Academic literature on the topic 'Children – great britain – social conditions'

This paper compares the cognitive test scores of children in Great Britain and the United States in vocabulary, reading, mathematics, and memory of words and numbers. Children aged 5–9 years in Britain systematically outperform their US counterparts on reading and mathematics tests, while children aged 10–14 years show far fewer differences. In most comparisons for white children aged 10–14 years, there are no statistical differences in the distributions of test scores between the British and United States children. The explanation for the observed differences between the younger children in the two nations in reading and mathematics may be the earlier age of entry into formal schooling in Britain. The similarity of the observed skills of the older children in the two nations, given the differences in social and economic conditions experienced by those children, challenges the notion that these differences are critically important in the children’s cognitive development. The six tests used in this study are the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, subsets of the Peabody Individual Achievement Test in reading and math, the Wechsler Memory for Digit Span, and a subscale of the McCarthy Scale for Verbal Memory.

In 1738, the English evangelist George Whitefield traveled to the new colony of Georgia intending to establish “a house for fatherless children.” Inspired by both August Hermann Francke, the German Pietist who had great success educating and maintaining poor orphans in Halle, and by charity schools established in Great Britain, Whitefield's orphan house and charity school, named Bethesda, opened its doors early in 1740. For years, Whitefield devoted himself tirelessly to ensuring the success of the Bethesda school, preaching throughout Britain and North America on its behalf. Whitefield's preaching tour on behalf of his beloved Bethesda is well known for its role in catalyzing the religious revivals known collectively as the Great Awakening. The tour also marked an important shift in the history of education in America. News of the establishment of the orphanage at Bethesda coincided with new efforts to school the poor throughout the colonies. Drawing on both the British and German models of charity schooling that were highly influential for Whitefield, eighteenth-century Americans began or increased commitments to charity schooling for poor children. But the European models were not adopted wholesale. Instead, local administrators of the schooling experiments deviated from these models in a striking way. In America, elites offered some children the opportunity for extensive charity instruction, but not necessarily children at the bottom of the social hierarchy. This article will argue that the execution of these charity schooling programs was contingent upon local social conditions, specifically what appears to have been local elites' desire to maintain a certain social order and ensure a continued supply of cheap labor.

Статья посвящена британской детской миграции в XIX – первой половине ХХ в. Исследованы причины и условия переезда, а также значение, которое придавалось расселению молодежи на периферии британского мира. Показано, что на миграционную политику влияли филантропические, социально-экономические факторы, империалистические, национальные и расовые соображения – акценты менялись с течением времени. До середины XIX в. переселение было вызвано желанием помочь бедным детям или стремлением депортировать лишних и опасных жителей из метрополии, со второй половины XIX в. в мигрантах стали видеть инструмент имперской политики. Миграция согласовывалась с доктриной социал-империализма. Она позволяла решить социальные проблемы метрополии, снимала в обществе напряженность, связанную с массовой безработицей, открывала новые возможности для экономического роста всей империи. Молодежь восполняла дефицит трудовых ресурсов доминионов, возделывала неосвоенные земли, распространяла европейские ценности и технологии, консолидировала разрозненных жителей в единую Великую Британию с глобальной британской идентичностью. В переселении несовершеннолетних из грязных и тесных мегаполисов на сельские просторы видели возможность сохранить здоровое поколение и силу англо-саксонской нации. В странах южного полушария мигранты из Альбиона рассматривались как защитники «белой» расы и европейской цивилизации, а потому с конца XIX в. были ужесточены требования к переселению, допускались только представители «правильного» типа мигранта по расовым, социальным, физиологическим, психическим критериям. Многие мигранты добились успехов на новой родине, но некоторые столкнулись с жестокостью, эксплуатацией, социальным остракизмом. Сделан вывод, что идея Великой Британии как глобального сообщества после Второй мировой войны оказалась несостоятельной, имперские цели все больше противоречили национальным задачам, что привело к прекращению переселения детей. Выросшие мигранты, лишившиеся своей родины и связей с родственниками, не сумевшие адаптироваться на новом месте, превратились в смущающее напоминание о «темной странице» имперского прошлого. The article is devoted to British child migration in the 19th – first half of the 20th century. The reasons, conditions for moving, the importance attached to the resettlement of young people on the periphery of the British world are investigated. It is shown that philanthropic, socio-economic factors as well as imperialist, national, and racial reasons influenced migration policy. The emphasis changed over time. Until the middle of the 19th century the resettlement was caused by a desire to help poor children or to deport unnecessary and dangerous residents from the metropolis; in the second half of the 19th century migrants began to be seen as an instrument of imperial policy. Migration was consistent with the doctrine of social imperialism. It made it possible to solve the social problems of the metropolis, relieved tension in society that were associated with mass unemployment, and opened up new opportunities for the economic growth of the entire Empire. The youth made up for the shortage of labor resources in the dominions, cultivated undeveloped lands, spread European values and technologies, consolidated disparate residents into single Great Britain with its global British identity. The resettlement of minors from dirty and cramped cities to rural areas was believed to offer an opportunity to preserve a healthy generation and the strength of the Anglo-Saxon nation. In the countries of the southern hemisphere, migrants from Albion were seen as defenders of the white race and European civilization. That is why in the late 19th century, the requirements for resettlement were tightened, allowing only the “proper” type of migrant according to racial, social, physiological, and mental criteria. Many migrants achieved success in their new homeland, but some of them faced cruelty, exploitation, and social ostracism. It is concluded that the idea of Great Britain as a global community turned out to be untenable after the Second World War. Imperial goals increasingly contradicted national objectives, which led to the cessation of child migration. Deprived of their homeland and ties with their relatives, unable to adapt to new places, child migrants who turned into adults become an embarrassing reminder of the “dark page” of the imperial past.

Abstract The article deals with scientific and applied topicality of studying the problem of children and youth social activity. Spheres of social activity display in European tradition, in particular, the European Charter, Great Britain, have been revealed. Comparative analysis of understanding the essence of such a phenomenon in Western theories and scientific pedagogical thought in Russia has been given. The changes occurred in the context of the analysis of the notion during last decades and connected with the development of volunteering, motivation and forms of youth services have been emphasized. The most important tasks in developing social activity of Russian youth have been stated. Different scientific approaches to studying the notion of “social activity” enriching its characteristics have been analyzed. Based on the analysis of results on the organized events the drawbacks, neglects and causes of poor quality of working on the development of youth social activity have been shown. The experience in choosing activities and technologies demonstrated by teachers and pupils from different regions of Russia has been presented. Theoretical analysis of foreign and domestic experience in education has enabled to offer suggestions for the expansion of pupils and students’ social activity in the frame of different models presenting a wide scope for mastering and developing social competency of children and youth. These models have become the foundation for creating a general algorithm for the expansion of children and youth social activity. Pedagogical conditions and perspective directions for solving the problem of social activity development have been outlined in the article.

The main idea of the article is survey the conditions provided by Spain the EU countries for migrants, especially Spain.. It reporters that government of EU countries gives different social aids for people seeking a sylum. First, author describes different social sources from EU countries such as Germany, Sweden, Italy, Greek, France and Great Britany. The article highlights issues such as the provision of temporary housing for refugees, cash benefits, employment opportunities and medical services. Then, particularly closely, author considers that migrants might have many benefits provided by the Spanish Government for refugees and for migrants with outrefugee status to compare with other countries. It spokes in detail about conditions for obtaining refugee status, penalties in case of violation of the law by illegal migrants and the conditions of their detention, medical and legal services, language courses, accommodations, and soon. In addition, the articles notes about help for minor children. To sum up, author stressed that migrants should be research for conditions of giving aids, rules and mentality of country for currently time. Keywords: refugees, Spain, migrants, EU countries, social services, humanitarian status.

<p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Objectives</strong>. The growing number of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) entering the education system reveals the unpreparedness of modern school for the education of such children. Our aim is to identify the leading modern trends in school preparation for the ASD children in such countries as UK, USA and Australia.</p> <p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Methods</strong>. The review and analysis were aimed at the modern educational practices and programs of support to preschoolers (from 3&mdash;4 years) and primary school students with ASD in the UK, USA and Australia . A bibliographic search by the following keywords was used: ASD, school readiness, inclusion, children with special education needs. The following issues were analyzed: problems solved within the framework of the program, target audiences receiving support, main tasks and methods of their solution.</p> <p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Results</strong>. The main difficulties in the adapting to the school situation were revealed: self&mdash;regulation and challenging behavior, inclusion in the joint activities, interaction. The ways to overcome these difficulties are reported: special training and support programs for schoolchildren, &ldquo;extended childhood&rdquo;, staff training etc. The examples of successful practices are given. Authors discuss on the question of which educational conditions are important for the integration of a child with ASD into a main stream school. The popular pre-school programs in the USA, Great Britain and Australia are described: &ldquo;Head Start&rdquo;, &ldquo;Boston Universal Pre-K&rdquo;, &ldquo;TeachTown&rdquo;, &ldquo;Aspect&rdquo;, &ldquo;ASD Nest Program&rdquo;.</p> <p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Conclusions</strong>. School preparation is a comprehensive issue for the ASD children which includes academic, social and behavioral components. Most researchers single out not the academic, but the emotional and social unpreparedness of a child as the main problem field. The leading trends towards creating conditions for school preparation of ASD children are: special organization of the learning process, continuity in the work of preschool and school education staff, interaction of school and family specialists.</p>

the middle of the 17th – 19th centuries. The author shows the peculiarities of the formation of legal education at the highlights universitiesthat nowadays hold leading positions in the world recognition, namely, Oxford, Cambridge, Melbourne and others. Therefore,their experience for the University of Lviv is extremely necessary. It shows that legal education was possible for the wealthy, but in theUK they managed to find a way to attract talented young people with different social statuses to get a legal education.In Great Britain between 1846 and 1855, the movement for the reform of legal education found its expression in a number of universitiesof Oxford and Cambridge, as well as in the state of legal education as such. At the same time, practicing lawyers got a higherlevel of training, which made them much more experienced than before the reform. As a result, the demand of employers for the wor -kers with a corresponding education increased.In 1846, a new English law classroom was established, making two courses a prerequisite for admission to the bar association.Unequal position of education at Lviv University for different segments of the population can also be seen at British universitiesas the conditions of admission and education itself were difficult, so many talented students could not pay for education because it wasexpensive. Consequently, mainly the children of wealthy families could receive education, including law. This approach to learning didnot always give the desired result. Due to such stereotypes that had emerged in the society, the process of development of legal educationslowed down. British universities realized the problem more quickly, starting to provide various types of scholarships and grantsfor talented applicants. Such things inserted the desired result, and those relatively young universities today are gaining internationalrecognition.Today, at the beginning of the third decade of the 21th century we see that Lviv University entered the ranking of the best universitiesin the world according to the «Times Higher Education Ranking» (receiving 1001st place). This indicates prospects and potentialfor improvement. But today’s result would not have been fixed without the work of the rector of Ivan Franko National Universityof Lviv Volodymyr Petrovych Melnyk, who has done and is still doing a lot on the way of recognition and entrance of the Universityinto the world rankings.In 1850 a school or a separate examination in law and modern history was established in Oxford as a part of reform movementthat raised the level of teaching at the university. In 1872 the law school was separated from modern history in the form of a higherschool of law (for a bachelor’s degree in the humanities). Even then, students mainly studied Roman law, jurisprudence and internationallaw, and learned about the history of English law, not the law of their time. According to a historian at Oxford Law School,«something less like a professional law school is hard to imagine». A separate examination for the bachelor’s degree in civil law, beforeits reform in 1873, contained little English law. Only few students passed it.In Cambridge, to get a bachelor’s degree in law, Roman law dominated, but some English laws were included for comparativepurposes alongside the history of law, national law and the philosophy of morality.

A major goal of infectious disease epidemiology is to understand and predict the spread of infections within human populations, with the intention of better informing decisions regarding control and intervention. However, the development of fully mechanistic models of transmission requires a quantitative understanding of social interactions and collective properties of social networks. We performed a cross-sectional study of the social contacts on given days for more than 5000 respondents in England, Scotland and Wales, through postal and online survey methods. The survey was designed to elicit detailed and previously unreported measures of the immediate social network of participants relevant to infection spread. Here, we describe individual-level contact patterns, focusing on the range of heterogeneity observed and discuss the correlations between contact patterns and other socio-demographic factors. We find that the distribution of the number of contacts approximates a power-law distribution, but postulate that total contact time (which has a shorter-tailed distribution) is more epidemiologically relevant. We observe that children, public-sector and healthcare workers have the highest number of total contact hours and are therefore most likely to catch and transmit infectious disease. Our study also quantifies the transitive connections made between an individual's contacts (or clustering); this is a key structural characteristic of social networks with important implications for disease transmission and control efficacy. Respondents' networks exhibit high levels of clustering, which varies across social settings and increases with duration, frequency of contact and distance from home. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings for the transmission and control of pathogens spread through close contact.

The extent to which levels and trends in local unemployment and income influenced the Conservative vote in 633 separate British constituency elections in 1983 is estimated in several regression models. Long-term influences on voting are controlled by the endogenous variables of social class and territoriality. It is argued that this research design is superior to previous ones that have treated general elections as national elections in exploring the economic theory of voting. Sensitivity analysis (the use of several models to illuminate the research problem posed) suggests that, unlike America congressional elections, current rates and trends in local unemployment and income exerted a substantial and systematic influence on constituency voting.

This article examines the processes of emigration of Mongolian citizens and their problems, including during a pandemic. Research and analysis were carried out in relation to the choice of the country of permanent or temporary residence, gender and age ratio, reasons for emigration, and living conditions. Today the trend is as follows, including during a pandemic, thousands of people move from one country to another and from one region to another, changing cities and places of residence for the sake of well-being, decent wages, in search of better living conditions. However, personal safety, the safety of families and children began to be felt more during the pandemic, this became the reason for the majority of citizens to return home. It has been 20 years since Mongolian citizens began to freely move around the world, for example, according to official data, at the end of 2020, more than 101 thousand Mongolians live and work abroad, one third of which are in South Korea. In the years before the pandemic, the number of Mongols living and working in other countries grew steadily, but due to a number of reasons, including the pandemic, some citizens began to return to their homeland. For example, on the part of employers, there are violations of labor contracts, living conditions, etc. The government of Mongolia has taken a number of measures to return its citizens to their homeland. So, to date, this figure is more than 40 thousand people, leaving work, study, treatment, residence abroad. In this regard, the subject of this research is the study of the emigration process of Mongolian citizens in the context of past periods. The purpose of studying this direction is to study and identify the main difficulties and problems of the emigration process over a twenty-year period and present a comprehensive analysis. Thus, the relevance of this study is to study and clarify the nature of the reasons for the departure of Mongolian citizens from the country. The study and analysis of the emigration of the population has been facilitated to this day by various reasons, such as environmental, political, economic, social, cultural and others. The methodological part of the study included the use of sampling methods, the use of methods for collecting and analyzing data, as well as empirical research. The study of the number of emigrating citizens was carried out in the period from 2010 to 2020, the data of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia, the official population census and the property fund of the country were compared. Depending on the country of residence, the largest number of people study in India, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Japan, Germany and Ireland, and leave for permanent residence in Poland, Great Britain and the USA. In countries such as South Korea, the Czech Republic and Hungary, they work more under contracts. Turkey, South Korea, Sweden, Czech Republic, Switzerland and Poland are chosen as self-employment. The studied population group was studied in relation to travel purposes, including: training, permanent residence, contract work, work on a business trip, self-employment, living with family members, etc. The largest number of respondents leave for study, in 2020 their number was 35.8 percent, in second place is self-employment. In terms of the ratio of men and women living abroad, 80 percent are women. Due to the lack of a complete information field, a system for the movement of Mongolian citizens, it is difficult to determine the complete provision on international migration and their employment. There is no assessment of international migration and its situation in general. There is a very general number of different sources on labor migration, where only the total number of Mongols living and working abroad is indicated. Thus, a more transparent system is needed for the formal collection of information on external labor migration, and these are the tasks of emigration, including information on working and living conditions, problems, difficulties and consequences of migration, using them to analyze and develop further political regulation. Thus, we will determine the economic, social, environmental, political and social goals of the emigration outflow of the population. It is worth paying attention to the official and complete collection of data in this area. As suggestions and recommendations, it is necessary to establish an official information base for the governing bodies regarding the international migration of Mongolian citizens.

No Frills is a grounded case study enquiry based on a Local Authority in the South of England. The research question asked ‘How do the governance arrangements and the organisational structures of education and children’s social care services inhibit or support transdisciplinary working?’ No Frills raises the varied social location and categorisation of children historically and now, as occupying various policy positions, either as part of, or separate to, family. Children have been, and still are, labelled as socially constructed subjects dependent upon wide ranging and frequently contradictory societal norms, values and expectations. These social constructs have played their part in shaping how organisations have worked with children and their families both in the past and in the more recent policy imperatives to Working Together No Frills is contextualised by the New Labour Government’s policy of Every Child Matters (ECM) and the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) and focus’ upon safeguarding children through the job roles of the wider children’s workforce and the ‘Working Together’ agenda to include parents. The nature of ‘transdisciplinary’ as a form of working together is identified and explored with particular reference to the concept of role release (McGonigel 1994; King 2009), whereby professionals share their expertise with, and release roles to, paraprofessionals, and parents as part of a transdisciplinary team. The literature regarding role release in transdisciplinary work is from the perspective of professionals who release aspects of their job role. In No Frills, the released aspect focused upon is the assessment of children deemed to be in need of safeguarding. The boundaries between safeguarding, prevention and protection are not always clear and this creates uncertainty and concern for members of the wider children’s workforce. No Frills examines the perspective of members of the wider children’s workforce at the receiving end of role release, through the contribution of participants from a cross section of staff, and service users. The role of power in ‘Working Together’ is identified as a pivotal relational dynamic affecting both members of staff and service users in the governance of role release in transdisciplinary working together. The governance of role release obscures the location of responsibility and accountability in children’s safeguarding services. Members of the wider children’s workforce find themselves increasingly responsible for assessing and meeting the needs of children that have complex needs. Members of the wider children’s workforce are not always confident in assessing the ever increasing complexities of need for children’s safeguarding through the CAF. Staff faced with such assessment complexities, often refer children to statutory social care services, which could be seen as an inappropriate referral because of the high threshold criteria to access children’s social care services. This dynamic illustrates that the role of assessment and monitoring has been released to the wider children’s workforce through an auditable outcome based governance. Contextualised by prevailing neoliberal value systems the governance of role release ‘repackaged’ (Newman 2005:4) children’s safeguarding and protection needs into quantifiable categories ‘through the imposition of codified and proceduralised, efficiency-related knowledge’ (Keeping 2008:139).

Two competing forms of sex education and the groups supporting them came to head in the 1970s and 1980s. Traditional sex education retained an emphasis on maintaining Christian-based morality through marriage and parenthood preparation that sex education originally held since the beginning of the twentieth century. Liberal sex education developed to openly discuss issues that reflected recent legal and social changes. This form reviewed controversial subjects including abortion, contraception and homosexuality. Though liberal sex education found support from national family planning organizations and Labour politicians, traditional sex education found a more vocal and powerful ally in the New Right. This thesis explores the political emergence of the New Right in Great Britain during the 1970s and 1980s and how the group utilized sex education. The New Right, composed of moral pressure groups and Conservative politicians, focused on the supposed absence of traditional morality from the emergent liberal sex education. Labour (and liberal organizations) held little power in the 1980s due to internal party struggles and an insignificant parliamentary presence. This allowed the New Right to successfully pass multiple national reforms. The New Right latched onto liberal sex education as demonstrative of the moral decline of Britain and utilized its emergence of a prime example of the need to reform education and local government.

What rights do children and young people have to participate in the decisions that affect their lives? And what benefit, if any, can be gained from their participation in the democratic process? Through the adoption of an interpretative perspective the research undertakes a case study exploration of these issues working directly with child and young people across a number of public and third sector organisational settings, utilising a Participatory Action Research methodology (in the form of an Interactive Group Work Programme) in order to examine their engagement in decisions that affect their lives. The research examines the factors that both inhibit and promote participation with young citizens and how this is affected by the individual organisation’s context and practice. It explores through the proposition of a new paradigm shift in the ‘adultism’ (Bell, 1995) discourse that identifies an ‘awkwardness’ in the way adults engage with children and young people arising from a lack (and/or loss) of the skills necessary to respect, relate and respond appropriately to them. A shift that the researcher has termed the ‘Three R’s of Awkwardness - Respect, Relate and Respond’. The research identifies a new distinction between forms of communication which are ‘instructive’ and those which are ‘expressive’ in nature and the benefit of participatory dialogue. In so doing, it has demonstrated the aim of the research in seeking to express the importance of the participation agenda and the value that can be gained through it.

This thesis argues that only-childhood was never the sole, and only ever a minor, determinant of only children’s experiences. It analyses autobiographies and oral history interviews of only children who grew up between 1850 and 1950 to show how personal inclinations, parental attitudes, domestic circumstances, geographical location, class, gender, and historical time, alone or in combination, were far more important influences on childhood experiences than only-childhood per se. These factors not only created differences between only children themselves, but also demonstrably influenced sibling children’s experiences. Its findings challenge negative ideas about only children that spread to the public from childrearing manuals through other media from the late-nineteenth century, when numbers of one-child families began to increase. Previous historians have inadvertently maintained these stereotypes by tending to present examples of only children who conformed to them, not seeking alternative explanations for their experiences, and presenting sibling relationships as vitally important. This thesis also questions these largely-positive portrayals of siblings. It additionally shows how some only children use only-childhood as a ‘lens’ through which they present and explain their childhood traits and experiences, attesting to the pervasiveness of only-child stereotypes. By doing so, this research builds upon the work of Raphael Samuel, Paul Thompson, Natasha Burchardt, and others regarding the role of ‘myth’ in adults’ representations of their childhoods. This thesis’ main argument supports sociologists’ suggestions about the influence of factors other than only-childhood, but it takes a more historical and personal approach. It also builds upon, and is informed by, childhood and family historians’ research into the advantages and disadvantages of decreases in family size from the 1870s onwards. Furthermore, it enhances demographic historians’ work on fertility decline by examining why some only children had no siblings, and contributes to the history of emotions by examining loneliness and unhappiness.

The challenge that faced Edwardian Britain was how to respond to poverty and related social problems. The Victorian ideas on poverty and philanthropy were under attack by the beginning of the twentieth century and had not been replaced by those of the mid to late twentieth century, large-scale state welfare. This meant that the first twenty years of the twentieth century were a time when there was no consensus on how to respond to poverty. The concern about poverty with the lives of the working-class highlighted by Booth, Rowntree and the Boer War led to the development of new responses to poverty. Two groups who attracted attention at this time were working-class women and children whose poverty and related problems were highlighted during the first two decades of the twentieth century. In Bradford there were developments in both the political and philanthropic spheres in response to poverty. This thesis seeks to add to the knowledge of the early twentieth century through focusing on responses to poverty within one English town, Bradford, concentrating on both the philanthropic and political community. No study has investigated the work of both the Guild of Help and the ILP together and examined how their work and their policies impacted on poverty in Bradford. The Guild of Help looked to alleviate the poverty of those best placed to help themselves whereas the ILP aimed to alleviate, if not eliminate problems for all of those in poverty. The working class in Bradford responded to poverty largely through the development of practical strategies that enabled them and their families to survive. They were not able to alleviate their own poverty on a long-term basis and in some cases needed outside assistance in order to survive. The main response of the philanthropic community was the establishment of the Bradford City Guild of Help. It aimed to provide a community wide response to poverty in Bradford and to act as a clearing-house for charity in order to eliminate fraud. This response of the Bradford charitable elite aimed to investigate personal circumstances and provide help in the form of advice rather than money. The Guild of Help looked to alleviate rather than eliminate poverty and helped those in the best position to practice self-help. Although its acceptance of a role of the state in areas that had had been the traditional preserve of charity showed that the Guild of Help had moved on from Victorian charity, it still aimed to preserve the status quo and would not advocate any measures that would change this. The knowledge built up by the Guild of Help in relation to the problems of working-class women and children ensured that it was well placed to deal with these problems. However it preferred to deal with each case on an individual basis by individual Helpers which meant that there was no consistency in dealing with the poverty of working class women and children. The major response from the political community came from the Independent Labour Party. The ILP looked to eliminate poverty and the social ills associated with it and if poverty could not be eliminated without a change in society, then the ILP advocated that society should be fundamentally changed. The ILP lacked a coherent plan to tackle poverty and related problems in Bradford and had little success in responding to problems such as unemployment. However, the ILP did make the issue of education their own and built on the work of Margaret McMillan in Bradford. The ILP did challenge traditional views on responsibility for children and their policies made a difference to the lives of working-class children.

This thesis is concerned with the education of children in care. Its analytic focus is on ways in which children in public care are and have been constructed by knowledge and policies that are embedded in the discourses that surround them. A literature review of empirical research conducted in the UK concludes that the dominant research strands and epistemologic studies in this area have failed to allow foregrounding and exploration of children's own accounts of their experiences at school as children in care. Other literature concerning policy and historical contexts is considered within subsequent analytic chapters where a Foucauldian approach is adopted. The empirical work reported is of the content of interviews conducted in schools with 27 children and young people who were in foster care. A Foucauldian perspective allows consideration of the fashion whereby practices of surveillance and "the gaze" construct children by adults. The children's accounts are foregrounded in the data chapters where, firstly, their experiences of adults are explicated in terms of the three mechanisms of surveillance that Foucault identified. Adults' writings about the children, particularly within Records of Needs that had been opened to delineate the special educational needs of some of the children, are described and the fashions whereby these too construct the children, often negatively, are exposed. A sometimes overpowering sense of public intrusion into the children's private lives permeated their accounts but the final data chapter considers the ways they utilised their own agency sometimes as a struggle to resist the markers of difference experienced. Here again their own stories are given prominence. The implications of these accounts lead to suggestions about how changes to adults' practices in their dealings with children in care could be introduced in a range of settings including schools, the meetings held about children and educational psychologists' activities where, fundamentally, a need for adults to display more genuine respect to children and young people is required.

Masculinity is a set of meanings, and also an aspect of male identity. Understanding masculinity in history, therefore, requires attention to culture and psychology. The concept of a "crisis of masculinity" cannot address these dimensions sufficiently and is of little use to the historian.
This analysis of evidence from late medieval England begins with the social world. Legal records show men defending, and therefore defining, masculine identity through interaction among male peers and with women. Defamation suits suggest a fifteenth-century identification of masculinity with "trueness": an uncomplicated, open honesty. A "true man," in late medieval England, was not just an honest man, but a real man.
Social masculinity constituted honest fairness, permitting stable social relations between men. Transparent honesty, good management of the household ("husbandry"), and self-command preserved males' social substance, their metaphoric embodiment represented tangibly by money and property. Lawsuits and personal letters show how masculine social identity took shape through competition and cooperation with other men. "Power," "dominance" and self-fulfilment were less important than sustaining this network of relations.
Men's relations with women are best understood within this homosocial dynamic. Men's adultery trespassed on other males' substance, while women's adultery indicated poor management of one's own. Sexual slander against men could injure their social identity, but was unlikely to demolish it, as it would for a woman. The celibate minority of men shared these concerns.
Medical texts, late medieval men's clothing, satirical poems, and courtesy texts prescribing self-control show that the male body provided important meanings (phallic and otherwise), through failure, inadequacy or excess as often as not. Sexual activity, and other uses of the body, might be managed differently as self-restraining or self-indulgent discourses of masculinity demanded.
A psychoanalytic reading of medieval romances reveals fantasized solutions to the problem of males' desire for feminine and masculine objects. Romance literature displays a narcissistic subjectivity created in defensive fantasies of disconnection. Such features derive from a culture demanding incessant social self-presentation of its men, which permitted very little in daily life to be kept from the scrutiny of others.

This thesis empirically examines whether the neoclassical economic model provides an adequate framework to analyse a couple's labour supply behaviour in Britain using recent data from the British Household Panel Survey. The thesis comprises three empirical chapters. The first chapter uses the instrumental variable (IV) estimation procedure to model the hours of work of married couples. This approach allows us to test whether some of the assumptions of the neoclassical model (e.g., income pooling and Slutsky properties) are satisfied by the data. In addition, further variables that have been identified as distribution factors in the literature are introduced to the empirical model to assess whether they play a role in explaining a couple's hours of work. The first chapter only considers couples in which both spouses work. In the second chapter, the sample is amended to include all couples (i.e., those that work and those that do not) and the analysis conducted models a couple's labour market participation decisions rather than their hours of work. After testing for income pooling and the impact of distribution factors, a further variable, the wife's mother-in-law work status when the male spouse was aged 14, is introduced into the model. This is done to determine the effect of 'cultural' variables on labour market decisions. In the last chapter, this issue is explored further by explicitly modelling attitudes to a woman's role in the labour market. This approach uses a bivariate ordered probit model given the ordinal nature of responses to the attitudinal questions and again restricts the analysis to couples only. Finally, gender-role attitudes are introduced to the labour supply framework used in the second chapter in order to evaluate whether beliefs regarding women's role impact on a couple's labour market decisions.

AbstractGender equality is an increasingly topical issue, but it has deep historical roots. The principle of gender equality found its legitimacy, even if limited to salary, in the 1957 Treaty of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC). This treaty, in Article 119, sanctioned the principle of equal pay between male and female workers. The EEC continued to protect women’s rights in the 1970s through equal opportunity policies. These policies referred, first, to the principle of equal treatment between men and women regarding education, access to work, professional promotion, and working conditions (Directive 75/117/EEC); second, to the principle of equal pay for male and female workers (Directive 76/207/EEC); and finally, enshrined the principle of equal treatment between men and women in matters of social security (Directive 79/7/EEC). Since the 1980s, several positive action programmes have been developed to support the role of women in European society. Between 1982 and 2000, four multiyear action programmes were implemented for equal opportunities. The first action programme (1982–1985) called on the Member States, through recommendations and resolutions by the Commission, to disseminate greater knowledge of the types of careers available to women, encourage the presence of women in decision-making areas, and take measures to reconcile family and working life. The second action programme (1986–1990) proposed interventions related to the employment of women in activities related to new technologies and interventions in favour of the equal distribution of professional, family, and social responsibilities (Sarcina, 2010). The third action programme (1991–1995) provided an improvement in the condition of women in society by raising public awareness of gender equality, the image of women in mass media, and the participation of women in the decision-making process at all levels in all areas of society. The fourth action programme (1996–2000) strengthened the existing regulatory framework and focused on the principle of gender mainstreaming, a strategy that involves bringing the gender dimension into all community policies, which requires all actors in the political process to adopt a gender perspective. The strategy of gender mainstreaming has several benefits: it places women and men at the heart of policies, involves both sexes in the policymaking process, leads to better governance, makes gender equality issues visible in mainstream society, and, finally, considers the diversity among women and men. Among the relevant interventions of the 1990s, it is necessary to recall the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) which guaranteed the protection of women in the Agreement on Social Policy signed by all Member States (except for Great Britain), and the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997), which formally recognised gender mainstreaming. The Treaty of Amsterdam includes gender equality among the objectives of the European Union (Article 2) and equal opportunity policies among the activities of the European Commission (Article 3). Article 13 introduces the principle of non-discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or handicaps. Finally, Article 141 amends Article 119 of the EEC on equal treatment between men and women in the workplace. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Nice Union of 2000 reaffirms the prohibition of ‘any discrimination based on any ground such as sex’ (Art. 21.1). The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also recognises, in Article 23, the principle of equality between women and men in all areas, including employment, work, and pay. Another important intervention of the 2000s is the Lisbon strategy, also known as the Lisbon Agenda or Lisbon Process. It is a reform programme approved in Lisbon by the heads of state and governments of the member countries of the EU. The goal of the Lisbon strategy was to make the EU the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy by 2010. To achieve this goal, the strategy defines fields in which action is needed, including equal opportunities for female work. Another treaty that must be mentioned is that of Lisbon in 2009, thanks to which previous treaties, specifically the Treaty of Maastricht and the Treaty of Rome, were amended and brought together in a single document: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Thanks to the Lisbon Treaty, the Charter of Fundamental Rights has assumed a legally binding character (Article 6, paragraph 1 of the TEU) both for European institutions and for Member States when implementing EU law. The Treaty of Lisbon affirms the principle of equality between men and women several times in the text and places it among the values and objectives of the union (Articles 2 and 3 of the TEU). Furthermore, the Treaty, in Art. 8 of the TFEU, states that the Union’s actions are aimed at eliminating inequalities, as well as promoting equality between men and women, while Article 10 of the TFEU provides that the Union aims to ‘combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age, or sexual orientation’. Concerning the principle of gender equality in the workplace, the Treaty, in Article 153 of the TFEU, asserts that the Union pursues the objective of equality between men and women regarding labour market opportunities and treatment at work. On the other hand, Article 157 of the TFEU confirms the principle of equal pay for male and female workers ‘for equal work or work of equal value’. On these issues, through ordinary procedures, the European Parliament and the Council may adopt appropriate measures aimed at defending the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment for men and women. The Lisbon Treaty also includes provisions relating to the fight against trafficking in human beings, particularly women and children (Article 79 of the TFEU), the problem of domestic violence against women (Article 8 of the TFEU), and the right to paid maternity leave (Article 33). Among the important documents concerning gender equality is the Roadmap (2006–2010). In 2006, the European Commission proposed the Roadmap for equality between women and men, in addition to the priorities on the agenda, the objectives, and tools necessary to achieve full gender equality. The Roadmap defines six priority areas, each of which is associated with a set of objectives and actions that makes it easier to achieve them. The priorities include equal economic independence for women and men, reconciliation of private and professional life, equal representation in the decision-making process, eradication of all forms of gender-based violence, elimination of stereotypes related to gender, and promotion of gender equality in external and development policies. The Commission took charge of the commitments included in the Roadmap, which were indirectly implemented by the Member States through the principle of subsidiarity and the competencies provided for in the Treaties (Gottardi, 2013). The 2006–2010 strategy of the European Commission is based on a dual approach: on the one hand, the integration of the gender dimension in all community policies and actions (gender mainstreaming), and on the other, the implementation of specific measures in favour of women aimed at eliminating inequalities. In 2006, the European Council approved the European Pact for Gender Equality which originated from the Roadmap. The European Pact for Gender Equality identified three macro areas of intervention: measures to close gender gaps and combat gender stereotypes in the labour market, measures to promote a better work–life balance for both women and men, and measures to strengthen governance through the integration of the gender perspective into all policies. In 2006, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and Council regulated equal opportunities and equal treatment between male and female workers. Specifically, the Directive aims to implement the principle of equal treatment related to access to employment, professional training, and promotion; working conditions, including pay; and occupational social security approaches. On 21 September 2010, the European Commission adopted a new strategy to ensure equality between women and men (2010–2015). This new strategy is based on the experience of Roadmap (2006–2010) and resumes the priority areas identified by the Women’s Charter: equal economic independence, equal pay, equality in decision-making, the eradication of all forms of violence against women, and the promotion of gender equality and women’s empowerment beyond the union. The 2010–2015 Strategic Plan aims to improve the position of women in the labour market, but also in society, both within the EU and beyond its borders. The new strategy affirms the principle that gender equality is essential to supporting the economic growth and sustainable development of each country. In 2010, the validity of the Lisbon Strategy ended, the objectives of which were only partially achieved due to the economic crisis. To overcome this crisis, the Commission proposed a new strategy called Europe 2020, in March 2010. The main aim of this strategy is to ensure that the EU’s economic recovery is accompanied by a series of reforms that will increase growth and job creation by 2020. Specifically, Europe’s 2020 strategy must support smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. To this end, the EU has established five goals to be achieved by 2020 and has articulated the different types of growth (smart, sustainable, and inclusive) in seven flagship initiatives. Among the latter, the initiative ‘an agenda for new skills and jobs’, in the context of inclusive growth, is the one most closely linked to gender policies and equal opportunities; in fact, it substantially aims to increase employment rates for women, young, and elderly people. The strategic plan for 2010–2015 was followed by a strategic commitment in favour of gender equality 2016–2019, which again emphasises the five priority areas defined by the previous plan. Strategic commitment, which contributes to the European Pact for Gender Equality (2011–2020), identifies the key actions necessary to achieve objectives for each priority area. In March 2020, the Commission presented a new strategic plan for equality between women and men for 2020–2025. This strategy defines a series of political objectives and key actions aimed at achieving a ‘union of equality’ by 2025. The main objectives are to put an end to gender-based violence and combat sexist stereotypes, ensure equal opportunities in the labour market and equal participation in all sectors of the economy and political life, solve the problem of the pay and pension gap, and achieve gender equality in decision-making and politics. From the summary of the regulatory framework presented, for the European Economic Community first, then for the European Community, and finally for the European Union, gender equality has always been a fundamental value. Interest in the issues of the condition of women and equal opportunities has grown over time and during the process of European integration, moving from a perspective aimed at improving the working conditions of women to a new dimension to improve the life of the woman as a person, trying to protect her not only professionally but also socially, and in general in all those areas in which gender inequality may occur. The approach is extensive and based on legislation, the integration of the gender dimension into all policies, and specific measures in favour of women. From the non-exhaustive list of the various legislative interventions, it is possible to note a continuous repetition of the same thematic priorities which highlights, on the one hand, the poor results achieved by the implementation of the policies, but, on the other hand, the Commission’s willingness to pursue the path initially taken. Among the achievements in the field of gender equality obtained by the EU, there is certainly an increase in the number of women in the labour market and the acquisition of better education and training. Despite progress, gender inequalities have persisted. Even though women surpass men in terms of educational attainment, gender gaps still exist in employment, entrepreneurship, and public life (OECD, 2017). For example, in the labour market, women continue to be overrepresented in the lowest-paid sectors and underrepresented in top positions (according to the data released in the main companies of the European Union, women represent only 8% of CEOs).

AbstractThis chapter analyses compared social stratification in three Latin American countries (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) and four European countries (Finland, France, Spain, Great Britain). We focus on both external and internal borders of social classes, as well as on the challenges posed by their analysis for sociology. We compare social classes using EGP6 in relation to a variety of social indicators, to examine how social classes vary among countries. We include debates on production models and welfare state policies to understand the specific configurations and compare the conditions of some of the INCASI countries regarding social stratification. Lastly, we apply a latent class analysis to validate the number of social classes and to recognise class boundaries.

Abstract Responsiveness to family change requires more than attention to income, workplace adaptations, and family ]aw. It also requires a wider range of supports for improved quality of life (health care, child care, and housing) and special help for families and children with special needs (Supplemental Security Income, child welfare, and nutrition). The programmes grouped in this chapter make little claim for coherence, but they do constitute a significant and distinctive component of family policy. Historically, these programmes were in the province of state and local government and private agencies but since the mid-l960s have increasingly involved the federal government, usually though not always working through or sharing with the lower tiers.

The illegitimate son of a servant from the Scottish Highlands, William Campbell effected his own upward social mobility by becoming a teacher. The state paid for his apprenticeship as a pupil teacher in the small village of Durness and then his teacher training programme in bustling Edinburgh. After his training and an initial job in the village of Nethybridge, he settled into a position as an elementary teacher in the scattered crofting community of Rogart in Sutherland in 1898. Though he followed Whitehall policymakers’ directives and taught quite a bit of English history and literature during school hours, he went to great lengths to acquire Gaelic dictionaries, grammars, and works of literature so that he could teach the language and literary culture to children and adults alike in the evenings. This was no defiant gesture of nascent Scottish cultural nationalism. Campbell was determined to serve the distant British state ...

Abstract Having begun this exploration of language and its uses by looking at children’s learning of language, it is only fitting that we should conclude it by considering how children use language. Adults tend to think of themselves as knowing more than those who are younger than they are, and generally they are correct in this belief. There are, however, things that children know that adults either do not know or have forgotten that they once knew. Evidence of children’s lore and language was compiled by Iona and Peter Opie, who collected information from about five thousand children attending seventy schools in different parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. They published the results of their investigations in The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959), and their work has provided the basis for subsequent inquiries. One of their findings was the variety of truce terms in Great Britain (see fig. 34.1). Truce terms are the ways in which children call for “time out” in a game or a contest. The Opies found that, in addition to calling out a truce term, children in England often crossed their fingers, whereas in Scotland children put their thumbs up. The map shows that in the west of Scotland the term is keys, while in the rest of Scotland and much of the west of England and most of Wales the term is barley (presumably the same word as parley). In the eastern part of England the main term is either kings and crosses or kings.

Abstract Adverse social conditions—poverty, violence, and stress—can be as detrimental to children’s health and development as toxic chemicals. Social stress may have especially great impacts on children’s health when exposure occurs during vulnerable periods in prenatal and early postnatal development. Stress-provoking conditions may have multiple origins and can arise at the level of the individual, the family, or the neighborhood. This chapter considers specific mechanisms that link the social environment to health. These include disruptions of the immune, neuroendocrine, and autonomic nervous systems as well as developmental reprogramming that appears to be mediated through epigenetic modulation of gene expression. Recent evidence suggests that children who have been compromised by stress in early life may be at increased risk in later life to environmental hazards such as air pollution, tobacco smoke, and toxic chemicals.

Abstract Throughout this volume scholars are presenting their research on the origins and development of explicit and implicit intergroup attitudes, the processes of social identification, and the emergence and nature of gender and ethnic stereotypes. Many of the empirical studies discussed in these chapters were conducted in countries where these lines of research stem from a history of empirical studies with children and adolescents. These youths belong to different ethnic groups and socioeconomic statuses and live in cultural settings that have a high degree of ethnic and cultural heterogeneity (including the United States, Canada, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Australia). In addition, research on intergroup attitudes has been carried out in countries such as the United States, where it dates back to the pioneering studies of Horowitz and Horowitz (1938) and Clark and Clark (1947).

Abstract In the history of psychology, the importance of the construct of temperament has fluctuated as different psychological approaches to personality development have gained prominence. The first and most important shift was a shift from stable categories of people to malleable psychological dimensions (Kagan, 1989b). With the advent of psychoanalytic psychology, motivation became the focal point of the study of personality rather than stable inborn temperamental characteristics. Cognitive and social psychology also questioned the notion of inborn stable characteristics, and when issues of personality were addressed, the focus shifted to self-concept and beliefs about the self (Kagan, 1989b). More recently, with renewed interest in the biology of behavior, psychology has witnessed a renewal of interest in the notion that children are born with biases that predispose them to acquire certain behaviors, as well as certain motives and beliefs. However, this new interest in temperament is often accompanied by the qualifying notion that these biases and predispositions cannot be seen as always determining behavior. Whether they will come into play, and the extent to which they come into play, depend a great deal on the environment to which a child is exposed. Thus, the conception of temperament has changed over the years from one of an enduring characteristic intrinsic to a person to one of a syndrome that some individuals realize or exhibit under certain conditions.

Abstract Whether referred to as a ‘subtle revolution’ or as the most significant social change of the twentieth century, changes in gender roles have had enormous implications for families. In particular, women’s entry into the labour force and their continued attachment to it have had a major impact on the household and family economy, the lifestyle of husbands and wives, the viability of single-parent families, and the ways that children are reared and cared for. Of particular importance have been the increased labour force participation of married mothers, especially those with young children; the sustained labour force attachment of women regardless of pregnancy, maternity, and child-rearing; and the rise in full-time, year-round work by married women with children.

Neurodevelopmental disorder is a disorder that occurs in different ways and is diagnosed in childhood involving central nervous system abnormalities. Neurodevelopmental disorder can be explained in children with autism spectrum disorder down, intellectual disability, learning disability, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), cerebral palsy. Children with ncan be affected in many dimensions developmentally, experientially and environmentally. It is known that children show special conditions in various subjects from their peers due to their physical, mental, social development and brain activities being affected. It is revealed that these special conditions affect peer relations in children's social lives, cognitive issues such as problem solving, analytical thinking, language development issues such as understanding and expression, as well as the child's balance and physical activity. By processing the information coming from visual, vestibular and proprioceptive systems together, the symptoms and characteristics of physical activities in body movements with the energy available by using the muscles in the balance and skeletal system are determined to a great extent. The characteristics of children with neurodevelopmental disorders, their assessment, the balance context and the level of physical activity are described.

Статья посвящена миграции несовершеннолетних детей из Англии в Канаду, Австралию, Южную Африку. Анализируются причины, указаны основные этапы детской миграции, рассмотрены цели и задачи, которые преследовали организаторы программ переселения, миссии, которые возлагались на юных британцев вне метрополии. Автор приходит к выводу, что выезд был обусловлен потребностями детей и потребностями Великобритании, как метрополии, так и ее заокеанских владений. Начиная с XVII века, несовершеннолетних отправляли в колонии в качестве работников. Депортация из Англии являлась также альтернативой тюремному заключению. В XIX веке прекращается организованный ввоз преступников в колонии. Миграция позволяла сэкономить социальные расходы британского правительства. Филантропы разрабатывали планы массового переселения детей за океан с целью их спасения от голода и преступлений, на которые они были обречены в нищих кварталах британских городов. Доминионы предоставляли большие возможности для повышения социального статуса детей бедняков. Со второй половины XIX века в юных мигрантах начинают видеть большой имперский потенциал. Они рассматривались строителями империи «Великая Британия». Несовершеннолетние работники помогали фермерам осваивать земли. Миграция увеличивала «белое» население колоний и доминионов. Дети укрепляли политические связи между отдельными странами, распространяли политические и культурные ценности европейцев. На них возлагались задачи создания глобальной британской нации, физического и нравственного оздоровления британцев. Потомки британских «домашних детей» составляют значительный процент населения современной Канады и Австралии. The article is devoted to the migration of minors from England to Canada, Australia, South Africa. The reasons are analyzed, the main stages of child migration are indicated, the goals and objectives pursued by the organizers of resettlement programs, the missions assigned to young Britons outside the metropolis are considered. The author comes to the conclusion that the departure reasons were the needs of children and the needs of Great Britain, both the metropolis and its overseas possessions. Since the XVIIth century, minors were sent to colonies as workers. Deportation from England was also an alternative to imprisonment. In the XIX-th century, the organized deportation of criminals into the colonies stopped. Migration allowed saving the social expenses of the British government. Philanthropists developed plans for the mass relocation of children overseas in order to save them from hunger and crimes to which they were doomed in the impoverished quarters of British cities. The dominions provided great opportunities to improve the social status of the children of the poor. Since the second half of the XIXth century, young migrants began to see great imperial potential. They were considered as the builders of the empire "Great Britain". Underage workers helped farmers develop land. Migration increased the "white" population of colonies and dominions. Children strengthened political ties between countries, spread European political and cultural values. They were entrusted with the task of creating a global British nation, physical and moral recovery of the British. Descendants of British "home children" make up a significant percentage of the population of modern Canada and Australia.

В статье рассматриваются особенности развития Либеральной партии Великобритании в XIX в. В своем развитии она преодолела несколько этапов, каждый из которых обнаруживал тесную связь с общеисторическими изменениями в Великобритании. В работе утверждается, что способность правящей элиты страны вовремя перейти к политике либеральных преобразований позволила ей преодолеть серьезный социально-политический кризис и спасти Великобританию от революции. Особое внимание уделено исследованию влияния парламентской реформы 1832 г. на формирование структуры партии. Заслугой либералов было то, что они сумели адаптировать плавным, эволюционно-реформистским путем, не затрагивая самих основ общественного порядка, государственно-правовые институты Великобритании к новым историческим условиям, возникшим в результате промышленного переворота. Используя гибкие компромиссные методы управления и проведения социальной политики в отношениях как с землевладельческой аристократией, так и со средними и низшими слоями британского общества, либералы смогли поддерживать достаточно высокую стабильность общества, сглаживать социальные конфликты, столь частые в других странах Западной Европы XIX в. Автор подчеркивает, что к концу XIX в. британским либералам удалось создать массовую политическую партию современного типа. The article examines the features of the development of the Liberal Party of Great Britain in the XIXth century. In its development, the Liberal Party was going through several stages, each of which revealed a close connection with general historical changes in Great Britain. The paper argues that the ability of the country's ruling elite to switch to a policy of liberal transformations in time allowed it to overcome a serious socio-political crisis and save Great Britain from revolution. Particular attention is paid to the study of the influence of the parliamentary reform of 1832 on the formation of the party structure. The merit of the liberals was that they were able to adapt in a smooth, evolutionary-reformist way, without affecting the very foundations of public order, the state-legal institutions of Great Britain to the new historical conditions that arose as a result of the industrial revolution. Using flexible compromise methods of management and social policy in relations both with the landowning aristocracy and with the middle and lower strata of the British society, the liberals managed to maintain a fairly high stability of society, smooth out social conflicts that are so frequent in other countries of Western Europe of the XIXth century. The author emphasizes that by the end of the XIXth century, the British liberals managed to create a mass political party of the modern type.

"Throughout the second half of the seventeen and the eighteenth centuries, tea remained an expensive exotic drink for Britain that “preserved” its overseas nature. It was only in the Victorian era (1837-1903) that tea became the English national drink. The process attracts the attention of academics from various humanities. Despite an impressive amount of research in the UK, in Russia for a long time (in the Soviet years) the English tradition of tea drinking was considered a philistine curiosity unworthy of academic analysis. Accordingly, the English tea party in Russia has become a leader in the number of stereotypes. The issue became important for academics only at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Currently, we can observe significant growth of interest in this area in Russia and an expansion of research into tea drinking with regard to the history of society, philosophy and culture. Despite this fact, there are still serious lacunas in the research of English tea parties in the Victorian era. One of them is related to the analysis of visualization of this practice in Victorian painting. It is a proven fact that tea parties are one of the most popular topics in English arts of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. No other art school in the world referred to the topic so frequently: painting formed the visual image of the English tea party, consolidated, propagandized and spread ideas of the national tea tradition. However, this aspect has been reflected neither in British nor Russian studies. Being descriptive and analytical, the present research refers to the principles of historicism, academic reliability and objectivity, helping to determine the principal trends and social and cultural features and models in Britain during the period. The present research is based on the analysis of more than one hundred genre paintings by British artists of the period. The paintings reflect the process of creating a special “truly English” material and visual context of tea drinking, which displaced all “oriental allusions” from this ceremony, to create a specific entourage and etiquette of tea consumption, and set nationally determined patterns of behavior at the tea table. The analysis shows the presence of English traditions of tea drinking visualization. The canvases of British artists, unlike the Russian ones, never reflect social problems: tea parties take place against the background of either well-furnished interiors or beautiful landscapes, being a visual embodiment of Great Britain as a “paradise of the prosperous bourgeoisie”, manifesting the bourgeois virtues. Special attention is paid to the role of the women in this ritual, the theme of the relationship between mothers and children. A unique English painting theme, which has not been manifested in any other art school in the world, is a children’s tea party. Victorian paintings reflect the processes of democratization of society: representatives of the lower classes appear on canvases. Paintings do not only reflect the norms and ideals that existed in the society, but also provide the set patterns for it."

Background: The issue of preventing and countering human trafficking is relevant all over the world, including in Ukraine. Solving and preventing this problem has become more acute due to the full-scale invasion of the Russian Federation into Ukraine. With the beginning of this invasion, there was a great risk of falling into a situation of human trafficking. Many citizens, especially women with children and young people, left for Europe, some were forced to move within the borders of Ukraine, in the occupied territories people are forcibly deported to the territory of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus. The risks of falling into the sphere of human trafficking are quite large, people who were already a risk group fall into difficult life circumstances and become even more vulnerable to this problem. And young people in search of a better life in Europe neglect their safety and have risky behavior, which causes the need to spread social and preventive work with this group to prevent them from falling into situations of human trafficking. Purpose: to analyze the methods of social work with young people in order to increase the awareness of young people about the issue of human trafficking. Methods: the method of analyzing scientific documents, the method of comparing opinions, and the method of theoretical analysis of foreign works were used. Results: Preventive activities among young people in order to prevent them from falling into situations of human trafficking are quite important. It is necessary to develop this area and actively apply social work in this area. Methods of social work at the primary level of prevention among young people are diverse and can be successful. Conclusion: Informing young people for the purpose of preventing human trafficking has many forms that can be successful in this work. Primary social prevention among young people can be diverse, it is necessary to develop this area. Also, the use of social work in this area is appropriate. Social work specialists can conduct interactive trainings and seminars aimed at raising the level of awareness of young people about the problem of human trafficking and ways to protect against it. Such activities may include various elements such as group discussions, role-playing, video materials and others. Keywords: human trafficking, youth as a risk group of human trafficking, primary prevention, informing, raising awareness.

In conditions of economic reforms, the demographic challenges and problems of the social protection of population stand at the forefront. In the field of demography it is quite essential to consider such factors as birth, mortality rates, marriages, divorces, age and sex structure and migration. In the social protection sphere the first major factors that we must pay careful attention are the number of pensioners, children and disabled people. In Uzbekistan, in recent years, fewer people have left the country. This is due to the gradual increase in the incomes and in the relatively homogeneous ethnic structure of the population. The age and sex structure of the population are changing, furthermore the population is gradually aging, which in turn will lead to a great demographic burden on the part of a certain age. In addition, the disparity of the gender in rural and urban areas, can lead adversely effect on the social life. It should be noted that in recent years there has been a tendency for an increase in the number of birth in absolute numbers and slowdown in its rate of percentage. This trend will effect to the economy of the country as a whole, as its regions as well. Therefore, it is necessary to carefully study the demographic processes, to develop a set of measures to balance social protection, growth rates and population migration.

The act of “eating” is part of the ritual and ceremonial acts that have a great capacity for social transformation with a well-marked symbolic eff ectiveness. Th e history of nutrition cannot be seen as detached from the history of humanity, as they are identifi ed in the stages of their evolution. Factors that play an important role in this regard, infl uencing and sizing specifi c meanings and connotations, are the natural environment, climatic conditions, the socio-economic structure of communities, spiritual beliefs. Migration has been an acute phenomenon of the Romanian society in the last 30 years. If in the second half of the last century, during the communist period, the phenomenon of migration focused on moving the population from rural to urban areas, the liberalization of borders, entering EU structures, NATO, etc., facilitated and even encouraged, in a way or another, the migration of Romanians. Th e Romanian communities have grown signifi cantly, reaching a signifi cant place in the population of migrating countries, and even a representative minority in certain European states (Italy, Spain, Great Britain, etc.). Statistically speaking, Greece does not have a concrete record of the Romanian community, the last census dating from 2007 and the one from the end of 2021 not being centralized yet. In Greece, based on the information provided by the Romanian associations, there are a number of approximately 80,000 — 100,000 Romanians from several areas of Romania, mainly from Moldova, Bucovina and Maramureș, most of them living in Athens and a smaller part on the islands. Th is paper presents a case study, conducted within the Romanian community in Greece, having as main element traditional food. Starting from the idea that this community is part of the mobility diaspora, not being clearly defi ned for a period of time, we will notice, however, that the traditional food is an extremely important element in preserving the national identity. Th e Romanian communities, be they historical or mobility, follow an authentic Romanian social pattern, with few foreign influences, determined by several factors.

Parkour is a discipline of movement and the skill of efficient movement from one place to another, in which a person chooses his own path. During movement in the most varied conditions traceur encounters natural or urban obstacles that he overcomes as quickly and efficiently as possible using his own body. The movie Yamakasi was the inspiration for many to train this skill around the world. Bogdan Cvetković is considered the founder of parkour in Serbia. In 2004, he founded a parkour forum through which "traceurs" from cities all over Serbia communicated. In the same year, the first gathering was held in Čačak. The first workshop of this kind in Serbia was held in 2006 in Kraljevo. The officially legally established parkour association was formed in 2007 in Kraljevo under the name Parkour 4 all. The turning point in the further development of parkour in Serbia was in 2008, when the founder of world parkour, David Bell, visited Serbia. International cooperation began in 2008, first with Germany, then France, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Italy, and cooperation expanded even to Qatar and Taiwan. Since 2009, regular outdoor and indoor trainings have been organized in the hall of the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Belgrade. It continues with courses, camps for adults and children, birthdays and team building. The first appearance in media in Serbia was recorded in the year 2003. The filming of commercials with the theme of parkour began in 2008 (ParkourSrbija, 2008), while the reportage about this activity in the program "Sasvim prirodno" (RTS Sasvim prirodno - Zvanični kanal, 2017) had the greatest impact. Although terrain movements have been performed since the appearance of the subject of the outdoor activities, from 2021, in the field teaching of the subject, parkour begins to be studied under its original name. Today, there are about 150 active traceurs in Serbia.

The article reveals the theoretical and methodical aspects of students’ civic education by means of literature. Emphasis is placed on the fact that in the conditions of unstable development of society, escalation of conflicts both between states and between fellow citizens, the issue of students’ civic education is actualized. The authors understand this concept as a form of social education, the formation of a citizen of a specific state, capable of successfully acting for the sake of preserving democracy and peace. Currently, informal education, in addition to the content of “social and civic competencies” that is understandable for Ukrainian educators, uses the term “competencies for the culture of democracy”, which, according to the authors, is a structured concept implemented in the European dimension of civic education. The authors emphasize that fiction affects human feelings and consciousness, it is a powerful means of moral, aesthetic and civic education. Through artistic images, writers provide an opportunity to form their attitude to the events described, to draw certain conclusions, to reflect on universal values, on the actions of one or another character, to see models of civic active/passive behavior. The article analyzes the European experience of civic education, in particular Great Britain and Germany. The authors take into account the literature of these countries and identify aspects that can serve as a basis for students’ civic education, compare them with the Ukrainian realities of civic education. The authors present the main vectors of civic education in Germany, which are determined by the content of literary works and encourage pluralism of opinions, tolerance for the views and judgments of others, motivate students to actively participate in civic life, awareness of the value of freedom, respect for human dignity, the right to self-expression, responsibility for an individual’s moral choice. The works are also the basis for establishing in teenagers such democratic values as the right to life, to fair treatment, dignity, freedom from discrimination, the right to equality, understanding the need to protect one’s rights and the rights of other people.The analysis of content concepts of literature for pupils in Great Britain shows that the priorities of civic education are national patriotism and the education of a law-abiding citizen. The textual material of the works and civic education lessons help pupils to better understand different forms of governance and their impact on citizens; to understand the responsibility and functions of management and the duties of citizens; to acquire socio-cultural experience that gives the opportunity to feel morally, socially, politically, legally competent and protected in society and to take direct part in the activities of civil society institutions. In Finland, the basic democratic values of the national core curriculum are open democracy, equality, responsibility for one’s own choice. An important focus of education in Finnish high school is gaining experience in shaping the future based on joint decisions and interaction.Taking into account the global trends of digitization, the authors considered digital technologies to be educational innovations in students’ civic education (electronic textbooks (not just digitized, but interactive, with virtual 3D materials that teachers can compose at their discretion), textbook scans for download, various materials: interactive laboratories, virtual museums, forums for teachers to communicate, etc.).

Speech, as a social category, stems from the child's need to be in contact with others and communicate with them. In that way, child learns about active communication and interaction, expresses his thoughts, feelings, attitudes and needs. Nurturing the speech culture of the youngest is one of the main objectives of preschool institutions; before that, of families, and especially school. Great attention is paid to teaching children/students how to express themselves and communicate, starting from preschool age with the systematic effort by preschool teachers, and later, in school, teachers continue with this effort, along with, of course, the family as the first and unavoidable link in that chain. The quality of communication and interaction between the child/student and other participants largely determines the speech, but also the overall development of personality and the improvement of the culture of linguistic expression. The altered learning conditions in which the education process has been taking place for more than a year now have significantly impaired the quality of communication in preschool and school. At one time, the interaction, which was otherwise reduced, was non-existent at all; the duration of school lessons has been shortened, the wearing of masks has been introduced, as a result of which breathing is difficult, and thus speech fatigue occurs, which seriously threatens to jeopardize the still underdeveloped speaking abilities of children/students in the lower grades of primary school. This paper will discuss the importance of family for the development of speech culture of preschool and primary school children, the need and opportunities for enhanced cooperation with preschool/school in altered learning conditions in order to create more frequent scenarios for children/students to speak more at home through creative tasks including active reading, retelling, talking and describing in order to successfully develop the speaking skills of children/students outside the preschool/school.