Journal articles: 'Children's phonology'

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Gibbon, Fiona. "Book reviews : Working with children's phonology." Child Language Teaching and Therapy 7, no. 1 (February 1991): 80–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026565909100700106.

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Wise, Barbara W. "Early Spellings Reveal Children's Understanding of Phonology." Contemporary Psychology: A Journal of Reviews 39, no. 8 (August 1994): 844–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/034592.

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Goswami, Usha, Jean Emile Gombert, and Lucia Fraca de Barrera. "Children's orthographic representations and linguistic transparency: Nonsense word reading in English, French, and Spanish." Applied Psycholinguistics 19, no. 1 (January 1998): 19–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716400010560.

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AbstractThree experiments were conducted to compare the development of orthographic representations in children learning to read English, French, or Spanish. Nonsense words that shared both orthography and phonology at the level of the rhyme with real words (cake-dake, comic-bomic), phonology only (cake-daik, comic-bommick), or neither (faish, ricop) were created for each orthography. Experiment I compared English and French children's reading of nonsense words that shared rhyme orthography with real words (dake) with those that did not (daik). Significant facilitation was found for shared rhymes in English, with reduced effects in French. Experiment 2 compared English and French children's reading of nonsense words that shared rhyme phonology with real words (daik) with those that did not (faish). Significant facilitation for shared rhyme phonology was found in both languages. Experiment 3 compared English, French, and Spanish children's reading of nonsense words (dake vs. faish) and found a significant facilitatory effect of orthographic and phonological familiarity for each language. The size of the familiarity effect, however, was much greater in the less transparent orthographies (English and French). These results are interpreted in terms of the level of phonology that is represented in the orthographic recognition units being developed by children who are learning to read more and less transparent orthographies.

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FITNEVA, STANKA A., MORTEN H. CHRISTIANSEN, and PADRAIC MONAGHAN. "From sound to syntax: phonological constraints on children's lexical categorization of new words." Journal of Child Language 36, no. 5 (December 24, 2008): 967–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000908009252.

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ABSTRACTTwo studies examined the role of phonological cues in the lexical categorization of new words when children could also rely on learning by exclusion and whether the role of phonology depends on extensive experience with a language. Phonological cues were assessed via phonological typicality – an aggregate measure of the relationship between the phonology of a word and the phonology of words in the same lexical class. Experiment 1 showed that when monolingual English-speaking seven-year-olds could rely on learning by exclusion, phonological typicality only affected their initial inferences about the words. Consistent with recent computational analyses, phonological cues had stronger impact on the processing of verb-like than noun-like items. Experiment 2 revealed an impact of French on the performance of seven-year-olds in French immersion when tested in a French language environment. Thus, phonological knowledge may affect lexical categorization even in the absence of extensive experience.

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Sutcliffe, A. "Deaf children's spelling: does it show sensitivity to phonology?" Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 4, no. 2 (June 1, 1999): 111–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/deafed/4.2.111.

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Breadmore, Helen L., Andrew C. Olson, and Andrea Krott. "Deaf and hearing children's plural noun spelling." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 65, no. 11 (November 2012): 2169–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.684694.

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The present study examines deaf and hearing children's spelling of plural nouns. Severe literacy impairments are well documented in the deaf, which are believed to be a consequence of phonological awareness limitations. Fifty deaf (mean chronological age 13;10 years, mean reading age 7;5 years) and 50 reading-age-matched hearing children produced spellings of regular, semiregular, and irregular plural nouns in Experiment 1 and nonword plurals in Experiment 2. Deaf children performed reading-age appropriately on rule-based (regular and semiregular) plurals but were significantly less accurate at spelling irregular plurals. Spelling of plural nonwords and spelling error analyses revealed clear evidence for use of morphology. Deaf children used morphological generalization to a greater degree than their reading-age-matched hearing counterparts. Also, hearing children combined use of phonology and morphology to guide spelling, whereas deaf children appeared to use morphology without phonological mediation. Therefore, use of morphology in spelling can be independent of phonology and is available to the deaf despite limited experience with spoken language. Indeed, deaf children appear to be learning about morphology from the orthography. Education on more complex morphological generalization and exceptions may be highly beneficial not only for the deaf but also for other populations with phonological awareness limitations.

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Ettlinger, Marc, and Jennifer Zapf. "The Role of Phonology in Children's Acquisition of the Plural." Language Acquisition 18, no. 4 (September 20, 2011): 294–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10489223.2011.605044.

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Pennington, Martha C. "Making phonology functional: What do I do first? Shelley L. Velleman. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998. Pp. 228." Applied Psycholinguistics 22, no. 3 (September 2001): 471–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716401213095.

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This book focuses on non-functional phonologies (NFP): that is, phonological disorders with no known physiological or neurological causes. It is a substantial book, well written and carefully researched, with an applied and pedagogical orientation that will make it invaluable for clinicians and students in speech pathology and child phonology. It is an ambitious and original work; its practical guidance for those assessing child phonology is based on a comprehensive and up-to-date descriptive and theoretical review of phonological systems and their realization in children's speech. It consists of six chapters, each of which introduces general concepts of phonology as well as modern concepts of nonlinear phonology and includes practical material, most notably a set of original worksheets that are geared to assessment or other types of intervention. It also has three appendices: the first reviews commercial tests, the second provides examples of stress patterns in English lexical items, and the third presents conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet.

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BEECH, JOHN R. "USING A DICTIONARY: ITS INFLUENCE ON CHILDREN'S READING, SPELLING, AND PHONOLOGY." Reading Psychology 25, no. 1 (January 2004): 19–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02702710490271819.

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Chin, Steven B., and Daniel A. Dinnsen. "Consonant clusters in disordered speech: constraints and correspondence patterns." Journal of Child Language 19, no. 2 (June 1992): 259–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000900011417.

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ABSTRACTComparison of patterns of cluster realization from 47 children ranging in age from 3;4 to 6;8 with functional (non-organic) speech disorders with those reported in the literature for normal acquisition reveals that these patterns are essentially the same for both groups. Using a two-level generative phonology for children's independent systems, further analysis of cluster realizations by means of feature geometry and under-specification theory reveals that there are systematic and principled relationships between adult representations of clusters and children's underlying representations and between children's underlying representations and their phonetic representations. With special emphasis on coalescence phenomena, it is suggested that the apparent diversity in children's cluster realizations can be reduced to four constraints on the form of underlying and phonetic representations.

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Fitriani, Dewi, and Umar Bin Abdul Aziz. "The use of storytelling techniques in extratextual activities for the development of children's expressive language skills." Gender Equality: International Journal of Child and Gender Studies 7, no. 2 (September 30, 2021): 212. http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/equality.v7i2.10569.

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Language skills, the key elements for children’s development, are often used as a benchmark to measure the development of all abilities he/she possessed. For early childhood, time spent at school is an opportunity for them to develop their language skills, especially expressive language. The storytelling method often found in PAUD is still less innovative. This triggers boredom and result in neglecting learning process that is detrimental to students, especially in improving expressive language skills. The use of relevant techniques in extratextual activities during the learning process combined with the storytelling method will be very helpful for children. There are 12 extratextual techniques for teachers to do and nine techniques that can be done by children. These two categories of extratextual activities can make the storytelling method richer and ensure the achievement of learning targets specifically related to children’s language acquisition. This extratextual activity can trigger the development of children's expressive language in terms of adding new vocabulary, increasing the meaning of old and new vocabulary and developing vocabulary into sentences in everyday conversation. The conditioning carried out in the application of this extratextual activity also has a positive influence in terms of four aspects of language development, namely the development of phonology, semantics, grammar and pragmatics. In phonology, children are strengthened how to pronounce the alphabet correctly; in semantics, children get meaning reinforcement and additional meaning from a vocabulary; on grammar and pragmatics, improvement is given to the arrangement of correct grammar when old and new vocabulary is used in conversation.

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Byun, Tara McAllister. "A gestural account of a child-specific neutralisation in strong position." Phonology 28, no. 3 (December 2011): 371–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952675711000297.

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The child-specific phenomenon of preferential neutralisation in initial position, which reverses a positional bias attested across adult grammars, represents a long-standing problem for formal models of developmental phonology. In a phonetically based model of phonology, child-specific phonological patterns may emerge as the consequence of physical differences between child and adult speech. This paper presents new case-study data suggesting that a child-specific pattern of fricative neutralisation in initial position has its roots in children's articulatory limitations. Coarticulated fricative and vowel gestures are shown to require independent control of the tongue and jaw, known to be problematic for developing speakers. Substitution errors affecting fricatives are analysed as a phonologised reflex of this phonetic pressure to avoid overlapping vowel and fricative gestures. The positional asymmetry emerges as the consequence of the differing degrees of gestural overlap permitted in syllable-initialvs. syllable-final position, as encoded in the framework of Articulatory Phonology (Browman & Goldstein 1986).

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Lof, Gregory L., and Maggie Watson. "Five Reasons Why Nonspeech Oral Motor Exercises (NSOME) Do Not Work." Perspectives on School-Based Issues 11, no. 4 (December 2010): 109–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/sbi11.4.109.

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Abstract Nonspeech oral motor exercises (NSOME) are used often by speech-language pathologists to help children improve their speech sound productions. However, the phonology, articulation, and motor speech development and disorders literature does not support their use. This article presents five reasons (four theoretical, one empirical) why NSOME are not an appropriate therapeutic technique for treating children's speech sound production problems.

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Stokes, Stephanie F., Elise de Bree, Annemarie Kerkhoff, Mohammad Momenian, and Tania Zamuner. "Phonology, Semantics, and the Comprehension–Expression Gap in Emerging Lexicons." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 62, no. 12 (December 18, 2019): 4509–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2019_jslhr-19-00177.

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Purpose Children come to understand many words by the end of their 1st year of life, and yet, generally by 12 months, only a few words are said. In this study, we investigated which linguistic factors contribute to this comprehension–expression gap the most. Specifically, we asked the following: Are phonological neighborhood density, semantic neighborhood density, and word frequency (WF) significant predictors of the probability that words known (understood) by children would appear in their spoken lexicons? Method Monosyllabic words in the active (understood and said) and passive (understood, not said) lexicons of 201 toddlers were extracted from the Dutch Communicative Development Inventory ( Zink & Lejaegere, 2002 ) parent-completed forms. A generalized linear mixed-effects model was applied to the data. Results Phonological neighborhood density and WF were independently and significantly associated with whether or not a known word would be in children's spoken lexicons, but semantic neighborhood density was not. There were individual differences in the impact of WF on the probability that known words would be said. Conclusion The novel findings reported here have 2 major implications. First, they indicate that the comprehension–expression gap exists partly because the phonological distributional properties of words determine how readily words can be phonologically encoded for word production. Second, there are likely subtle and complex individual differences in how and when the statistical properties of the ambient language impact on children's emerging lexicons that might best be explored via longitudinal sampling of word knowledge and use.

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Reed, Vicki A. "Associations between Phonology and Other Language Components in Children's Communicative Performance: Clinical Implications." Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders 20, no. 2 (December 1992): 75–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/asl2.1992.20.issue-2.06.

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Ainsworth, Steph, Stephen Welbourne, Anna Woollams, and Anne Hesketh. "Contrasting Explicit With Implicit Measures of Children's Representations: The Case of Segmental Phonology." Language Learning 69, no. 2 (January 15, 2019): 323–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/lang.12334.

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Lockart, Rebekah, and Sharynne McLeod. "Factors That Enhance English-Speaking Speech-Language Pathologists' Transcription of Cantonese-Speaking Children's Consonants." American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 22, no. 3 (August 2013): 523–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2012/12-0009).

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Purpose To investigate speech-language pathology students' ability to identify errors and transcribe typical and atypical speech in Cantonese, a nonnative language. Method Thirty-three English-speaking speech-language pathology students completed 3 tasks in an experimental within-subjects design. Results Task 1 (baseline) involved transcribing English words. In Task 2, students transcribed 25 words spoken by a Cantonese adult. An average of 59.1% consonants was transcribed correctly (72.9% when Cantonese–English transfer patterns were allowed). There was higher accuracy on shared English and Cantonese syllable-initial consonants /m,n,f,s,h,j,w,l/ and syllable-final consonants. In Task 3, students identified consonant errors and transcribed 100 words spoken by Cantonese-speaking children under 4 additive conditions: (1) baseline, (2) +adult model, (3) +information about Cantonese phonology, and (4) all variables (2 and 3 were counterbalanced). There was a significant improvement in the students' identification and transcription scores for conditions 2, 3, and 4, with a moderate effect size. Increased skill was not based on listeners' proficiency in speaking another language, perceived transcription skill, musicality, or confidence with multilingual clients. Conclusion Speech-language pathology students, with no exposure to or specific training in Cantonese, have some skills to identify errors and transcribe Cantonese. Provision of a Cantonese-adult model and information about Cantonese phonology increased students' accuracy in transcribing Cantonese speech.

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Plante, Elena, Rebecca Vance, Amanda Moody, and LouAnn Gerken. "What Influences Children's Conceptualizations of Language Input?" Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 56, no. 5 (October 2013): 1613–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0129).

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Purpose Children learning language conceptualize the nature of input they receive in ways that allow them to understand and construct utterances they have never heard before. This study was designed to illuminate the types of information children with and without specific language impairment (SLI) focus on to develop their conceptualizations and whether they can rapidly shift their initial conceptualizations if provided with additional input. Method In 2 studies, preschool children with and without SLI were exposed to an artificial language, the characteristics of which allowed for various types of conceptualizations about its fundamental properties. After being familiarized with the language, children were asked to judge test strings that conformed to the input in 1 of 4 different ways. Results All children preferred test items that reflected a narrow conceptualization of the input (i.e., items most like those heard during familiarization). Children showed a strong preference for phonology as a defining property of the artificial language. Restructuring the input to the child could induce them to track word order information as well. Conclusion Children tend toward narrow conceptualizations of language input, but the nature of their conceptualizations can be influenced by the nature of the input they receive.

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Fikri, Shofil. "Musykilât Ta’lîm al-Ashwâth al-‘Arabiyyah li Ghair al-Nâthiqîn bihâ wa Tharîqah Hillihâ fî Ta’lîmihâ." Loghat Arabi : Jurnal Bahasa Arab dan Pendidikan Bahasa Arab 1, no. 1 (June 2, 2020): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.36915/la.v1i1.6.

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This paper aims to describe the problems in learning phonology, various phonetic problems, the cause of their occurrence and how to overcome them. This paper is a qualitative descriptive study with the type of literature review from which the results of scientific research or other books are closely related to the learning of phonology knowledge, problems and ways to overcome them which are then explained descriptively. The results of this paper conclude that: 1) learning phonology in Arabic is very important to teach at the beginning of the teaching of Arabic because errors in saying a word affect the true or meaningless; 2) There are two main problems in general teaching phonology for non-Arab students, namely: problems relating to the direction of education and problems related to linguistic systems that include phonetic errors and pronunciation of a letter and word; 3) The cause of the problem is because it is influenced by the use of mother tongue (first language) in general, so that it cannot distinguish the length or short of a tone, the pronouncement of self-determination letters, pronunciation of syamsiyah and qamariyah letters, pronunciation of letters of the same nature and pronunciation tanwin letters; 4) As for the solutions offered in overcoming the phoneme pronunciation problem are: proactively instructors should develop children's fluency in speaking phonemes, indoctrinate sound sounds in listening and speaking activities, obtain language sounds in reading and writing activities, and design teaching processes through practical training in tongue sports to gain phoneme skills.

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LI, HONG, VEDRAN DRONJIC, XI CHEN, YIXUN LI, YAHUA CHENG, and XINCHUN WU. "Morphological awareness as a function of semantics, phonology, and orthography and as a predictor of reading comprehension in Chinese." Journal of Child Language 44, no. 5 (November 16, 2016): 1218–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000916000477.

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AbstractThis study investigates the contributions of semantic, phonological, and orthographic factors to morphological awareness of 413 Chinese-speaking students in Grades 2, 4, and 6, and its relationship with reading comprehension. Participants were orally presented with pairs of bimorphemic compounds and asked to judge whether the first morphemes of the words shared a meaning. Morpheme identity (same or different), whole-word semantic relatedness (high or low), orthography (same or different), and phonology (same or different) were manipulated. By Grade 6, children were able to focus on meaning similarities across morphemes while ignoring the distraction of form, but they remained influenced by whole-word semantic relatedness. Children's ability to overcome the distraction of phonology consistently improved with age, but did not reach ceiling, whereas the parallel ability for orthography reached ceiling at Grade 6. Morphological judgment performance was a significant unique predictor of reading comprehension when character naming and vocabulary knowledge were accounted for.

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Do, Youngah. "Paradigm uniformity bias in the learning of Korean verbal inflections." Phonology 35, no. 4 (November 2018): 547–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952675718000209.

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This study explores the role of paradigm uniformity bias in the acquisition of Korean verbal inflections. Paradigm uniformity bias has been proposed in a constraint-based phonological framework, but has rarely been supported by experimental data. This paper provides experimental evidence for paradigm uniformity bias from four- to seven-year-old Korean children learning their native language phonology. Experiment 1 demonstrates that children alter morphological structures in order to produce non-alternating verb forms. Experiment 2 shows that the tendency to adjust morphological structures is rooted in children's preference for uniform paradigms, not in their ignorance of alternations. The results suggest that paradigm uniformity bias plays a role in determining children's preferred production patterns, which favour non-alternating forms even after they have acquired adult-like knowledge of the patterns of alternations.

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Schwartz, Richard G., Laurence B. Leonard, Diane M. Frome Loeb, and Lori A. Swanson. "Attempted sounds are sometimes not: an expanded view of phonological selection and avoidance." Journal of Child Language 14, no. 3 (October 1987): 411–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000900010205.

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ABSTRACTYoung children readily acquire new words with consonants and syllable structures already used accurately (IN words). They have more difficulty acquiring new words with consonants or syllable structures never before produced or attempted (OUT words). In the present study, we examined children's acquisition of a third type of word, containing consonants the children had attempted in the past but never produced accurately (ATTEMPTED words). IN, OUT and ATTEMPTED words and their object referents were presented to 11 young children in a series of play sessions. The children's production and comprehension of the words were then assessed. No comprehension differences among the three types of words were observed. However, ATTEMPTED words as well as OUT words were less likely to be acquired in production than IN words. Some revisions in models of child phonology are proposed to accommodate these findings.

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Girolametto, Luigi, Patsy Steig Pearce, and Elaine Weitzman. "Effects of Lexical Intervention on the Phonology of Late Talkers." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 40, no. 2 (April 1997): 338–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4002.338.

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The purpose of this investigation is to determine whether a focused stimulation intervention focusing on lexical training has indirect, secondary effects on children's phonological abilities. Twenty-five toddlers with expressive vocabulary delays and their mothers were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. The children were between 23 and 33 months of age at entry into the study and were at the single-word stage of language development. Parents of late talkers in the experimental group were trained to employ frequent, highly concentrated presentations of target words without requiring responses. Two measures of phonological diversity (i.e., syllable structure level and consonant inventory) and one measure of accuracy of production (i.e., percent consonants correct) were measured prior to and following intervention within the context of mother-child interactions. The toddlers who received intervention made treatment gains in two areas of phonological ability. They used a greater variety of complex syllable shapes and expanded their speech sound inventories to include more consonant sounds in both initial and final position. In contrast, there were no effects of language treatment on the accuracy of correct production when compared to the adult phonological system.

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Marchman, Virginia A. "Children's Productivity in the English Past Tense: The Role of Frequency, Phonology, and Neighborhood Structure." Cognitive Science 21, no. 3 (July 1997): 283–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2103_2.

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Gierut, Judith A. "Categorization and feature specification in phonological acquisition." Journal of Child Language 23, no. 2 (June 1996): 397–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000900008850.

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ABSTRACTDistinctive feature specification and representation in phonological acquisition are examined in the context of underspecification theory. Subjects were 30 children (aged 3;1 to 5;10) who exhibited systematic differences in their linguistic knowledge of target phonological contrasts. A free classification task was used to tap children's conceptual knowledge of these contrasts, with features of place and manner experimentally manipulated. Three questions were addressed: which features do children use to categorize segmentai information, do the defining features of a category shift as the phonological system advances, and which framework of underspecification theory best accounts for the results? All children categorized segments on the basis of marked nonredundant featural properties, and used only one feature value to define category membership consistent with radical underspecification. Linguistic knowledge and linguistic input both influenced children's category judgements, but to different degrees. The emergence of phonological categories involved increasing feature differentiation as the child's productive phonology advanced.

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TREIMAN, REBECCA, and BRETT KESSLER. "The case of case: Children's knowledge and use of upper- and lowercase letters." Applied Psycholinguistics 25, no. 3 (June 2004): 413–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716404001195.

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Research on children's spelling has focused on its phonological bases. In the present study, we examined a type of nonphonological knowledge that even young children may possess—knowledge about the distinction between upper- and lowercase letters. In Study 1, we analyzed the capitalization patterns used by children in kindergarten through second grade on words that did not contain a capital letter in their conventional spellings. The younger children, especially, often wrote with capital letters. They did so in a nonrandom way, being more likely to capitalize word-initial letters than later letters. When children inserted an uppercase letter in a noninitial position of a spelling, it tended to be a letter whose uppercase form was especially familiar to the child, the initial letter of the child's first name. In Study 2, which examined kindergartners' knowledge of the names of upper- and lowercase letters, we found further evidence that children's names influence their knowledge about letters and that some of this knowledge is case specific. Together, the results show that early spelling involves more than phonology.

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Nurchaerani, Meiyanti, Yessy Nurkita Sari, Haryati Haryati, and Syahiid Hidayatullah Rizkyka Hartadhi. "The Role of Adults on Children Language Acquisition." ENLIT Journal 1, no. 2 (December 1, 2021): 115–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.33654/enlit.v1i2.1393.

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This study aims to notice at the language skills of children from birth to the age of eight years based on the role of adults. The research subject is a boy whom will be known as X, eight years old. This research just focused on X's development of language. Furthermore, children's language acquisition can be categorized into phonology, grammar, semantics, and pragmatics. In collecting data, the authors interviewed one of a friend of the author, named Y. The results of this study indicate the process of language development in children that can be influenced by the role of adults. When the role of adults towards children is not appropriate, then children will experience postpones in language acquisition or postpones in language development in children.

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SAN FRANCISCO, ANDREA ROLLA, MARÍA CARLO, DIANE AUGUST, and CATHERINE E. SNOW. "The role of language of instruction and vocabulary in the English phonological awareness of Spanish–English bilingual children." Applied Psycholinguistics 27, no. 2 (March 6, 2006): 229–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716406060267.

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This study explores influences on bilingual children's phonological awareness (PA) performance in English, examining the role of language of instruction and vocabulary. English monolingual and Spanish–English bilingual kindergartners and first graders receiving either English or Spanish literacy instruction were assessed in English PA and in English and Spanish vocabulary, as appropriate. Spanish-instructed bilinguals were more likely than English-instructed bilinguals or English monolinguals to treat diphthongs as two units, reflecting their analysis in Spanish phonology and orthography. Surprisingly, unbalanced bilinguals dominant in either English or Spanish scored better on English PA than children with approximately equal scores on the English and the Spanish vocabulary test. This finding suggests that familiarity with many lexical items within a language constitutes a source of analyzable phonological knowledge.

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Astia, Idda. "The Analysis of Phonology in First Language Acquisition Melayu Pattani in Children Three-Year-Old." IDEAS: Journal on English Language Teaching and Learning, Linguistics and Literature 8, no. 2 (December 10, 2020): 435–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.24256/ideas.v8i2.1601.

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The study aims at finding out how the children in Pattani, Thailand acquire their first language acquisition. The study is focused on the children of three-year-old due to the fact that they are able invited to communicate in two ways and already comprehend the time when their turn to talk and when other person’s turn to talk. Therefore, the researcher wants to research the utterances in process of first language acquisition in phonology. The study is conducted to address the language acquisition in Melayu Pattani due to the fact that it does not identify in Melayu Malaysia. In addition, the study uses a descriptive qualitative method for analyzing and describing the production of children's utterances. The data were taken by recording and interviewing the children. Finally, it is inferred that children absolutely do the simplification, such as substitution, omission, and assimilation to help them to produce the utterance when they make the conversation.

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Johnson, Bonnie W., and Sherrill R. Morris. "Clinical implications of the effects of lexical aspect and phonology on children's production of the regular past tense." Child Language Teaching and Therapy 23, no. 3 (October 2007): 287–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265659007080682.

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AU, TERRY KIT-FONG, WINNIE WAILAN CHAN, LIAO CHENG, LINDA S. SIEGEL, and RICKY VAN YIP TSO. "Can non-interactive language input benefit young second-language learners?" Journal of Child Language 42, no. 2 (April 7, 2014): 323–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000913000627.

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ABSTRACTTo fully acquire a language, especially its phonology, children need linguistic input from native speakers early on. When interaction with native speakers is not always possible – e.g. for children learning a second language that is not the societal language – audios are commonly used as an affordable substitute. But does such non-interactive input work? Two experiments evaluated the usefulness of audio storybooks in acquiring a more native-like second-language accent. Young children, first- and second-graders in Hong Kong whose native language was Cantonese Chinese, were given take-home listening assignments in a second language, either English or Putonghua Chinese. Accent ratings of the children's story reading revealed measurable benefits of non-interactive input from native speakers. The benefits were far more robust for Putonghua than English. Implications for second-language accent acquisition are discussed.

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HOLM, ALISON, and BARBARA DODD. "A longitudinal study of the phonological development of two Cantonese–English bilingual children." Applied Psycholinguistics 20, no. 3 (September 1999): 349–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716499003021.

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Longitudinal case studies of the successive phonological acquisition of two Cantonese–English bilingual children, aged 2;3 to 3;1 years and 2;9 to 3;5 years, are presented. The children were assessed at 4-week intervals. The first assessment of their phonology occurred when they had been exposed to English for three months. Phoneme acquisition and phonological process data revealed that both children had separate phonological systems for the two languages. The two phonological systems for each child developed in similar ways to monolingual children acquiring Cantonese and English. However, a number of error patterns, indicative of disorder in monolingual children, were evident in the children's phonological systems in English and in Cantonese. These patterns have been documented as normal error patterns for successive bilingual Cantonese–English speaking children. The difference between normal successive bilingual phonological development and normal monolingual development is addressed.

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Maruti, Endang Sri. "Early Detection of Javanese Phonological Awareness of Grade 4 Elementary School Students." Procedia of Social Sciences and Humanities 1 (January 30, 2021): 103–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.21070/pssh.v1i.29.

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This study aim to detect the phonological awareness of Javanese in elementary school grade 4 students early through the distance learning process. To be able to determine the level of awareness of children's phonology, one indicator is to look at the child's ability to write and read Javanese text. This research is a descriptive qualitative type. Data was collected by archiving all assignments related to writing and reading Javanese text sent by students through the WhatsApp application. The collected data were then analyzed descriptively. The results showed that grade 4 elementary school students made many phonological errors when writing and reading Javanese text. The most common mistakes are when writing vowels /a/ and reading consonants /dh/ and /th/. Based on the many errors, it can be concluded that the phonological awareness of Javanese elementary school students is still low, or it can be said to be less aware.

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Hoffman, Paul R., and Janet A. Norris. "Phonological Assessment as an Integral Part of Language Assessment." American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 11, no. 3 (August 2002): 230–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2002/024).

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Research indicates that preschool children presenting delayed phonological development are also likely to show delayed development of morphology, syntax, and discourse structure. Moreover, a child's phonological performance is typically better when labeling pictures and speaking individual words than when organizing syntactically more complex utterances as parts of narratives or when speaking in conversations. Such findings motivate us to assess children's speech sound development as an integral part of their abilities to organize language within realistic communication situations. To this end, we engage the preschool child in play and storybook topics that represent every day events. We use oral language scaffolding techniques to prompt the child to talk about sequences of acts within these events. We then describe the child's ability to (a) organize their discourse structure with respect to temporal, causal, and intentional links; (b) express semantic complexity; and (c) utilize conventions of syntax, morphology, and phonology. Our analysis ends with intervention goals that integrate all of these aspects of language.

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MCALLISTER BYUN, TARA. "Positional velar fronting: An updated articulatory account." Journal of Child Language 39, no. 5 (January 6, 2012): 1043–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000911000468.

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ABSTRACTThis study develops the hypothesis that the child-specific phenomenon of positional velar fronting can be modeled as the product of phonologically encoded articulatory limitations unique to immature speakers. Children have difficulty executing discrete tongue movements, preferring to move the tongue and jaw as a single unit. This predisposes the child to produce undifferentiated linguopalatal contact, neutralizing the coronal–velar contrast. Adopting a phonetically sensitive model of phonology, I propose that children's difficulty with discrete tongue movement can be encoded in a violable constraint, Move.as-Unit. The positional nature of fronting reflects the fact that discrete lingual movement is penalized more heavily in the motorically challenging context of a larger gesture. This analysis is supported with a longitudinal study of one child (3 ; 9 to 4 ; 4) whose fronting was conditioned by both segmental and prosodic factors. Adopting Move.as-Unitin a Harmonic Grammar framework makes it possible to reframe disparate-seeming conditioning factors as a unified grammatical system.

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RATTANASONE, NAN XU, and KATHERINE DEMUTH. "The acquisition of coda consonants by Mandarin early child L2 learners of English." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 17, no. 3 (November 28, 2013): 646–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728913000618.

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Little is known about the acquisition of phonology in children learning a second language before the age of four. The study of Mandarin children's early learning of English coda consonants is of particular interest because of the different syllable structures permitted in the two languages. Using an elicited imitation task, this study explored the acquisition of coda consonants and related phrase-final lengthening in twelve three-year-old Mandarin-speaking children exposed to Australian English at preschool. Performance was good on /t/ and /s/ codas, but worse on the phonologically and morphologically more complex /ts/ coda. Although /n/ is one of the few codas permitted in Mandarin, both perceptual and acoustic analysis revealed surprisingly poor performance, suggesting possible L1 Mandarin effects. As expected, longer exposure to English resulted in better coda production. The results are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms underlying L2 phonological and morphological acquisition in early child second language learners (ECL2).

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Squires, Lindsey R., Sara J. Ohlfest, Kristen E. Santoro, and Jennifer L. Roberts. "Factors Influencing Cognate Performance for Young Multilingual Children's Vocabulary: A Research Synthesis." American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology 29, no. 4 (November 12, 2020): 2170–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_ajslp-19-00167.

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Purpose The purpose of this systematic review was to determine evidence of a cognate effect for young multilingual children (ages 3;0–8;11 [years;months], preschool to second grade) in terms of task-level and child-level factors that may influence cognate performance. Cognates are pairs of vocabulary words that share meaning with similar phonology and/or orthography in more than one language, such as rose – rosa (English–Spanish) or carrot – carotte (English–French). Despite the cognate advantage noted with older bilingual children and bilingual adults, there has been no systematic examination of the cognate research in young multilingual children. Method We conducted searches of multiple electronic databases and hand-searched article bibliographies for studies that examined young multilingual children's performance with cognates based on study inclusion criteria aligned to the research questions. Results The review yielded 16 articles. The majority of the studies (12/16, 75%) demonstrated a positive cognate effect for young multilingual children (measured in higher accuracy, faster reaction times, and doublet translation equivalents on cognates as compared to noncognates). However, not all bilingual children demonstrated a cognate effect. Both task-level factors (cognate definition, type of cognate task, word characteristics) and child-level factors (level of bilingualism, age) appear to influence young bilingual children's performance on cognates. Conclusions Contrary to early 1990s research, current researchers suggest that even young multilingual children may demonstrate sensitivity to cognate vocabulary words. Given the limits in study quality, more high-quality research is needed, particularly to address test validity in cognate assessments, to develop appropriate cognate definitions for children, and to refine word-level features. Only one study included a brief instruction prior to assessment, warranting cognate treatment studies as an area of future need. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12753179

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Glaspey, Amy M., Jenica J. Wilson, Justin D. Reeder, Wei-Chen Tseng, and Andrea A. N. MacLeod. "Moving Beyond Single Word Acquisition of Speech Sounds to Connected Speech Development With Dynamic Assessment." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 65, no. 2 (February 9, 2022): 508–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2021_jslhr-21-00188.

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Purpose: The aim of this study was to document speech sound development across early childhood from a dynamic assessment (DA) perspective that captures a breadth of linguistic environments using the Glaspey Dynamic Assessment of Phonology (Glaspey, 2019), as well as to provide normative data for speech-language pathologists to compare speech skills when making clinical decisions and provide historical context. Targets of English were evaluated via DA for the (a) age of acquisition in single words; (b) continued development through connected speech; (c) early, mid, and late sequence; and (d) differences between single word and connected speech productions. Method: Data were extracted from the reported results of the norming study for the Glaspey Dynamic Assessment of Phonology, which included a representative sample of 880 children ages 3 years to 10;11 (years;months). Comparisons were made with 49 items including multisyllabic words, clusters, and phonemes of English across word positions. Results: Assessment with DA showed that acquisition in single words is nearly complete by age 6 years with a 90% mastery level, and the sequence suggests an Early-13, Mid-16, and Late-14 for items by word position. In connected speech, a wider range of progression is evident from the emergence of sound production at 50%, 75%, and 90% mastery levels with observed changes between ages 3 and 10 years. Conclusions: Given a DA approach across connected linguistic environments, children continue to progress in their development of speech sounds from early childhood well into their school-age years and for some sounds beyond the age of 10 years. DA challenges the language system to better reflect children's developmental progression.

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Soesyasmoro, R. Asto, and Anggi Resina Putri. "Estimasi Proporsi Kesalahan Fonologi Pada Anak Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini (PAUD) Usia 3-5 Tahun Di Surakarta." Interest : Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan 8, no. 2 (November 27, 2019): 210–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.37341/interest.v8i2.178.

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Background: In providing education about everything a child should have from an early age does not have to do with the way parents are educating. It is related to her parents in everyday life and the background factors that color children's parents, whether related to the environment of her family, religion, culture, economics or the background of the education of the elderly. From the explanation it is obvious that parents play a very important role in the formation of child social behavior.The purpose of this research aims to determine the relationship of parental education level with the ability of phonology articulation in children aged 4-5 years in TK Sri Juwita Hanum Surakarta. Methods: Uses quantitative research with a correlational descriptive design. The research population is parents and students of TK Sri Juwita Hanum Surakarta with 30 samples of research samples. Data collection techniques by filling out questionnaires. Variable-free research i.e. the level of parental education and bound variables is the ability of phonological articulation in children aged (4-5 years). The statistical test used was Chi Square correlation test. Result: there is a positive and significant relationship between the level of parental education and the ability of phonology articulation in children aged 4-5 years in TK Sri Juwita Hanum Surakarta. Things his show with a p value of 0.013.Conclusion: of parental education affects the development of articulation in preschool age children (4-5 years old). A positive relationship means the higher the parent's education, the greater the influence on its phonological articulation ability. When children grow and develop both physically and mentally.

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Matthews, Danielle E., and Anna L. Theakston. "Errors of Omission in English-Speaking Children's Production of Plurals and the Past Tense: The Effects of Frequency, Phonology, and Competition." Cognitive Science 30, no. 6 (November 12, 2006): 1027–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_66.

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Kiose, Maria I. "Text and Discourse Linguistic Creativity of Children's English-Language Adventure Fiction." Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, no. 466 (2021): 5–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/15617793/466/1.

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The article explores the specificity of linguistic creativity in the discourse of children's English-language adventure fiction of the 1950s. The aim of the research is to develop the parametrization and vector-space method of discourse and text linguistic creativity assessment to evaluate the linguistic creativity potential of individual texts displaying similar discourse features. To serve as the research data three discourse fragments were selected, which represent three basic narrative types, Orientation, Complicating Actions, Evaluation and Resolution. To achieve the aim, the author applies the procedure of parametrization analysis followed by general and analytic statistics analysis and vector-space modelling. With the system of 52 parameters featuring linguistic creativity in phonology, word-formation, morphology, lexicology and phraseology, syntax, and graphics, the author manually annotates and processes the discourse fragments of similar size exemplifying three narrative types of adventure fiction literature, with the total sample size of 55,000 characters. General statistics analysis allowed revealing the absolute and relative parameter values in three discourse fragments and defining the relative parametric activity of single parameters and parameter levels. Analysis of variance helped define the correlation indices of parameter paired combinations, which resulted in detecting significant binary parameter groups . Individual parameter values and their binary groups served to construe the vector-space models of discourse and text linguistic creativity for the discourse narrative types under consideration. Thus, the author obtained an efficient instrument for discourse linguistic creativity evaluation and, furthermore, for assessing the potential of each individual text in terms of displaying stronger or weaker correlation with the vector coordinates of the discourse linguistic creativity vector-space model. With the frequency and variance analysis, the author disclosed two types of discourse linguistic creativity performance techniques, that is the individual parameter activation and the parameter synchronization. Both must be considered when the decision on linguistic creativity assessment in a concrete text is made. The resulting model shows that the parameter values of linguistic creativity in individual texts can manifest themselves in appearing both higher and lower than the reference parameter values of discourse creativity, which can contribute to disclosing new directions in creativity processing and understanding.

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PARADIS, JOHANNE. "Parent report data on input and experience reliably predict bilingual development and this is not trivial." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20, no. 1 (March 23, 2016): 27–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s136672891600033x.

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Carroll (Carroll) takes issue with the use of parent report to obtain quantity of language exposure measures in research on bilingual development. When discussing parent questionnaires, Carroll writes “Temporal units are crude measures of exposure and they tell us nothing about input”. While I agree that temporal units do not tell us much about the fine-grained details of the input within the temporal units, importantly, parent-report-based measures of input quantity have predicted variation in bilingual development of phonology, vocabulary and morphosyntax. These are robust and reliable findings across numerous studies, and yet, Carroll skates over them as if they did not matter, or dismisses them as trivial. Furthermore, Carroll seems to lead readers to believe that only coarse-grained, language-use temporal units have been obtained through this method; on the contrary, researchers have obtained fine-grained input quality details via parent report that also predict bilingual children's development. Finally, in some circumstances, parent report data is the only feasible method for obtaining language exposure information.

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Gierut, Judith A., Michele L. Morrisette, and Stephanie L. Dickinson. "Effect Size for Single-Subject Design in Phonological Treatment." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 58, no. 5 (October 2015): 1464–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2015_jslhr-s-14-0299.

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PurposeThe purpose of this study was to document, validate, and corroborate effect size (ES) for single-subject design in treatment of children with functional phonological disorders; to evaluate potential child-specific contributing variables relative to ES; and to establish benchmarks for interpretation of ES for the population.MethodData were extracted from the Developmental Phonologies Archive for 135 preschool children with phonological disorders who previously participated in single-subject experimental treatment studies. Standard mean differenceall with correction for continuitywas computed to gauge the magnitude of generalization gain that accrued longitudinally from treatment for each child with the data aggregated for purposes of statistical analyses.ResultsES ranged from 0.09 to 27.83 for the study population. ES was positively correlated with conventional measures of phonological learning and visual inspection of learning data on the basis of procedures standard to single-subject design. ES was linked to children's performance on diagnostic assessments of phonology but not other demographic characteristics or related linguistic skills and nonlinguistic skills. Benchmarks for interpretation of ES were estimated as 1.4, 3.6, and 10.1 for small, medium, and large learning effects, respectively.ConclusionFindings have utility for single-subject research and translation of research to evidence-based practice for children with phonological disorders.

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Buckley, Eugene. "Children’s Unnatural Phonology." Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 29, no. 1 (June 15, 2003): 523. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/bls.v29i1.976.

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Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: General Session and Parasession on Phonetic Sources of Phonological Patterns: Synchronic and Diachronic Explanations (2003)

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Grech, Helen. "The Association of Sentence Imitation with Other Language Domains in Bilingual Children." Journal of Child Science 12, no. 01 (January 2022): e15-e23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1743528.

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AbstractThe association of sentence imitation with other language domains has been of interest to researchers and clinicians for decades. Sentence imitation taps both working memory and linguistic competence. Working memory refers to the ability to recall and manipulate linguistic information making sentence imitation a clinical marker for language ability. Meanwhile, research on the application of sentence imitation with bilingual language pairs is still emerging. This article reports a study on a large sample of Maltese children brought up in an early bilingual language acquisition context. It analyses correlations between a sentence imitation task, verbal comprehension, narrative (story retelling), phonological awareness, and two measures of a phonology test: percentage consonants correct and the inconsistency score. Data were collected from a total of 241 children, aged 24 to 72 months, who were selected randomly from the public birth register. The subtests administered were part of a test battery, namely, the Maltese–English Speech Assessment (MESA) and the Language Assessment for Maltese Children (LAMC). Correlations were calculated for the sentence imitation scores with specific language subtest scores; significant correlations were identified as well as with chronological age. Regression analysis indicated that the sentence imitation subtest of LAMC is a predictor for verbal comprehension and even stronger predictor for phonological awareness. It was concluded that performance on a sentence imitation task is a valid and reliable indication of Maltese bilingual children's language ability.

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TRANSLER, C., J. E. GOMBERT, and J. LEYBAERT. "Phonological decoding in severely and profoundly deaf children: Similarity judgment between written pseudowords." Applied Psycholinguistics 22, no. 1 (March 2001): 61–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716401001047.

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This study attempted to determine whether phonological decoding could be observed among severely and profoundly deaf children during reading. For this purpose, the ability of 20 deaf children to detect phonological similarities between three written pseudowords (a model item and two test items) was investigated. In the first condition, one of the test items was a homophone of the model (e.g., kise, kyse, kine). In the second condition, one of the test items had the same first syllable as the model item, as defined by its structure or by nasalization (e.g., lan.jier, lan.du, la.nud). The results demonstrated that deaf children with good speech levels, as well as hearing children matched on word reading level, were sensitive to homophony when visual proximity between the model and test items were controlled. They were also sensitive to syllabic structure when the first syllables were CV and in the nasalization condition. By contrast, deaf children with poor speech abilities did not show this pattern of results in all conditions. The possibility that the latter results could be explained by deaf children's sensitivity to orthographic frequency phenomena is discussed. A link between sensitivity to phonology in written language and speech skills is suggested, and the implications of those results for a general understanding of the reading processes of deaf children are presented.

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Leung, Alex Ho-Cheong, and Martha Young-Scholten. "Reaching out to the other side: Formal-linguistics-based SLA and Socio-SLA." Applied Linguistics Review 4, no. 2 (October 25, 2013): 259–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2013-0012.

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AbstractGenerative linguistics has long been concerned with the linguistic competence of the “ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly” (Chomsky 1965: 3). Research in formal-linguistics-based second language acquisition takes as its starting point the second language (L2) speaker's underlying mental representation. Here the factors of interest are influence of the learner's native language and, in generative SLA, the operation of innate linguistic mechanisms (Universal Grammar). Similar to methodology in formal syntax, lxSLA adopts techniques such as grammaticality judgment, comprehension and perception tasks supplementing spontaneously produced oral data. While there may be individual differences in oral production, tasks that tap learners' mental representations reveal commonalities across learners from a given native language background with the same amount/ type of exposure and age of initial L2 exposure. When it comes to phonology, age has long been a central factor with numerous comparative studies showing younger learners far outperforming older learners (see Piske et al. 2001). This paper discusses a case of possible non-acquisition by L2 children who had had considerable exposure to the L2. Children's non-acquisition is only apparent, and this allows us to consider the value of lxSLA methodology on the one hand, and and raises issues about what might be lacking in the current socio-SLA paradigm, on the other. We argue that only when we return to the cooperation that marked its birth in the 1960s will we have a comprehensive picture of SLA.

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Murphy, Kimberly A., and Emily A. Diehm. "Collecting Words: A Clinical Example of a Morphology-Focused Orthographic Intervention." Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 51, no. 3 (July 15, 2020): 544–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_lshss-19-00050.

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Purpose Morphological interventions promote gains in morphological knowledge and in other oral and written language skills (e.g., phonological awareness, vocabulary, reading, and spelling), yet we have a limited understanding of critical intervention features. In this clinical focus article, we describe a relatively novel approach to teaching morphology that considers its role as the key organizing principle of English orthography. We also present a clinical example of such an intervention delivered during a summer camp at a university speech and hearing clinic. Method Graduate speech-language pathology students provided a 6-week morphology-focused orthographic intervention to children in first through fourth grade ( n = 10) who demonstrated word-level reading and spelling difficulties. The intervention focused children's attention on morphological families, teaching how morphology is interrelated with phonology and etymology in English orthography. Results Comparing pre- and posttest scores, children demonstrated improvement in reading and/or spelling abilities, with the largest gains observed in spelling affixes within polymorphemic words. Children and their caregivers reacted positively to the intervention. Therefore, data from the camp offer preliminary support for teaching morphology within the context of written words, and the intervention appears to be a feasible approach for simultaneously increasing morphological knowledge, reading, and spelling. Conclusion Children with word-level reading and spelling difficulties may benefit from a morphology-focused orthographic intervention, such as the one described here. Research on the approach is warranted, and clinicians are encouraged to explore its possible effectiveness in their practice. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.12290687

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PIERCE, LARA J., FRED GENESEE, AUDREY DELCENSERIE, and GARY MORGAN. "Toward a model of multiple paths to language learning: Response to commentaries." Applied Psycholinguistics 38, no. 6 (September 28, 2017): 1351–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716417000340.

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Language learning, while seemingly effortless for young learners, is a complex process involving many interacting pieces, both within the child and in their language-learning environments, which can result in unique language learning trajectories and outcomes. How does the brain adjust to or accommodate the myriad variations that occur during this developmental process. How does it adapt and change over time? In our review, we proposed that the timing, quantity, and quality of children's early language experiences, particularly during an early sensitive period for the acquisition of phonology, shape the establishment of neural phonological representations that are used to establish and support phonological working memory (PWM). The efficiency of the PWM system in turn, we argued, influences the acquisition and processing of more complex aspects of language. In brief, we proposed that experience modulates later language outcomes through its early effects on PWM. We supported this claim by reviewing research from several unique groups of language learners who experience delayed exposure to language (children with cochlear implants [CI] or internationally adopted [IA] children, and children with either impoverished [signing deaf children with hearing parents)] or enriched [bilingual] early language experiences). By comparing PWM and language outcomes in these groups, we sought to highlight general patterns in language development that emerge based on variation in early language exposure. Moving forward, we also proposed that the language acquisition patterns in these groups, and others, can be used to understand how variability in early language input might affect the neural systems supporting language development and how this might affect language learning itself.

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Waters, Daphne. "Book Review: Children’s phonology sourcebook." Child Language Teaching and Therapy 14, no. 2 (June 1998): 222–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026565909801400213.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Children's phonology'

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