and a hydroponic system. Sixty samples were collected from these five ecological compartments under four growth conditions, and we compared the bacterial profiles of these groups using 16S rRNA sequencing. We evaluated the differences in diversity and composition among bacterial communities in these ecological compartments, analyzed the bacterial interaction patterns under the different growth conditions, and predicted the bacterial metabolic pathways in these ecological compartments and growth conditions. The results showed that the effects of ecological compartments on bacterial diversity, community composition, interaction network pattern, and functional expression of Chinese chives were greater than those of growth condition. Ecological compartments (R2 = 0.5292) could better explain bacterial community division than growth conditions (R2 = 0.1056). The microbial interaction networks and indicator bacteria in different ecological compartments showed that most of the bacteria that played the role of key nodes (OTUs) in each ecological compartment were bacteria with high relative abundance in the compartment. However, the bacteria that played the role of key nodes (OTUs) in bulbs were not Proteobacteria with the highest relative abundance in the compartment, but Actinobacteria that were significantly enriched in the root endosphere and rhizosphere ecological compartments. In addition, interactions among bacteria were interrupted in the hydroponic system, and specific bacterial communities and interaction patterns in Chinese chives varied among growth conditions. Prediction of metabolic functions indicated that plant metabolic activity related to stress responses and induction of system resistance was greater in belowground ecological compartments.

Seed germination is critical to the life history of plants, playing an important role in the successful recruitment, colonization, and even invasion of new individuals within and outside population distribution ranges. Cold stratification and temperature are the key factors affecting seed germination traits. Studying how these two factors drive geographical variation in seed germination is essential to analyze and predict the geographical distribution range of alien plants in novel habitats. Spartina alterniflora, native to the United States, was introduced into China in 1979 and has spread over 20° of latitude along the eastern coast of China. Germination plays a crucial role in S. alterniflora’s large-scale invasion and diffusion across latitude. To evaluate the effects of cold stratification and temperature on seed germination of S. alterniflora across latitude, we collected seeds at seven locations across latitude in China. We exposed these provenances to cold stratification at 4°C (0, 1, 3, and 5 months) and germination temperature (5°C, 15°C, 25°C, and 35°C) treatments in growth chambers. Seed germination was observed for 98 days, and we calculated germination rate, germination index, and germination time. Results indicated that longer cold stratification significantly promoted germination rate and germination index, but decreased germination time. Similarly, higher germination temperature significantly promoted germination rate and germination index, but decreased germination time. Moreover, there were significant interactive effects on germination traits between cold stratification and temperature. Seed germination traits showed linear relationships with latitude, indicating that S. alterniflora seeds from different provenances germinated at different times and adopted different germination strategies. The stratification and temperature are the most important factors regulating the dormancy and germination seeds, so they can be important drivers of this variation along latitude. Under scenarios of warmer regional temperature, seeds at higher latitudes could germinate earlier and have higher germination rate, which would favor a potential northern expansion of this invasive plant.

Abstract Background Brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is native to East Asia but has invaded many countries in the world. BMSB is a polyphagous insect pest and causes significant economic losses to agriculture worldwide. Knowledge on the genetic diversity among BMSB populations is scarce but is essential to understand the patterns of colonization and invasion history of local populations. Efforts have been made to assess the genetic diversity of BMSB using partial mitochondrial DNA sequences but genetic divergence on mitochondria is not high enough to precisely accurately identify and distinguish various BMSB populations. Therefore, in this study, we applied a ddRAD (double digest restriction-site associated DNA) sequencing approach to ascertain the genetic diversity of BMSB populations collected from 12 countries (2 native and 10 invaded) across four continents with the ultimate aim to trace the origin of BMSBs intercepted during border inspections and post-border surveillance. Result A total of 1775 high confidence single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified from ddRAD sequencing data collected from 389 adult BMSB individuals. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the identified SNPs indicated the existence of two main distinct genetic clusters representing individuals sampled from regions where BMSB is native to, China and Japan, respectively, and one broad cluster comprised individuals sampled from countries which have been invaded by BMSB. The population genetic structure analysis further discriminated the genetic diversity among the BMSB populations at a higher resolution and distinguished them into five potential genetic clusters. Conclusion The study revealed hidden genetic diversity among the studied BMSB populations across the continents. The BMSB populations from Japan were genetically distant from the other studied populations. Similarly, the BMSB populations from China were also genetically differentiated from the Japanese and other populations. Further genetic structure analysis revealed the presence of at least three genetic clusters of BMSB in the invaded countries, possibly originating via multiple invasions. Furthermore, this study has produced novel set of SNP markers to enhance the knowledge of genetic diversity among BMSB populations and demonstrates the potential to trace the origin of BMSB individuals for future invasion events.

This article aims at raising the different aspects of life of Nigerian people prior independence and exalting inheritance or profit this people has gained in return after their encounter with the white man. It is certain that the issue of colonization has been the concern of many African and even non-African writers. In fact, colonization has disrupted the socio-economic and political structures and replaced traditional values by another system of values that are not suitable for African customs. From the image the white man has painted Africans, colonization does not acknowledge the existence of pre-colonial values. Hence, by necessity, the African writer is placed in front of an essential and complex duty, that of reconstituting the actual image of his group, rehabilitating the past in substituting to the distorted image depicted by the colonizers the African vision of history. Accordingly, Chinua Achebe is one of those intellectuals who have tried to make his readers realize the specificity of the African personality. This state of affairs has been his preoccupation in Things Fall Apart, his first novel published in 1958. He has proved in this book that the encounter of Africa and the West has resulted in a clash of cultures.

In the summer of 1999, four ships carrying 599 Fujianese people arrived on the west coast of Canada. They survived a desperate and dangerous journey only for the Canadian Government to put them in prison. After numerous deportations, there are still about 40 of these people in Canadian prisons as of January 2001. They have been in jail for over a year and a half under mere suspicion of flight risk. About 24 people have been granted refugee status. Most people deported to China have been placed in Chinese prisons and fined. It is worth remembering that these migrants may have been undocumented but they are not "illegal" in that they have mobility rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes everyone's right to leave any country and to seek asylum. It can be argued that it is not the migrants who are illegal, but the unjust laws that criminalize their freedom of movement. In considering people's rights, we need to keep in mind not only the civil and political rights that the West tends to privilege, but equally important social and economic rights as well. As a local response to a global phenomenon, Direct Action Against Refugee Exploitation (DAARE) formed in Vancouver to support the rights of the Fujianese women, eleven of whom at the time of writing are still being held in the Burnaby Correctional Centre for Women (BCCW). In DAARE’s view, Immigration Canada's decision to detain all these people is based on a racialized group-profiling policy which violates basic human rights and ignores Canadian responsibility in the creation of the global economic and societal conditions which give rise to widespread migration. In light of the Canadian government's plans to implement even more punitive immigration legislation, DAARE endorses the Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy's "Position Paper on Bill C31." They call for humanitarian review and release for the remaining Fujianese people. This review would include a few released refugee claimants who are still in Canada, children, women who were past victims of family planning, people facing religious persecution and, of course, those who are still in prison after 18 months and who have never been charged with any crime. Suspicion of flight risk is not a valid reason to incarcerate people for such a long time. Who Is a Migrant? The lines between "voluntary" and "forced" migration are no longer adequate to explain the complexities of population movements today. Motives for forced displacement include political, economic, social and environmental factors. This spectrum runs from the immediate threats to life, safety and freedom due to war or persecution, to situations where economic conditions make the prospects of survival marginal and non-existent. (Moussa 2000). Terms like "economic migrant" and "bogus refugee" have been used in the media to discredit migrants such as the Fujianese and to foster hostility against them. This scapegoating process oversimplifies the situation, for all refugees and all migrants are entitled to the basic respect due all human beings as enshrined in the UN Declaration of Human Rights. There can be multiple reasons for an individual to migrate—ranging from family reunification to economic pressures to personal survival; to fear of government corruption and of political persecution, to name just a few. The reduction of everything to merely the economic does not allow one to understand why migration is occurring and likely to increase in the future. Most immigrants to Canada could also be described as economic migrants. Conrad Black is an economic migrant. The privileging of rich migrants over poor ones romanticizes globalization as corporate progress and ignores the immense human suffering it entails for the majority of the world's population as the gap between the wealthy and the poor rapidly increases. Hundreds of years ago, when migrants came to this aboriginal territory we now call Canada, they came in order to survive—in short, they too were "economic migrants." Many of those migrants who came from Europe would not qualify to enter Canada today under its current immigration admissions guidelines. Indeed, over 50% of Canadians would not be able to independently immigrate to Canada given its current elitist restrictions. One of the major reasons for an increase in migration is the destruction of rural economies in Asia and elsewhere in the world. Millions of people have been displaced by changes in agriculture that separate people from the land. These waves of internal migration also result in the movement of peoples across national borders in order to survive. Chinese provinces such as Fujian and Guangdong, whose people have a long history of overseas travel, are particularly common sources of out-migration. In discussing migration, we need to be wary of how we can inadvertently reinforce the colonization of First Nations people unless we consciously work against that by actively supporting aboriginal self-determination. For example, some First Nations people have been accused of "smuggling" people across borders—this subjects them to the same process of criminalization which the migrants have experienced, and ignores the sovereign rights of First Nations people. We need ways of relating to one another which do not reenact domination, but which work in solidarity with First Nations' struggles. This requires an understanding of the ways in which racism, colonialism, classism, and other tactics through which "dividing and conquering" take place. For those of us who are first, second, third, fourth, fifth generation migrants to this land, our survival and liberation are intimately connected to that of aboriginal people. History Repeating Itself? The arrival of the Fujianese people met with a racist media hysteria reminiscent of earlier episodes of Canadian history. Front page newspaper headlines such as "Go Home" increased hostility against these people. In Victoria, people were offering to adopt the dog on one of the ships at the same time that they were calling to deport the Chinese. From the corporate media accounts of the situation, one would think that most Canadians did not care about the dangerous voyage these people had endured, a voyage during which two people from the second ship died. Accusations that people were trying to enter the country "illegally" overlooked how historically, the Chinese, like other people of colour, have had to find ways to compensate for racist and classist biases in Canada's immigration system. For example, from 1960 to 1973, Canada granted amnesty to over 12,000 "paper sons," that is, people who had immigrated under names other than their own. The granting of "legal" status to the "paper sons" who arrived before 1960 finally recognized that Canada's legislation had unfairly excluded Chinese people for decades. From 1923 to 1947, Canada's Chinese Exclusion Act had basically prevented Chinese people from entering this country. The xenophobic attitudes that gave rise to the Chinese Exclusion Act and the head tax occurred within a colonial context that privileged British migrants. Today, colonialism may no longer be as rhetorically attached to the British empire, but its patterns—particularly the globally inequitable distribution of wealth and resources—continue to accelerate through the mechanism of transnational corporations, for example. As Helene Moussa has pointed out, "the interconnections of globalisation with racist and colonialist ideology are only too clear when all evidence shows that globalisation '¼ legitimise[s] and sustain[s] an international system that tolerates an unbelievable divide not only between the North and the South but also inside them'" (2000). Moreover, according to the United Nations Development Programme, the income gap between people in the world's wealthiest nations and the poorest nations has shifted from 30:1 in 1960 to 60:1 in 1990 and to 74:1 in 1997. (Moussa 2000) As capital or electronic money moves across borders faster than ever before in what some have called the casino economy (Mander and Goldsmith), change and instability are rapidly increasing for the majority of the world's population. People are justifiably anxious about their well-being in the face of growing transnational corporate power; however, "protecting" national borders through enforcement and detention of displaced people is a form of reactive, violent, and often racist, nationalism which scapegoats the vulnerable without truly addressing the root causes of instability and migration. In short, reactive nationalism is ineffective in safe-guarding people's survival. Asserting solidarity with those who are most immediately displaced and impoverished by globalization is strategically a better way to work towards our common survival. Substantive freedom requires equitable economic relations; that is, fairly shared wealth. Canadian Response Abilities The Canadian government should take responsibility for its role in creating the conditions that displace people and force them to migrate within their countries and across borders. As a major sponsor of efforts to privatize economies and undertake environmentally devastating projects such as hydro-electric dams, Canada has played a significant role in the creation of an unemployed "floating population" in China which is estimated to reach 200 million people this year. Punitive tactics will not stop the movement of people, who migrate to survive. According to Peter Kwong, "The well-publicized Chinese government's market reforms have practically eliminated all labor laws, labour benefits and protections. In the "free enterprise zones" workers live virtually on the factory floor, laboring fourteen hours a day for a mere two dollars—that is, about 20 cents an hour" (136). As Sunera Thobani has phrased it, "What makes it alright for us to buy a t-shirt on the streets of Vancouver for $3, which was made in China, then stand up all outraged as Canadian citizens when the woman who made that t-shirt tries to come here and live with us on a basis of equality?" Canada should respond to the urgent situations which cause people to move—not only on the grounds upon which Convention refugees were defined in 1949 (race, religion, nationality, social group, political opinion) which continue to be valid—but also to strengthen Canada's system to include a contemporary understanding that all people have basic economic and environmental survival rights. Some migrants have lives that fit into the narrow definition of a UN Convention refugee and some may not. Those who do not fit this definition have nonetheless urgent needs that deserve attention. The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives has pointed out that there are at least 18 million people working in 124 export zones in China. A living wage in China is estimated to be 87 cents per hour. Canadians benefit from these conditions of cheap labour, yet when the producers of these goods come to our shores, we hypocritically disavow any relationship with them. Responsibility in this context need not refer so much to some stern sense of duty, obligation or altruism as to a full "response"—intellectual, emotional, physical, and spiritual—that such a situation provokes in relations between those who "benefit"—materially at least—from such a system and those who do not. References Anderson, Sarah, et al. Field Guide to the Global Economy. New York: New Press, 2000. Canadian Council of Refugees. "Migrant Smuggling and Trafficking in Persons." February 20, 2000. Canadian Woman Studies: Immigrant and Refugee Women. 19.3 (Fall 1999). Chin, Ko-lin. Smuggled Chinese. 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