Journal articles on the topic 'Chemical terrorism – Prevention – International cooperation'

Unconventional threats to the security climate in South-Eastern Europe and, specifically oriented on states openly engaged in the fight against international terrorism,organized crime and the proliferation of WMD (weapons of mass destruction) will persist due to logistical disparities between states. Regarding common work, aimed at applying juridicinternational framework, in the field of fighting terrorism, in the field of countering crime, measures such as cutting terrorism financing, denying access of terrorist groups to biologicand chemical substances, devices or nuclear technologies, communication systems are a common necessity for all nowadays democratic countries.In this paper, our research focuses on the analysis of the extended framework of international cooperation for counterting unconventional threats and on detailing the modalities ofinformative and police cooperation in the field of contemporary unconventional threats.Keywords: security, cooperation, threats, terrorism, organized crime, prevention, countering.

The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks introduced the United States to domestic and complex terrorism. According to terrorism experts, public and private sector targets are indistinguishable to the perpetrators of this evolved form of terrorism. The global chemical industry’s counteroffensive against international terrorism depends in part on implementation of the Chemicals Weapons Convention (CWC), long supported by the American Chemistry Council (ACC) and its sister associations in the International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA). This paper describes the U.S. chemical industry’s response to September 11th and how adherence to the letter and spirit of the CWC helps prevent terrorism.

Abstract This article presents the counter-terrorist system adopted in Romania. The problem of terrorism is one of the challenges within security issues which the European Union is facing. Only lasting, strong cooperation may lead to combating international terrorism, and one of the countries which attempt to do that is Romania. For such actions to be successful, suitable legal solutions have been implemented and adequate structures and units established with the purpose of fighting terrorism. An enormous role belongs moreover to international cooperation and maintaining good relations between various states within terrorism prevention. The Author focuses in particular on the forms and methods of combating terrorism on various planes.

Abstract:Our research focuses on analysis of the extended international framework of cooperation for countering unconventional threats and on detailing the modalities ofintelligence and police cooperation in the field of contemporary unconventional threats.Keywords: security; cooperation; threats; terrorism; organized crime; prevention; tackling

At present, representatives of the scientific, political, military circles and the civil society of the most countries of the world are taking part in the antiterrorist activity.The formation and implementation of the state policy of terrorism prevention in Ukraine provide for realization of the measures package of the legislative and executive power, the society and individual citizens of Ukraine.The article:• identifies problems of terrorism combating policy in the context of research on the causes and economic impact of terrorist activities;• reveals that appearance of evaluation categories in the field of terrorism resulted in a formation of a specific world market - a terrorism market;• considers problems related to the effectiveness of budgetary and extra-budgetary expenditure linked to threats of international terrorism in the countries of the integrated world;• highlights the economic losses incurred by Ukraine because of the terrorist activity in the Donetsk and Lugansk regions in 2014;• defines theoretical aspects of anti-terrorist Ukrainian policy analysis in the con-text of international, especially European and Euro-Atlantic, anti-terrorism cooperation;The conducted analysis shows that one of the priority tasks of the state regarding to improving the efficiency of antiterrorist activity should be the construction of the sys-tem of prevention of terrorism as a complex, multidimensional phenomenon, including by means of creating a system of regulatory actions of authorized authorities and other institutions of civil society in this area.

Although as old as politics itself, terrorism as an international security problem has not yet received its unique definition. The purpose of this paper is to consider the necessity having a generally accepted definition of terrorism in the form of political violence as the basis on which terrorism will find its place in international criminal law. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the general consideration of international criminal law and the International Criminal Court. The second part of the paper examines the existing definitions of terrorism and analyzes terrorism as a crime in international criminal law. Terrorism has long transcended national borders and is no longer a threat only to sovereign states but also to international peace and the security of both the individual and society as a whole. With the expansion of terrorism and increasingly brutal ways of expressing this type of crime, there is a need for even closer international criminal cooperation of sovereign states in the development of legal mechanisms for the prevention and punishment of perpetrators of these criminal acts. By reviewing relevant literature concerning itself with such topics and comparing different understandings of the concept of terrorism from legal, political, and security science sources, we conclude that clarifying the definition of terrorism as an international security problem will, lead to its complete characterization as an international criminal act.

The present article is devoted to the issue of international cooperation in the sphere of investigation of crimes of terroristic orientation, in particular, of terroristic acts. Specific forms of interstate cooperation of law-enforcement agencies of different countries during the production on criminal cases about terroristic acts are presented; the conclusion about the necessity of development of new forms and methods of interaction of states at the prevention of terrorism is made.

International cooperation in its criminal dimension in combating terrorism is launched to achieve a vital goal, which is to prevent "Avoiding from Punishment” and not providing a safe haven for terrorists in which to be safe from criminal prosecution for terrorist acts committed. Those involved it which constitute a violation of human values and international peace and security, and for the sake of which all parties have been strengthened the concerned countries. In this regards, the United Nations and regional organizations will make their efforts to confront these transnational crimes where its gravity transcends barriers of sovereignty and the sole interest of the victim state or individuals to the common interest for the international community as a whole, its stability and its basic values. These international efforts have manifested themselves in the outright criminalization of terrorist acts in international conventions, which formed standard rules for the conduct of states in their subsequent fight against terrorism at various global, regional and sub-regional levels, supported by the position of the United Nations, which it announced in the direct condemnation of the Security Council for terrorism and the need to deter and defeat it with concerted cooperation among states in decision by (1373) in 2001, and with the unified strategy of the General Assembly that it adopted to combat terrorism in the year 2006, emphasizing the obligations that fall mainly on states regarding to prevention and suppression to confront terrorism. Among these, the most important of which is international cooperation based on the principle known as "either surrender or trial", to be complemented also by another form of cooperation, which is the provision of legal aid, including the provision of legal aid, and here states must remove the obstacles that stand in the way of an effective investigation of international cooperation in criminal matters. Resulting from reasons related to the legal approach taken by states with regard to activating the rules of international law, whose effect applies to cooperation In terms of combating terrorism or because of conditions related to the same crime in which cooperation is requested, or the person sought for terrorist crimes, being a refugee or enjoying immunity, being one of the officials of the state in which collaboration is requested.

The purpose of the research is to find out and examine the reconstruction of terrorism prevention policies in the digitalization era that is oriented towards Pancasila justice. The approach method used a normative juridical approach. The results of the research that show that the legal reconstruction is carried out by adding special counter-terrorism efforts, namely in the form of observation, supervision and control of all forms of activities related to terrorism, both from outside and from within the country. Then added efforts in the form of early supervision of the terrorism movement through digital technology as well as conducting international cooperation related to the prevention and eradication of terrorism, for this reason it is necessary to reconstruct the Prevention of Terrorism Crimes and the Protection of Investigators, Public Prosecutors, Judges, and Correctional Officers, then reconstruction of Protection For Investigators, Public Prosecutors, Judges, and Correctional Officers, the contribution of the research is expected to reconstruct policies for handling terrorism crimes based on the value of justice so that they are expected to be able to provide a renewal of thought in the theory of preventing and handling terrorism crimes through the thought of preventing terrorism crimes.

An important element of ensuring national security in Ukraine is the legal consolidation of practical and real principles in national legislation. One of the main reasons for the low quality of the fight against terrorism is the imperfection of legal acts and the inconsistency of the level of preparation for real threats. Normative acts require detailed study, analysis and substantiation in view of international law and evolution, due to which, changes are made more than once. The growing number of terrorism in the world, gives impetus to international cooperation to combat the most dangerous crime. Research is important to address the challenges of preventing terrorism.To improve the legislation, it is necessary to take into account the degree of ability to anticipate threats and assess risks, to ensure the continuity of the process of activity of bodies and the process of recovery. Improving Ukrainian legislation requires modernizing Cain's anti-terrorism legislation on countering and preventing terrorism.The article analyzes the legal framework for combating terrorism, identifies the relevance of the problem of combating terrorism, the range of regulations, considers the views of scientists on the system of their division by type, proposed its own system of regulations in the table.Specifically, some important legal acts on measures to combat terrorism are analyzed. The international legal documents establishing the general principles of international cooperation in the field of prevention and counteraction to terrorism are studied.The priorities of the state policy in the field of counter-terrorism, the principles of counter-terrorism enshrined in regulations are considered, and some proposals for improving the regulatory framework in the fight against terrorism in Ukraine are identified.

The purpose of the article is to determine the main prerequisites for the development of Russian-Chinese anti-terrorist cooperation, to study the international treaty base that determines the priority areas of bilateral interaction, based on the dynamics of joint anti-terrorist activities, to propose a periodization of interaction between the two countries in the area under study. The research methodology is based on a systematic analysis of bilateral cooperation between Russia and China in countering terrorism. In the course of the study, the authors analyzed the treaty base within the framework of this topic, the UN reports on terrorism and the FATF recommendations for Russia and China. As a result, on the basis of the proposed periodization, it is demonstrated that Russian-Chinese bilateral cooperation in the fight against terrorism is of an applied systemic nature and is fine-tuned in the areas of holding consultative meetings, countering the financing of terrorist activities and organizing joint military exercises. The authors revealed that the problematic area of interaction is the exchange of operational information in the framework of terrorist financing, associated with the unwillingness of the Chinese side to provide relevant information at their disposal. In conclusion, it is proved that it is advisable to expand cooperation between Russia and China in the fight against international terrorism in the direction of countering non-standard challenges and threats to the information space, biological origin, chemical impact and environmental nature.

Defining, understanding but also fight against terrorism has taken a new shape after the attacks on the United States of America on September, 11 2001. Now terrorism has changed his view and enemies are not more specific certain countries but this is a global war and that in a certain moment the opponent may be one or more states of a specific region that directly threatening global security.In this paper we will elaborate what the international community has undertaken to coordinate actions to stop terrorism starting from military, police, intelligence cooperation and to the prevention of funding terrorist organizations through various acts within the global organization or even regional ones such as the UN and the EU and in each country separately for the single purpose of eliminating the threat fromterrorism.

The authors consider methods of legal regulation of crimes and types of international cooperation in the fight against them. The paper also highlights international measures aimed at implementing antiterrorist cooperation and combating illegal drug trafficking. The main goal is to determine the legal mechanisms for the prevention of these socially dangerous phenomena both at the local and interstate levels. The object of the research is the social relations that develop in connection with and about the peculiarities of crimes that infringe on international security. The subject of the research is the norms of modern Russian criminal law and the norms of international law. The scientific works of the authors listed in the references represent a solid theoretical and methodological basis for this research. However, research into the features of crimes should continue, since not all problematic issues in this area have been resolved. The author examines the concept, content and general features of international crimes that infringe on international security; defines the role of the UN (United Nations) and other organizations engaged in international legal regulation in the fight against international crimes; defines the features of the interstate organizations activities to prevent terrorism and illicit trafficking in narcotic and psychotropic substances. It is concluded that terrorism and illicit drug trafficking are most widespread among international crimes. The authors draw conclusions on the need to perform preventive activities aimed at preventing the Commission of international crimes, as well as on the implementation of a direct fight against such crimes through «detection, prevention, suppression, disclosure and investigation». Summarizing the authors’ points of view on the subject of criminal liability for acts of terrorism and drug trafficking, it should be noted that restraint measures, as well as strengthening responsibility measures, should be preceded by a set of preventive measures. It should also be understood that the effectiveness of anti-terrorist and anti-drug policies in the world, including in terms of the regulation of criminal liability measures, should be supported and approved by the population. To improve the legal structures of crimes that infringe on international security in the countries of the world community, it is necessary to positively perceive the international experience of various states in regulating measures of criminal responsibility and countering the spread of these acts.

The participation of foreign fighters on the side of terrorist groups has raised many questions about the legal basis for the criminal prosecution of acts of terror during armed conflicts. In cases regarding the commission of terrorist crimes with transnational elements, such as the foreign nationality of the alleged perpetrator, cooperation with other states in matters such as extradition or mutual legal assistance can be crucial. This study will analyse two regimes that may constitute a legal basis for cooperation in criminal matters against acts of terror committed during armed conflicts: (i) the rules on criminal responsibility under international humanitarian law (IHL), and (ii) the United Nations framework of anti-terrorist conventions. IHL has been seen by many as the only framework applicable to acts committed during armed conflicts. In contrast, the position adopted in this article is that IHL does not necessarily exclude the application of other regimes to acts committed during armed conflicts, which can serve as a complementary tool in international efforts for the prevention and suppression of terrorism.

The paper examines the challenges of the «turbulent» modern world where threats have a global character. The issue of security cannot be studied outside the global trends, and fighting terrorism is paramount for organizing a safe space and establishing stability in the region. It is urgent to solve the problems of unregulated migration, the threat of using the weapons of mass destruction and means of their delivery, radioactive, toxic and other hazardous materials and production technologies for terrorism purposes. Mongolia, a democratic country with a market economy, a nomadic culture and a rich heritage, is becoming more attractive for the outside world. Today it not only poses a great cultural, tourist and investment interest, but is also open to various threats: spread of extremist ideology and radical religious groups, illegal migration, legalization of criminal income and all the resulting consequences. The authors present their evaluation and conduct a comparative analysis of the actual condition of Mongolias legal environment, its institutes and counter-terrorism structures, they outline internal and external factors that determine the possible threats and suggest ways of eliminating them. The authors also describe the specific geopolitical situation of the country and the mentality of its people; they evaluate the risk connected with the participation of Mongolian military in peacekeeping operations and the special operations of the international coalition of forces and the UNO, public vigilance and public awareness about the possible terrorist threats. The authors believe that all these factors could increase the threat of international terrorism. This situation requires the development of the counter-terrorism potential, including the prevention, identification, suppression and investigation of crimes of terrorism and extremism as well as the minimization of their consequences. The study of empirical materials through the analysis and synthesis of statistical and sociological data allows the authors to state that the problems of developing the counter-terrorism potential require serious scientific research; the authors conclude that it is necessary to create and improve a unified national system and structure of the countrys security in close cooperation with the international community.

This article comprehensively analyzes the legal mechanisms for preventing the armament race in outer space, as well as international legal issues of ensuring biosafety. The author examines the Russian initiative in counteracting chemical and biological terrorism, which is the most promising instrument for overcoming the gaps in international law. Recommendations are made on strengthening the modern system of international agreements in area of international humanitarian law and law of international security. The object of this research is the relations between the actors of international law in the sphere of biosafety, countering chemical and biological terrorism, and prevention of the armament race in outer space. Methodological framework is comprised of the formal-legal, system-functional, normative-dogmatic, and analytical methods. The conclusion is made that due to the absence of prohibiting provisions in the existing norms of international law, the weapons that do not fall under the category of weapon of mass destruction, may theoretically appear and be applied in outer space, which would undermine the strategic stability, pose a real threat to the international peace and security, and as well as cause a “mirror” response from other key players in outer space. There is currently no alternative to the China-Russia PAROS treaty (Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space). With regards to the questions of biosafety, the participant countries of the Biological Weapons Convention must continue to advocate for the adoption of a Protocol to the Convention with the effective mechanism of verification , which is blocked by the United States, and resist the proposals of the United States to create politically motivated and subjective mechanisms that would bypass the procedures of the Biological Weapons Convention.

The characteristic of youth extremism in the context of destructive way of solving social problems from the standpoint of extremist ideology is given. The main state directions of prevention of youth extremism are systematized and characterized: preventive measures against terrorism, anti-extremist information and education, integration educational courses on intercultural literacy, events organization for the development of social and cultural activity of the individual and the formation of active citizenship. The main vectors of youth extremism prevention, in which a special role is given to social partnership – the system of interaction of state structures and civil society, consolidating efforts in this problem solution. At the same time the effective forms of social and cultural activities aimed at solving the problem: monitoring, patriotic educational activities, organization of creative ethno-oriented evenings, international cultural and creative festivals are described. It is proved that social partnership has sufficient potential to make the process of extremism prevention most effective on the basis of complex interaction of state and public structures involved in the implementation of anti-extremist policy, taking into account religious interests, as well as differentiation of the targeted focus of preventive measures. The basic principles of social partnership are highlighted, without which it is impossible to build effective cooperation: integration and complementarity, confessional parity, targeted orientation. The analysis of social practices realized on the social partnership basis, aimed at intercultural dialogue, international cooperation, patriotism development and civic activity of youth is presented.

The article contains an overview of the activities of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), a structure aimed at creating a comprehensive mechanism for developing and reconciling the positions of Asian countries on key security issues. The CICA is a forum that many regional states have joined as permanent participants. Eight countries and five international organizations, including the U.N., currently have an observer status at the CICA, which cooperates with existing regional organizations such as SCO, ASEAN, and OIC in a number of specific areas. The current concept of CICA’s work is aligned with five main spheres: military and political collaboration; the fight against new challenges and threats, including terrorism; drug trafficking; transnational crime and human trafficking; as well as the economic, environmental and human dimensions. Cooperation with the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, whose members (including the observer countries) are all also members of the Conference, will be of great importance for the further development of CICA. The presence of both resource-producing countries and large oil and gas importers in the organization creates the preconditions for the formation of an energy block within its framework, which will increase the energy security of its member states. The authors note that the interaction between ASEAN and the CICA can be based on five points required for building a “community of common destiny,” which were set forth by President of the People’s Republic of China Xi Jinping in Jakarta: (1) adhere to the principle of trust and strive for good neighborliness; (2) adhere to the principle of cooperation and mutual benefit; (3) constantly provide mutual assistance; (4) adhere to the principle of “living in perfect harmony”; (5) adhere to the principle of openness and tolerance. The authors note that the problem of Afghanistan can become a point of contact and development of joint approaches and strategies of the CICA and the OIC in the context of international and regional security. The author concludes that the transformation of the CICA into the Organization for Security and Development of Asia, proposed by Kazakhstan, would mean an expansion of the conference format and a turn towards solving new problems. In addition, the urgent task of the CICA at present is the transition to qualitatively new levels of cooperation—preventive diplomacy and conflict prevention.

The role and importance of the witnesses in criminal procedure in fighting serious and organized crime, corruption, terrorism and preserving the public security have continuously increased. Law enforcement institutions increasingly face with difficulties in the process of proving criminal acts in the judicial processes because of their complexity in providing sufficient evidence during the criminal investigation procedure. Therefore, besides the reactive investigation methods and application of special crime investigation measures, establishing a legal infrastructure and capacities for the implementation of witness protection concept is necessary as well. Kosovo government and institutions declared fight and prevention of all forms of organized crime, corruption and terrorism as a priority and up to now, it was evaluated that a great job was done in drafting legislation and strategic documents in the law enforcement field as well as increasing the operational capacities of law enforcement institutions. Regarding the witness protection in Kosovo, progress is achieved in improving legislation and establishing special structures for implementation of witness protection programs, but still remain some challenges that Kosovo law enforcement institutions face such as international cooperation and geographic, cultural and social specifics.

The role and importance of the witnesses in criminal procedure in fighting serious and organized crime, corruption, terrorism and preserving the public security have continuously increased. Law enforcement institutions increasingly face with difficulties in the process of proving criminal acts in the judicial processes because of their complexity in providing sufficient evidence during the criminal investigation procedure. Therefore, besides the reactive investigation methods and application of special crime investigation measures, establishing a legal infrastructure and capacities for the implementation of witness protection concept is necessary as well. Kosovo government and institutions declared fight and prevention of all forms of organized crime, corruption and terrorism as a priority and up to now, it was evaluated that a great job was done in drafting legislation and strategic documents in the law enforcement field as well as increasing the operational capacities of law enforcement institutions. Regarding the witness protection in Kosovo, progress is achieved in improving legislation and establishing special structures for implementation of witness protection programs, but still remain some challenges that Kosovo law enforcement institutions face such as international cooperation and geographic, cultural and social specifics.

Transnational organized criminal activities and local activities have affected both countries, Albania and Kosovo. Meanwhile, transnational crime with transnational and local base Albania-Kosovo, is of interest and influence, therefore, it is suggested that the cooperation between the Republic of Albania and the Republic of Kosovo in this regard be serving in law enforcement institutions in Albania and within law enforcement institutions in Kosovo. Transnational organized crime, terrorism, corruption and money laundering are global security threats and local, regional and international sources of crises. Organized crime knows no nationality, no countries, borders, homeland, race, ethnicity, religion and religious beliefs. That is why it is required cooperation in the fight against transnational organized crime and transnational organized crime to be implemented permanently with the main goal of the strategy implementation, action plans, joint operations between the two countries, Albania and Kosovo. Important role in this association play their respective law enforcement institutions such as the police of the two countries, prosecutions, courts and other institutions. While international cooperation is realized with major international organizations like the UN, the EU, Interpol, Europol, SECI center etc. During the years 2002-2015 between the governments, ministries of internal and Police of the Republic of Albania and the Republic of Kosovo hav signed several agreements, memoranda of understanding and common protocols. Interstate and transnational cooperation through the tabulation and graphs presented and seek to build strategies, institutions, measures, operations and joint actions with preventive, managers and common problem solvers of security and the fight against transnational organized crime. Consolidation of security in Albania and Kosovo, is closely associated with the construction, consolidation and functioning of the rule of law, and the rule of law, reaching freedom and respect for fundamental human rights. Albania-Kosovo cooperation significantly affects the strengthening of the rule of law against transnational organized crime. This cooperation is a necessary precondition for the prevention of conflicts and internal, external and regional crises, in order to achieve security and human rights and freedom.

Transnational organized criminal activities and local activities have affected both countries, Albania and Kosovo. Meanwhile, transnational crime with transnational and local base Albania-Kosovo, is of interest and influence, therefore, it is suggested that the cooperation between the Republic of Albania and the Republic of Kosovo in this regard be serving in law enforcement institutions in Albania and within law enforcement institutions in Kosovo. Transnational organized crime, terrorism, corruption and money laundering are global security threats and local, regional and international sources of crises. Organized crime knows no nationality, no countries, borders, homeland, race, ethnicity, religion and religious beliefs. That is why it is required cooperation in the fight against transnational organized crime and transnational organized crime to be implemented permanently with the main goal of the strategy implementation, action plans, joint operations between the two countries, Albania and Kosovo. Important role in this association play their respective law enforcement institutions such as the police of the two countries, prosecutions, courts and other institutions. While international cooperation is realized with major international organizations like the UN, the EU, Interpol, Europol, SECI center etc. During the years 2002-2015 between the governments, ministries of internal and Police of the Republic of Albania and the Republic of Kosovo hav signed several agreements, memoranda of understanding and common protocols. Interstate and transnational cooperation through the tabulation and graphs presented and seek to build strategies, institutions, measures, operations and joint actions with preventive, managers and common problem solvers of security and the fight against transnational organized crime. Consolidation of security in Albania and Kosovo, is closely associated with the construction, consolidation and functioning of the rule of law, and the rule of law, reaching freedom and respect for fundamental human rights. Albania-Kosovo cooperation significantly affects the strengthening of the rule of law against transnational organized crime. This cooperation is a necessary precondition for the prevention of conflicts and internal, external and regional crises, in order to achieve security and human rights and freedom.

The article discusses the issues of bioterrorism and chemoterrorism. Based on the analysis of source literature, biological weapons and chemical weapons are briefly characterized, as well as their historical outline and examples of use known from history are presented. Additionally, the systems of preventing terrorist attacks with the use of these types of weapons are discussed on the example of the Republic of Poland. Considerations lead to the conclusion that the threat of terrorist attacks using weapon of mass destruction is currently very high, therefore there is the high need for perfectly functioning and proven mechanisms of action. Poland, as a country that has not yet experienced serious terrorist attacks, must pays particular attention to the continuous development of defense systems and cooperate in that area with international organizations.

Sources of international terrorism vs. the world of Islam in EuropeThe article argues that general views regarding the matters of cultural globalization do not apply as far as Muslim countries are concerned. The dichotomy between the two worlds does not allow for an inter-cultural dialogue. This blockage could be stopped by specific modernization of history by Muslim societies and the way of thinking of the Islamic communities.The essence of the defensive nature of both the European and Muslim cultural identities can be applied to war against terrorism. Both cultures are currently undergoing a search phase. The positive attitude of the intercultural community towards other cultures and the changes brought about by the process of globalization are extremely important in this process which can lead to the cooperation and development of the comprehensive culture. Due to a deeply rooted unwillingness to collaborate, a multicultural community is impossible to originate.Terrorism does not result from fanatics’ misinterpretations of the role of religion and in fact is stimulated by global processes. The attempt to build truly civil societies in countries that readily accept immigrants along with all the freedoms that go along with them, as well as ensuring complete involvement in social and political life should be regarded as a specific point of reference in the prevention of the formation of Muslim fundamentalist organizations.

AbstractThe world has been trying to eliminate weapons of mass destruction (WMD) — nuclear, biological and chemical arms — for over half a century. Yet many such weapons remain, and progress in nuclear disarmament has been especially disappointing. The chronic failure to achieve agreed WMD disarmament mandates has prompted the creation of several independent international commissions to find some solutions. The WMD Commission created by Sweden in late 2003 was the latest such venture, and its 2006 report has received international acclaim. Chaired by Hans Blix, the Commission covered disarmament, non-proliferation and counter-terrorism issues, and did so from a variety of policy dimensions, from unilateral action through fully multilateral cooperation. Written by a member of the Commission's secretariat staff, this article tells the story of the Commission: how it conducted its work, what it proposed and what impacts it has had — and may yet have — in revitalizing WMD disarmament efforts.

The article highlights the current problematic aspects of formation of the organizational and legal principles for cryptocurrency circulation, as well as the threats posed by their uncontrolled circulation, identifies the main areas of improvement of its legislative regulation. It was concluded about the necessity of international standards implementation for regulating activities in the field of creation and circulation of cryptocurrencies, their control and monitoring, identification and investigation of related illegal activities, establishment of public-private partnership and development of international cooperation in this area. The experience of EU countries in determining the legal status of cryptocurrency is highlighted. The new edition of the Law of Ukraine «On Prevention and Counteraction to Legalization (Laundering) of Proceeds of Crime, Financing Terrorism and Financing the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction» is analyzed, the content of which provides a number of innovations for organizing monitoring of the use of virtual (digital) assets as a means of calculating and combating money laundering money and terrorism financing using cryptocurrency. Legislative innovations of implementation of the updated FATF recommendations on counteraction to money laundering and financing of terrorism with use of cryptocurrencies are covered: improvement of the state policy in the field of counteraction to use of cryptocurrencies in illegal activity is necessary; coordination of work of controlling and law enforcement bodies of Ukraine on counteraction to use of cryptocurrencies for illegal purposes and their interaction competent authorities of foreign states; the latest forms and methods of detection and termination of activities related to the use of cryptocurrencies for illegal purposes; analysis of potential risks and threats of using cryptocurrencies for illegal purposes; blocking the propaganda of the possibility of using cryptocurrencies as a means of payment in illegal activities and to finance its various forms; conducting legal work with the target audience on the inadmissibility of using cryptocurrencies for illegal purposes and the necessity of immediate informing the authorities about the identified cases.

Aviation is an important global business and a significant driver of the global economy. It is vital therefore that stringent measures are taken to counter acts of unlawful interference with civil aviation. Following a diplomatic conference, held in Beijing from 30 August to 10 September 2010 under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), representatives from more than eighty States adopted two international air law instruments for the suppression of unlawful acts relating to civil aviation. The two instruments are the Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation (hereinafter 'Beijing Convention' or 'Beijing Treaty') and the Protocol Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft. The Beijing Convention serves international civil aviation well by requiring parties to criminalize a number of new and emerging threats to the safety of civil aviation, including using aircraft as a weapon and organizing, directing, and financing acts of terrorism. These new treaties reflect the international community's shared effort to prevent acts of terrorism against civil aviation and to prosecute and punish those who would commit them. The treaties promote cooperation between States while emphasizing the human rights and fair treatment of terrorist suspects. The Beijing Convention also obligates States to criminalize the transport of biological, chemical, and nuclear (BCN) weapons and related material. Many provisions of the Beijing Convention, which is a newcomer to aviation security in the context of some new provisions it introduces, may need reflection, particularly in interpreting the intent of its founding fathers. This article discusses some aspects of the Beijing Treaty, which may need that reflection

The Laboratory Response Network (LRN) was established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Today, the LRN is charged with the task of maintaining an integrated network of state and local public health, federal, military, and international laboratories that can respond to bioterrorism, chemical terrorism, and other public health emergencies. The more than 150 laboratories that make up the current LRN are affiliated with federal agencies, military installations, international partners, and state and local public health departments. Laboratories in the network may accept samples from hospitals, clinics, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, other law enforcement groups, emergency medical services, and the military and other agencies. All of the LRN laboratories use the same protocols and validated methods to ensure rapid and certain identification of dangerous biologic agents that cause anthrax, botulism, plague, tularemia, brucellosis, and other illnesses.

Purpose This paper aims to critically review the strategies for prevention of illicit financial flows to and from developing countries with a view of ascertaining the most effective strategies to be selected and implemented by developing countries to stem the scourge. Design/methodology/approach The peer-reviewed journal articles were studied; those that discussed illicit financial flows were selected and reviewed critically using the systematic quantitative assessment techniques together with an output table. Findings The critical review deduced that enacting effective trade laws, trade regulations, creating a beneficial ownership registry, multinational companies disclosing information on business, automatic exchange of information on tax issues, the Financial Action Task Force 40 guidelines on anti-money laundering and countering financing of terrorism and domestic and international cooperation are the most reliable strategies that should be implemented by developing countries. Research limitations/implications The wide geographic scope of developing countries, use of only high-quality databases that restricted the use of other articles and use of public sector perspective are the limitations for this paper. Originality/value This study is amongst the limited works to discuss the most reliable and effective strategies to prevent illicit financial flows in developing countries.

The article presents a personal view of the former executive offi cer of the Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation/USSR to the UN on the state, problems and prospects of development of this Organization. It provides an analysis of the activities of UN member States and their foreign ministries to use opportunities to preserve peace and international security. Particular attention is paid to the inconsistency of the US course in the fi eld of arms control, reform of the UN and its Security Council, with an emphasis on the analysis of Russia's position. The article highlights the activities of the Ministry of Foreign Aff airs in preparing recommendations for Russian delegations when discussing specifi c items on the approved agenda at the annual sessions of the General Assembly. Much attention is paid to those areas of the UN's activities, the regulation of which would meet the interests of Russia and other Member states: the fi ght against international terrorism and organized crime; ensuring international security; promoting economic development of the UN state; prevention of armed confl icts; strengthening the cooperation of Member States in the fi ght against infectious and other dangerous diseases. The need to improve the structures and apparatus of the UN is emphasized. In this regard, it is emphasized the need to organize at a high professional level training of competent specialists for work on the UN line in the Russian Foreign Ministry and in the UN structures in New York, Vienna, Geneva, etc.

The purpose of this article is to describe and explain the strategic role of Hawaii in disaster coordination in the Asia-Pacific region. Hawaii is of critical importance in the prevention of, preparation for, and response to disasters in the Asia-Pacific region as is demonstrated through the effective coordination of Hawaii-based institutions such as the Pearl Harbor Naval Base, US Pacific Command (PACOM), US Army Pacific (USARPAC), Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS), East- West Center (EWC), Pacific Disaster Center (PDC), Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), and other related disaster management support organizations based throughout the Hawaiian islands. The State of Hawaii seems prepared to respond to natural and human-caused disasters. As the only island state located in the Pacific Ocean, Hawaii continues to require advanced technology for warning systems and effective coordination of emergency management capability to respond to a wide range of natural disasters and the threat of terrorism and an extensive network of coordination, cooperation, and collaboration among relevant disaster and emergency Hawaii-based government agencies at the local, national, and international levels. While some of this network may be unique to Hawaii and the Asia-Pacific region, most is not and can provide useful “best practices” for other practitioners and jurisdictions.

This article explores the role of Central Asia in modern conditions, which significantly increases in geopolitical and geoeconomic aspect. Attention is given to the general security challenges of Central Asian countries, as this region requires the coordination of efforts of the leading global actors, as well as Central Asian countries themselves. Security issues associated with vulnerability of Central Asian countries to natural disasters and emergency situations that may occur as a result of territorial disputes, ethnic violence, drug trafficking, and terrorism prevention, fight against extremism underline the need for multilateral cooperation aimed at solution of general problems. The novelty of this research lies in the fact that after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which changed the world political map, the newly formed Central Asian countries gave acquired statehood on the international arena. Namely during this difficult period, the Central Asian countries were forced to choose their own development path. Russia and China, to certain extent, have confirmed their presence in the region by creating the economic and military integration institutions with participation of Central Asian countries. Therefore, the emphasis is placed on the analysis of interaction between China and Russia in the post-Soviet Central Asia, their role in ensuring regional stability and economic growth. The article also examines the importance of studying the role of the United States and the European Union in Central Asia.

Problem statement. The main issues that exist in the management of strains of particularly dangerous microorganisms are primarily related to the weakening of state supervision and control. Surprisingly, nowadays, there is no single official register of owners of pathogenic microorganisms and strains of dangerous and especially dangerous infectious diseases. Some biological objects are found, even in private collections. There are no permitting procedures for handling such facilities and sanctions for violating them. That is why it is not surprising that the Prosecutor General’s Office has announced that the head of the State Research and Control Institute of Biotechnology and Microorganism Strains has identified dangerous virus strains that are known as infectious animal pathogens and can spread rapidly on a large scale across national borders. Dual-use studies should be supervised to address the risks arising from the development of biomedical sciences. Continuous monitoring and verification of scientific and technological advances sensitive from the point of view of security allow to minimize the possibility of the adoption of biological and toxic weapons and other risks. Analysis of recent sources and publications. Theoretical issues of legal regulation of activities in the field of circulation of certain groups of drugs containing strains of microorganisms, in particular in vaccination, attract the attention of many researchers. They were studied, in particular by: R.A. Maidanyk, I.Ya. Senyuta, etc. However, the peculiarities of activities in the field of particularly dangerous microorganisms’ strains treatment have been left without due attention of researchers, including specialists in medical law. Formulating Goals. The aim of the work is to study the state of relations in the field of especially dangerous microorganisms’ strains treatment legal regulation in Ukraine, analysis of the current legislation of Ukraine and the practice of its application in this area. There have been used scientific publications of leading experts and current Ukrainian legislation. The research is based on an organic combination of general scientific and special legal research methods. Presenting main material. The main sources of biological threats are: 1) epidemics and outbreaks of infectious human diseases; 2) epizootics (high incidence among animals); 3) epitophytia (spread of infectious plant disease in large areas); 4) accidents at biologically dangerous objects; 5) natural reservoirs of pathogenic microorganisms; 6) transboundary transfer of pathogenic microorganisms, representatives of flora and fauna, dangerous for ecological systems; 7) sabotage at biologically dangerous objects; 8) biological terrorism; 9) the use of biological weapons by the state. It should be noted that the regulatory framework in the field of particularly dangerous microorganisms’ strains treatment in the context of biosafety in Ukraine is fragmentary. Although the list of laws and other regulations governing biosafety and/or biosecurity in Ukraine is impressive. Nowadays, the use of strains of microorganisms is gaining popularity, in particular in agriculture, because they can be used for the needs of veterinary medicine and for the production of certain foods such as yogurt, kefir etc. Therefore, in addition to the basic law, regulation of the use of strains and protection of rights to them is regulated by other acts, in particular the Law of Ukraine “On protection of rights to inventions and utility models”. Namely, in accordance with Part 2 of Art. 6 strains of microorganisms that have been bred or would be bred shall be considered as the objects of the invention. It follows that the owner who invented the strain must certify the authorship and the right to obtain a patent or declaratory patent. However, this procedure, unlike others, is complicated. After all, to obtain a full patent, you need to conduct an appropriate qualification examination, which would establish whether the strain meets the conditions of patentability. Also, in addition to filing an application for the invention of a utility model and obtaining a patent, in accordance with the Law of Ukraine “On Veterinary Medicine” when registering a domestic veterinary immunobiological agent, the applicant must deposit strains of microorganisms in a special collection – depository. There are currently three national depositories in Ukraine, each of which specializes in a specific type: non-pathogenic strains; pathogenic to humans; pathogenic to animals. The procedure of depositing strains of microorganisms is carried out in accordance with the Instruction on the procedure of depositing strains of microorganisms in Ukraine for the purpose of patent procedure, approved by the order № 106/115 of the State Patent and the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine of 26.06.1995. Moreover, in accordance with the Regulations on the National Center for Microorganism Strains and the procedure for depositing microorganism strains, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine regulation № 637 of 07.05.1998, deposit of microorganism strains in Ukraine is carried out by the National Center for Microorganism Strains. Its task is to preserve the production and control of strains of microorganisms, maintain biotechnological indicators, control the state of their population, as well as the preparation of new strains. It is necessary to pay attention to the decision of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine “On Biosafety of Ukraine”, which states that at the moment there is an increase in the negative impact of various biological factors on the population, which may lead to threats of biological origin. The reasons for such plural regulation are: 1) the lack of a program on biosafety and prevention of biological terrorism, no national system of counteraction to possible biothreats; 2) no automated and integrated data banks on possible threats of biological and chemical origin. Funding and logistics for laboratories also remain unsatisfactory. Also, the state supervision and control in the field of biosafety is weakened, namely when the owner of high-risk facilities changes or when there is a risk of unauthorized access to laboratories due to imperfect protection of pathogenic microorganisms and strains of dangerous and especially dangerous infectious diseases, which in turn can lead to the leakage of pathogenic microorganisms into the environment and cause mass infectious disease. In addition, there is a legal gap in the legislation of Ukraine regarding the location and control of viral and biological laboratories by foreign states. However, in almost all European countries, as well as in the United States, domestic law prohibits the placement of such laboratories in these countries, because they are potentially dangerous to the population. The danger behind viral and biological laboratories, even with the strictest observance of all necessary safety rules, is extremely great, because the pathogenic microorganisms of human and animal origin in them are considered potential agents of biological weapons. Although Ukraine ratified the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction of 10 April, 1972, an agreement was signed in 2005 between the US Department of Defense and the Ministry of Health of Ukraine (expired on 31.05.2013) regarding cooperation in the field of prevention of the spread of technologies, pathogens and knowledge that can be used in the development of biological weapons and the US Department of Defense has begun construction of its objects on the territory of our country. At the same time, microbiological laboratories and production facilities are considered to be areas of the highest biological risk. Infecting of persons while working with microorganisms in laboratories is noted throughout the existence of microbiology and is considered as an indisputable confirmation of occupational hazards. In general, there is a wide variety of ways of potential attacks involving bio-toxic weapons and there are several ways to assimilate biotechnologies with their transformation into weapons due to: 1) use of various agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxins, bioregulators); 2) use against various aims (humans, animals and plants); 3) different scales of application (tactical, strategic); 4) use for various purposes (open or covert war, murder, terrorism or criminal activity). Probably because of this, in 2012 the WHO adopted the Framework Strategy for Laboratory Biorisk Management for 2012-2016, aimed at creating sustainable global, regional and national plans for biological risk management in laboratories. It recognizes that “In accordance with the International Health Regulations (IHR (2005), all participating countries have made a legal commitment to evaluate, develop and maintain their national key oversight, evaluation and response functions”. Conclusions. The current state of legal regulation of relations in the field of strain management requires, given the intersectoral nature of the issue, consideration of the creation of a single intersectoral body for the supervision of hazardous biological objects. Such a body may not only be a licensing body, but also responsible for the introduction of a register of owners of hazardous biological objects that are not economic entities (for example, individual owners of collections of such biological objects). In this paper, it is impractical to consider the circulation of products with GMOs, on the one hand, this issue is perfectly regulated in other special regulations, on the other hand, today there is an issue concerning the treatment of dangerous strains of pathogenic viruses, bacteria and other microorganisms and toxins, as well as poisons of animal and plant origin. For entities engaged in economic activities with pathogenic microorganisms and strains of dangerous infectious diseases, it is advisable to introduce licensing of this type of activity, which requires further development of a bylaw on licensing conditions. For other persons who are the owners of such biological objects and who are not engaged in economic activities, it is necessary to introduce other forms of permit, including special requirements for their handling and storage conditions. The next important bylaw should be the Regulations on the state register of pathogenic microorganisms and strains of dangerous and especially dangerous infectious diseases. Particular attention should be paid to the disposal of hazardous biological objects. Nowadays, for example, there is no effective system for the disposal of vaccines and other immunobiological drugs that have expired (for reference, the shelf life of the flu vaccine is 7-8 months). The cost of recycling is not always profitable for pharmaceutical operators. There are cases when such drugs are falsified by replacing the expiration date, which adversely affect the health of patients. In this context, it can also be mentioned the fact of importing humanitarian aid in Ukraine in the form of a vaccine against measles and rubella (from the Ukrainian diaspora in Canada). The storage temperature of this vaccine was up to minus 48 degrees. After importation into the customs territory of Ukraine, given the shortcomings of customs legislation and the lack of effective control, the temperature regime was not observed. However, the Ministry of Health still carried out compulsory vaccination of children (there were cases of deteriorating health), which is not only negative for the health of children, but also for the very idea of vaccination. In this case, the Ministry of Health, given the interest, was not able to make the right and lawful decision. This is why an independent intersectoral body of state control (supervision) is needed.

This article is devoted to the study of the problems of interaction of law enforcement agencies in the field of countering modern security threats. In this connection, it justifies the need to create a mechanism for the joint operation of security and security elements of the law enforcement system through the prism of the main trends of law enforcement policy, allowing to draw conclusions about how the features of this process affect the quality of law enforcement. At the same time, the influence of the features of the law enforcement mechanism is connected with the minimization of its costs on the effectiveness of the activities of security agencies at the expense of provisional funds. It is noted that the current stage of development of society is characterized by the transformation of many legal relations, including and law enforcement. However, the use of information technologies by terrorists causes, perhaps, most of all the issues for the resolution of which the forms of interaction of law enforcement agencies that ensure the integration of their activities are proposed. By the example of the problem of countering telephone terrorism with the use of modern technical achievements, the importance of the integrated interaction of law enforcement units, which the author regards as a tool to increase the effectiveness of law enforcement, is shown. It was noted that objectively existing needs for the integration of the actions of states in the suppression, prevention and punishment of such crimes, lead to the intensification of international cooperation in the designated area. Special attention is paid to the Kaliningrad region because of its autonomy and vulnerability due to its remoteness from the main territory of the country and its environment to states that pose a potential threat to the security of the Russian Federation. The author formulates conclusions on the results of the study.

Aedes aegypti acts as a primary vector of the dengue virus which causes Indonesia to become a dengue-endemic country. Chemical and physical vector control methods to prevent the spread of DHF are considered less effective so that additional biological vector control is needed. The purpose of this paper is to examine the potential ability of catfish predation as Ae. aegypti vector controller. This paper was prepared by reviewing eight Indonesian research journals, eight international research journals, reports and regulations of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia, the website of the World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the University of Florida Entomology and Nematology, and one textbook. The results showed that the predation ability of African sharptooth catfish (Clarias garipenus) was 80.3% greater on average than Cyprinus carpio, Ctenopharyngodon idella, and Oreochromis niloticus as well as the predation ability of Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus) with an average of 79.6%. larger than Anabas testudineus, Oreochromis niloticus, and Poecilia reticulata. Further experimental research to deepen scientific information on the predation ability of various catfish species against Ae. aegypti mosquito larvae are still needed. Cooperation between fields and communities is also needed to prevent the spread of dengue disease properly. Mosquito larvae eating fish belonging to catfish species, namely African sharptooth catfish (Clarias garipenus) and walking catfish (Clarias batrachus) have the potential to be a new biological vector controller because they have very high predation power compared to other mosquito larvae eating fish.

Objective: The goal of this study is to assess the European status in the case of mass casualties regarding legislation, responsibilities of ministries and organizations, education and training, material and equipment, and bottlenecks.Design: A questionnaire answered by 22 of 27 European Union member states and Croatia, Norway, and Switzerland. Results and recommendations of a European expert’s workshop on decontamination of victims of mass casualties.Setting: Ministries and responsible organizations of 22 European Union member states Croatia, Norway, and Switzerland.Subjects: Hazardous chemical agents are a global realistic risk. Therefore it is an important obligation to direct education, service activities and research towards priority concerns of prevention and response in case of an accidental or criminal liberation of toxic chemicals. The most effective procedures to save the life and health of contaminated persons are: (1) The decontamination of chemically contaminated casualties as soon as possible reduces both morbidity and mortality. (2) The removal of clothing as the first stage of the decontamination process reduces the amount of contamination by 75-85 percent. The decontamination in case of a mass casualty incident needs a high number of personnel, personal protection equipment (PPE), a decontamination unit, education and permanent training, and a management of command, communication, and coordination; all these in the shortest time of preparedness, reaction, and cross border nationally and internationally.1Interventions: During the German EU Council Presidency in the first 6 months of 2007 the Federal Ministry of the Interior held a 3 days seminar (Ahrweiler, February 22-24, 2007) on the “Decontamination of Casualties Involved in Incidents with Hazardous Chemical Materials—European Inventory and Perspectives.” The aim was to arrange an exchange of information and experience on the various systems in place in Europe which would be beneficial to all parties concerned. The seminar was organized by the Federal Office of Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance.Main outcome measure: (1) Results of a nine question enquiry, (2) results of four workgroups with the focus on medicine, organization, equipment, and education.Results: In most countries, the medical sector is the weakest part of the integrated approach. Decontamination has two goals: to decontaminate the casualties and to avoid secondary contamination of personnel, equipment, and institutions (hospitals). The most effective method for decontamination is to undress patients as soon as possible. The procedures for undressing, triage, basic life support, etc have to be evidence based by research. Cooperation between MS should be developed including transborder cooperation, designing modules in the framework of the EU Mechanism, and considering reinforcement between MS as precautionary measures, for example, for major international events. Interoperability of equipment is recommended and achievable. Need for European inventory of decontamination units. Need for national stockpiles of antidotes and drugs as well as logistics.Conclusions: The following recommendations were given to the EU Commission: Organize focused experts meetings on the above mentioned subjects. Promote common exercises. Collect and promote best practices by supporting research for evidence-based results. Promote crossborder cooperation and possibly preplanned reinforcements.

Introduction Methods Resuts Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgments Authors' contributions Competing interests Ethical approval References Effect of Methotrexate and Omega-3 Combination on Cytogenetic Changes of Bone Marrow and Some Enzymatic Antioxidants: An Experimental Study Inaam N. Ali1, Muthana M. Awad2, Alaa S. Mahmood2,* 1 Water and Environment Directorate, Ministry of Sciences and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq 2 Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Anbar, Anbar, Iraq * Corresponding author: A. S. Mahmood (alaashm91@gmail.com) Abstract: Objective: To assess the effect of methotrexate and omega-3 combination on cytogenetic changes of bone marrow and activities of some enzymatic antioxidants. Methods: Fifty-six mature male Wistar rats were divided into two experimental groups and a control group. The first experimental group was sub-divided into three sub-groups depending on the concentration of methotrexate (MTX): X1 (0.05 mg/kg MTX), X2 (0.125 mg/kg MTX) and X3 (0.250 mg/kg MTX), which were given intraperitoneally on a weekly basis for eight weeks. The second experimental group (MTX and omega-3 group) was also sub-divided into three sub-groups (Y1, Y2 and Y3), which were injected intraperitoneally with 0.05, 0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg MTX, respectively, weekly for eight weeks accompanied by the oral administration of 300 mg/kg omega-3. The rats of the control group were given distilled water. The enzymatic activity of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GR) were measured in the sera of rats. In addition, the mitotic index (MI) and chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow were also studied. Results: MTX resulted in a significant decrease in the activities of CAT, SOD and GR compared to the controls. It also increased the MI and chromosomal aberrations of rat bone marrows. On the other hand, omega-3 significantly increased the activities of the investigated enzymatic antioxidants and reduced the MI and chromosomal aberrations in treated mice when given in combination with MTX. Conclusions: MTX has a genotoxic effect on the bone marrow by increasing the MI and all types of chromosomal aberrations and decreasing the enzymatic activity of CAT, SOD and GR. The addition of omega-3 can lead to a protective effect by reducing the toxic and mutagenic effects of MTX. Keywords: Methotrexate, Omega-3, Antioxidant, Wistar rat, Chromosomal aberration, Mitotic index 1. Introduction Methotrexate (MTX) is a folic acid antagonist because of their chemical similarity [1]. Vezmar et al. [2] showed that MTX affects the synthesis of nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) by interfering with the biosynthesis of thymine and purines. It also directly affects the rapidly dividing and intact cells, especially those in the mucous membranes of the mouth, intestine and bone marrow [3]. Omega-3 is a type of unsaturated fats, which are classified as essential fatty acids that cannot be manufactured by the body and should be taken with food [4]. Sources of omega-3 include fish oils, such as salmon, sardines and tuna, as well as soybeans, walnuts, raisins and linseed, almonds and olive oils [5]. Omega-3 is used in the prevention of a number of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, asthma, atherosclerosis, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [6]. A large amount of evidence indicates that omega-3 fatty acids have significant health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties besides their effect on blood cholesterol levels [7]. Antioxidants retard the oxidation process by different mechanisms such as the removal of free radicals [8]. Enzymatic antioxidants include catalase (CAT), which is the first line of defense in the cell that removes hydrogen peroxide formed during biological processes by converting it into an aldehyde, and superoxide dismutase (SOD). There are three major families of SOD enzymes: manganese SOD (Mn-SOD) in the mitochondria and peroxisomes, iron SOD (Fe-SOD) in prokaryote cells and copper/zinc SOD (Cu-Zn SOD) in the cytoplasm of eukaryote cells [9]. Therefore, changes in the metal co-factors (manganese, iron, copper and zinc) can alter the effectiveness of SOD and may lead to diseases as a result of oxidative stress [10]. Glutathione reductase (GR) is also an enzymatic antioxidant that converts the oxidized glutathione to the reduced glutathione in the presence of NADPH, which is oxidized to NADP [11]. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess the effects of MTX and omega-3 on the cytogenetic changes of bone marrow as well as the activities of CAT, SOD and GR enzymatic antioxidants in male rats. 2. Method 2.1. Laboratory animals and experimental design Fifty-six mature male Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus), aged 10–12 weeks old and weighing 250–300 gm, were used in the present study. The rats were kept in separate cages, with natural 13- hour light and 11-hour dark periods in a contamination-free environment with a controlled temperature (28.0 ± 1.0°C). In addition, rats were maintained on a standard diet and tap water ad libitum. The rats were randomly allocated to two experimental groups and a control group. The first experimental group (MTX group) included 24 rats injected intraperitoneally with different MTX dilutions with distilled water [12]. It was sub-divided into three sub-groups (eight rats per sub-group) according to MTX concentration as follows: X1 (0.05 mg/kg MTX), X2 (0.125mg/kg MTX) and X3 (0.25 mg/kg MTX). All rats were given a single dose of the specified MTX concentration weekly for eight weeks. The second experimental group (MTX and omega-3 group) included 24 rats allocated to three sub-groups (Y1, Y2 and Y3), which were injected intraperitoneally with 0.05, 0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg MTX, respectively, weekly for eight weeks accompanied by the oral administration of 300 mg/kg omega-3. The control group included eight rats that were intraperitoneally injected with distilled water and given a single dose of distilled water orally weekly for eight weeks. 2.2. Blood collection and processing After the end of the dosing period, 5 ml of blood were withdrawn from the heart (by cardiac puncture) using a 5 cc disposable syringe. The collected blood was immediately poured into a clean sterile screw-capped tube (plain tube) and left for coagulation in a water bath at 37°C for 15 minutes. After coagulation of blood, the plain tube was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 1500 rpm. Then the samples were stored at -20°C for subsequent analysis. 2.3. Measurement of the activity of antioxidant enzymes The antioxidant activities of CAT, SOD and GR were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits purchased from Kamiya Biomedical Company (Seattle, WA, US), according to the manufacturer's instructions. 2.4. Cytogenetic study of bone marrow Rats were killed by cervical dislocation, and their hip bones were cleaned from surrounding muscles and then dissected by cutting both ends of the bone. Five milliliters of physiological buffered saline were injected inside the bone to withdraw bone marrow into a test tube. Tubes were centrifuged at 2000 rpm/10 minutes. The supernatant was then removed, and 10 ml of KCL solution (0.075 M) were added to the sediment. The mixture was then incubated at 37 °C in a water bath for 30 minutes, with shaking from time to time. The tubes were then centrifuged at 2000rpm/10 minutes to remove the supernatant. However, 5 ml of a freshly prepared fixative solution (methanol: glacial acetic acid 1:3) were added gradually in the form of droplets into the inner wall of the tube with constant mixing. After that, the tubes were placed at 4 °C for half an hour to fix the cells. This process was repeated for three times, and the cells were then suspended in 2 ml of the fixative solution. The tubes were centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes, and the supernatant was then removed while the cells were re-suspended in 1-2 ml of cold fixative solution. After shaking the tubes, 4–5 drops were then taken from each tube onto a clean slide from a height of about three feet to provide an opportunity for the cells and nuclei to spread well. The slides were stained with acridine orange solution (0.01%) for 4–5 minutes, incubated in Sorensen’s buffer (0.06M, pH 6.5) for a minute. and then examined using a fluorescence microscope Olympus BX 51 America at a wavelength of 450–500 nm [13, 14]. A total of 1000 cells were examined, and both dividing and non-dividing cells were calculated [13]. Mitotic index (MI) was calculated according to the following formula [13]: MI= No. of dividing cells / 1000 × 100 2.5. Analysis of chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells A total of 1000 dividing cells were examined on the stained slides under a fluorescence microscope at a wavelength of 45–500 nm. The examined cells were at the first metaphase of the mitotic division, where chromosomal aberrations are clear and can be easily seen [13]. 2.6. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS®) software, version 9.1 (Cary, NC, USA) [15]. Effects were expressed as mean ± standard error (SE) and statistically compared using a completely randomized design analysis of variance and least significant differences. Differences at P values <5 were considered statistically significant. 3. Results 3.1. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on antioxidant enzymatic activities Table (1) shows significantly lower SOD activities among rats treated with MTX or MTX-omega-3 compared to controls. Moreover, sera of rats receiving relatively high doses of MTX (sub-groups X2 and X3) showed the lowest enzymatic activities of 4.29 ± 0.01 IU and 3.93 ± 0.11 IU, respectively. On the other hand, CAT activity differed significantly between treated and control rats as well as among treated rats themselves, In this respect, the controls showed the highest activity of 39.38 ±0.02 IU, while those receiving the highest MTX concentration, either alone or in combination with omega-3 (sub-groups X3 and Y3), showed the lowest activities of 30.97 ± 0.03 IU and 32.12± 0.06 IU, respectively. Regarding GR activity, control rats showed a higher activity of 53.09± 0.05 IU compared to treated ones; however, the differences in GR activities in rats given low doses of MTX, either alone or in combination with omega-3 (sub-groups X1 and Y1), were not statistically significant. On the other hand, rats in sub-groups X3 and Y3 showed the lowest GR activities of 34.59 ± 0.63 IU and 37.15 ±0.01, respectively, with statistically significant differences from other sub-groups. 3.2. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on mitotic index of bone marrow cells Figure (1) shows a significant decrease in the MI in all treated groups compared to control. In addition, there was a reverse association between MTX concentration and MI, where rats treated with the highest dose of MTX (sub-group X3) showed a significant decrease in MI compared to all other treated rat sub-groups. In addition, rats in sub-groups treated with MTX and omega-3 (sub-groups Y1, Y2 and Y3) showed a significant increase in MI compared to their counterpart rats receiving MTX only. Table 1. Activity of antioxidant enzymes in rats treated with MTX and MTX-omega-3 Group Enzymatic activity (mean± SE) SOD (IU) CAT (IU) GR (µmol) Control 6.41±0.02 a 39.38±0.02 a 53.09±0.05 a X1 (0.05 mg MTX/ kg) 5.33±0.01 b 37.81±0.01 c 51.12±0.06 a Y1 (0.05 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 6.08±0.04 a 38.40±0.02 b 51.97±0.03 a X2 (0.125 mg MTX/ kg) 4.29±0.01 cd 33.13±0.01 e 42.34±0.03 b Y2 (0.125 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 4.99±0.40 b 36.68±0.02 d 43.02±3.04 b X3 (0.25 mg MTX/ kg) 3.93±0.11 d 30.97±0.03 g 34.59±0.63 c Y3 (0.25 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 4.47±0.02 c 32.12±0.06 f 37.15±0.01 c SE, Standard error; IU, international unit; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; GR, glutathione reductase; *statistically significant at P < 0.05; **statistically significant at P < 0.01. Means with different letters within the same column showed a statistically significant difference. 3.3. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells Rats receiving higher concentrations of MTX (sub-group X3) showed a significant increase in all types of chromosomal aberrations, i.e., chromatid gaps, chromosome gaps, chromatid breaks, chromosome breaks, deletions and simple fragments (Figure 2 and Table 2) than those of the control group or other treated sub-groups. All rats treated with MTX-omega-3 combination showed a significant decrease in almost all types of chromosomal aberrations compared to their counterpart rats receiving MTX alone (Table 2). Figure 1. Effect of MTX and MTX-omega-3 on the MI of bone marrow cells of treated rats compared to the controls. The groups X1 (0.05 MTX), X2 (0.125 MTX) and X3 (0.250 MTX) were compared to the control group, while the groups Y1 (0.05 MTX+ omega-3), Y2 (0.125 MTX+ omega-3) and Y3 (0.25 MTX+ omega-3) were compared to X1, X2 and X3, respectively. Figure 2. Effect of MTX and MTX-omega-3 on chromosomal aberration as seen under fluorescence microscope after staining with acridine orange: (1) a simple fragment; (2) a chromatid gap; (3) a chromosomal gap (A) and a chromosomal break (B). 4. Discussion The present experiment reveals that the addition of omega-3 to MTX alleviates its effects on the activities of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD and GR, and decreases the MI as well as all types of chromosomal aberrations in the bone marrow cells. Daham et al. [16] showed that the decline in antioxidants associated with chemotherapy is attributed to the increase in lipid peroxidation caused by these kinds of drugs, which increase the level of free radicals. In addition, Weijl et al. [17] showed that some chemotherapeutic drugs have a negative effect on the antioxidant levels such as GR, whose activity decreases as a result of its involvement in many cellular processes such as cell defenses against the toxicity of some compounds. Al-Dalawy et al. [18] found that the decrease in the level of SOD is an evidence of its increased activity due to the increased release of free radicals. MTX causes an increase in the release of free radicals, including the OH radical that causes direct damage to DNA [16]. Al-Helaly [19] showed that the amount of food taken has an effect on antioxidants, where nutritional deficiency decreases the antioxidant levels, thus increasing free radicals that cause damage to DNA. Table 2. Chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells in rats treated with MTX and MTX-omega-3 Group Type of chromosomal aberration(mean ± SE) Chromatid gap Chromosome Gap Chromatid breaks Chromosome breaks Deletion Simple Fragments Chromosomal aberration (%) Control 1.33±0.33 e 0.00±0.00 e 1.67±0.33 c 0.33±0.15 c 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.33 cd 0.04±0.005 f X1 2.75±0.47 cd 1.50±0.28 cd 2.50±0.64 bc 1.00±0.41 bc 0.50±0.28 bc 0.75±0.25 bcd 0.09±0.02 de Y1 1.75±0.47 de 0.75±0.25 de 1.50±0.28 c 1.00±0.00 bc 0.75±0.25 abc 0.75±0.25 abc 0.065±0.005 ef X2 4.67±0.33 b 2.67±0.33 ab 2.67±0.33 bc 1.67±0.33 ab 0.67±0.33 abc 1.67±0.33 ab 0.14±0.006 bc Y2 3.00±0.00 c 2.00±0.00 bc 3.00±0.057 bc 1.33±0.33 b 0.67±0.33 abc 0.33±0.15 d 0.106±0.003 cd X3 6.80±0.37 a 3.00±0.31 a 4.60±0.74 a 2.40±0.24 a 1.40±0.24 a 1.80±0.37 a 0.20±0.017 a Y3 5.60±0.40 ab 2.40±0.24 ab 3.60±0.24 ab 1.80±0.20 ab 1.20±0.20 ab 1.40±0.24 abc 0.16±0.003 b LSD 1.231** 0.814** 0.602** 0.841** 0.774* 0.941** 3.499* SE, Standard error; * statistically significant at P < 0.05; ** statistically significant at P < 0.01. Means with different letters within the same column showed a statistically significant difference. X1 (0.05 mg MTX/ kg); X2 (0.125 mg MTX/ kg); X3 (0.25 mg MTX/ kg); Y1 (0.05 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg); Y2 (0.125 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg); Y3 (0.25 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg). In the present study, the intraperitoneal administration of MTX to rats also caused a decrease in the MI of bone marrow and a significant increase in the rate of abnormal chromosomal aberration compared to the control rats. This finding is consistent with those reported previously [20], [21]. The effect of MTX can be attributed to its ability to interfere with the genetic material, leading to the appearance of toxic and mutagenic consequences. Rushworth et al. [22] reported that MTX leads to a lack of dihydrofolate reductase, which is the key to the growth and cell division processes. This, in turn, leads to a reduction of the nucleotides involved in the building of DNA and, therefore, to a stop or obstruction of the repair mechanisms of the damaged DNA. In addition, Wong and Choi [23] concluded that MTX inhibits the action of enzymes controlling the purine metabolism, which leads to the accumulation of adenosine in addition to the damage of the molecule itself and to the occurrence of chromosomal aberrations. Jafer et al. [24] reported the ability of MTX to induce chromosomal aberration in humans or animals by preventing the repair of DNA and affecting the proteins found in chromosomes. These findings were also confirmed by Hussain et al. [25], who found that MTX causes an increase in chromosomal aberrations. In the present study, the MI showed a significant increase in rat sub-groups treated with MTX-omega-3 combination, but there was a decrease in the rate of chromosomal aberration, which confirms the role of omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids in protecting the cell from the impact of free radicals [26], [27]. Attia and Nasr [28] reported the antioxidant effect of omega-3, which was attributed to the reduction in lipid peroxidation and the increase in SOD and CAT or the stimulation of GR. It is noteworthy that GR leads to the synthesis of reduced glutathione, which is important in the defense of the cell against toxic substances and the prevention of the occurrence of mutations [29]. 5. Conclusions MTX significantly decreases the activity of enzymatic antioxidants, reduce the MI and increase the chromosomal aberrations of all types in bone marrow. This gives further evidence on the genotoxic effects of MTX on the bone marrow. On the other hand, omega-3 shows a protective effect by reducing the toxic and mutagenic effects of MTX. Acknowledgments The authors thank the staff of the Water and Environment Directorate, Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq for their cooperation. They also thank Dr. Jasim Al-Niami for his technical and scientific guidance. Authors' contributions INA, MMA and ASM contributed to the study design and analyzed data. All authors contributed to the manuscript drafting and revising and approved the final submission. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests associated with this article. Ethical approval The ethical clearance of this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the College of Science, University of Anbar (Reference No. A. D. 51 in 30/8/2015). References Yuen CW, Winter ME. Methotrexate (MTX). In: Basic clinical pharmacokinetics, Winter ME, editor. Philadelphia, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010. p.p. 304–25. 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Introduction Methods Resuts Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgments Authors' contributions Competing interests Ethical approval References Effect of Methotrexate and Omega-3 Combination on Cytogenetic Changes of Bone Marrow and Some Enzymatic Antioxidants: An Experimental Study Inaam N. Ali1, Muthana M. Awad2, Alaa S. Mahmood2,* 1 Water and Environment Directorate, Ministry of Sciences and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq 2 Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Anbar, Anbar, Iraq * Corresponding author: A. S. Mahmood (alaashm91@gmail.com) Abstract: Objective: To assess the effect of methotrexate and omega-3 combination on cytogenetic changes of bone marrow and activities of some enzymatic antioxidants. Methods: Fifty-six mature male Wistar rats were divided into two experimental groups and a control group. The first experimental group was sub-divided into three sub-groups depending on the concentration of methotrexate (MTX): X1 (0.05 mg/kg MTX), X2 (0.125 mg/kg MTX) and X3 (0.250 mg/kg MTX), which were given intraperitoneally on a weekly basis for eight weeks. The second experimental group (MTX and omega-3 group) was also sub-divided into three sub-groups (Y1, Y2 and Y3), which were injected intraperitoneally with 0.05, 0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg MTX, respectively, weekly for eight weeks accompanied by the oral administration of 300 mg/kg omega-3. The rats of the control group were given distilled water. The enzymatic activity of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GR) were measured in the sera of rats. In addition, the mitotic index (MI) and chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow were also studied. Results: MTX resulted in a significant decrease in the activities of CAT, SOD and GR compared to the controls. It also increased the MI and chromosomal aberrations of rat bone marrows. On the other hand, omega-3 significantly increased the activities of the investigated enzymatic antioxidants and reduced the MI and chromosomal aberrations in treated mice when given in combination with MTX. Conclusions: MTX has a genotoxic effect on the bone marrow by increasing the MI and all types of chromosomal aberrations and decreasing the enzymatic activity of CAT, SOD and GR. The addition of omega-3 can lead to a protective effect by reducing the toxic and mutagenic effects of MTX. Keywords: Methotrexate, Omega-3, Antioxidant, Wistar rat, Chromosomal aberration, Mitotic index 1. Introduction Methotrexate (MTX) is a folic acid antagonist because of their chemical similarity [1]. Vezmar et al. [2] showed that MTX affects the synthesis of nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) by interfering with the biosynthesis of thymine and purines. It also directly affects the rapidly dividing and intact cells, especially those in the mucous membranes of the mouth, intestine and bone marrow [3]. Omega-3 is a type of unsaturated fats, which are classified as essential fatty acids that cannot be manufactured by the body and should be taken with food [4]. Sources of omega-3 include fish oils, such as salmon, sardines and tuna, as well as soybeans, walnuts, raisins and linseed, almonds and olive oils [5]. Omega-3 is used in the prevention of a number of diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, asthma, atherosclerosis, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [6]. A large amount of evidence indicates that omega-3 fatty acids have significant health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties besides their effect on blood cholesterol levels [7]. Antioxidants retard the oxidation process by different mechanisms such as the removal of free radicals [8]. Enzymatic antioxidants include catalase (CAT), which is the first line of defense in the cell that removes hydrogen peroxide formed during biological processes by converting it into an aldehyde, and superoxide dismutase (SOD). There are three major families of SOD enzymes: manganese SOD (Mn-SOD) in the mitochondria and peroxisomes, iron SOD (Fe-SOD) in prokaryote cells and copper/zinc SOD (Cu-Zn SOD) in the cytoplasm of eukaryote cells [9]. Therefore, changes in the metal co-factors (manganese, iron, copper and zinc) can alter the effectiveness of SOD and may lead to diseases as a result of oxidative stress [10]. Glutathione reductase (GR) is also an enzymatic antioxidant that converts the oxidized glutathione to the reduced glutathione in the presence of NADPH, which is oxidized to NADP [11]. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to assess the effects of MTX and omega-3 on the cytogenetic changes of bone marrow as well as the activities of CAT, SOD and GR enzymatic antioxidants in male rats. 2. Method 2.1. Laboratory animals and experimental design Fifty-six mature male Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus), aged 10–12 weeks old and weighing 250–300 gm, were used in the present study. The rats were kept in separate cages, with natural 13- hour light and 11-hour dark periods in a contamination-free environment with a controlled temperature (28.0 ± 1.0°C). In addition, rats were maintained on a standard diet and tap water ad libitum. The rats were randomly allocated to two experimental groups and a control group. The first experimental group (MTX group) included 24 rats injected intraperitoneally with different MTX dilutions with distilled water [12]. It was sub-divided into three sub-groups (eight rats per sub-group) according to MTX concentration as follows: X1 (0.05 mg/kg MTX), X2 (0.125mg/kg MTX) and X3 (0.25 mg/kg MTX). All rats were given a single dose of the specified MTX concentration weekly for eight weeks. The second experimental group (MTX and omega-3 group) included 24 rats allocated to three sub-groups (Y1, Y2 and Y3), which were injected intraperitoneally with 0.05, 0.125 and 0.25 mg/kg MTX, respectively, weekly for eight weeks accompanied by the oral administration of 300 mg/kg omega-3. The control group included eight rats that were intraperitoneally injected with distilled water and given a single dose of distilled water orally weekly for eight weeks. 2.2. Blood collection and processing After the end of the dosing period, 5 ml of blood were withdrawn from the heart (by cardiac puncture) using a 5 cc disposable syringe. The collected blood was immediately poured into a clean sterile screw-capped tube (plain tube) and left for coagulation in a water bath at 37°C for 15 minutes. After coagulation of blood, the plain tube was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 1500 rpm. Then the samples were stored at -20°C for subsequent analysis. 2.3. Measurement of the activity of antioxidant enzymes The antioxidant activities of CAT, SOD and GR were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits purchased from Kamiya Biomedical Company (Seattle, WA, US), according to the manufacturer's instructions. 2.4. Cytogenetic study of bone marrow Rats were killed by cervical dislocation, and their hip bones were cleaned from surrounding muscles and then dissected by cutting both ends of the bone. Five milliliters of physiological buffered saline were injected inside the bone to withdraw bone marrow into a test tube. Tubes were centrifuged at 2000 rpm/10 minutes. The supernatant was then removed, and 10 ml of KCL solution (0.075 M) were added to the sediment. The mixture was then incubated at 37 °C in a water bath for 30 minutes, with shaking from time to time. The tubes were then centrifuged at 2000rpm/10 minutes to remove the supernatant. However, 5 ml of a freshly prepared fixative solution (methanol: glacial acetic acid 1:3) were added gradually in the form of droplets into the inner wall of the tube with constant mixing. After that, the tubes were placed at 4 °C for half an hour to fix the cells. This process was repeated for three times, and the cells were then suspended in 2 ml of the fixative solution. The tubes were centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes, and the supernatant was then removed while the cells were re-suspended in 1-2 ml of cold fixative solution. After shaking the tubes, 4–5 drops were then taken from each tube onto a clean slide from a height of about three feet to provide an opportunity for the cells and nuclei to spread well. The slides were stained with acridine orange solution (0.01%) for 4–5 minutes, incubated in Sorensen’s buffer (0.06M, pH 6.5) for a minute. and then examined using a fluorescence microscope Olympus BX 51 America at a wavelength of 450–500 nm [13, 14]. A total of 1000 cells were examined, and both dividing and non-dividing cells were calculated [13]. Mitotic index (MI) was calculated according to the following formula [13]: MI= No. of dividing cells / 1000 × 100 2.5. Analysis of chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells A total of 1000 dividing cells were examined on the stained slides under a fluorescence microscope at a wavelength of 45–500 nm. The examined cells were at the first metaphase of the mitotic division, where chromosomal aberrations are clear and can be easily seen [13]. 2.6. Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS®) software, version 9.1 (Cary, NC, USA) [15]. Effects were expressed as mean ± standard error (SE) and statistically compared using a completely randomized design analysis of variance and least significant differences. Differences at P values <5 were considered statistically significant. 3. Results 3.1. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on antioxidant enzymatic activities Table (1) shows significantly lower SOD activities among rats treated with MTX or MTX-omega-3 compared to controls. Moreover, sera of rats receiving relatively high doses of MTX (sub-groups X2 and X3) showed the lowest enzymatic activities of 4.29 ± 0.01 IU and 3.93 ± 0.11 IU, respectively. On the other hand, CAT activity differed significantly between treated and control rats as well as among treated rats themselves, In this respect, the controls showed the highest activity of 39.38 ±0.02 IU, while those receiving the highest MTX concentration, either alone or in combination with omega-3 (sub-groups X3 and Y3), showed the lowest activities of 30.97 ± 0.03 IU and 32.12± 0.06 IU, respectively. Regarding GR activity, control rats showed a higher activity of 53.09± 0.05 IU compared to treated ones; however, the differences in GR activities in rats given low doses of MTX, either alone or in combination with omega-3 (sub-groups X1 and Y1), were not statistically significant. On the other hand, rats in sub-groups X3 and Y3 showed the lowest GR activities of 34.59 ± 0.63 IU and 37.15 ±0.01, respectively, with statistically significant differences from other sub-groups. 3.2. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on mitotic index of bone marrow cells Figure (1) shows a significant decrease in the MI in all treated groups compared to control. In addition, there was a reverse association between MTX concentration and MI, where rats treated with the highest dose of MTX (sub-group X3) showed a significant decrease in MI compared to all other treated rat sub-groups. In addition, rats in sub-groups treated with MTX and omega-3 (sub-groups Y1, Y2 and Y3) showed a significant increase in MI compared to their counterpart rats receiving MTX only. Table 1. Activity of antioxidant enzymes in rats treated with MTX and MTX-omega-3 Group Enzymatic activity (mean± SE) SOD (IU) CAT (IU) GR (µmol) Control 6.41±0.02 a 39.38±0.02 a 53.09±0.05 a X1 (0.05 mg MTX/ kg) 5.33±0.01 b 37.81±0.01 c 51.12±0.06 a Y1 (0.05 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 6.08±0.04 a 38.40±0.02 b 51.97±0.03 a X2 (0.125 mg MTX/ kg) 4.29±0.01 cd 33.13±0.01 e 42.34±0.03 b Y2 (0.125 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 4.99±0.40 b 36.68±0.02 d 43.02±3.04 b X3 (0.25 mg MTX/ kg) 3.93±0.11 d 30.97±0.03 g 34.59±0.63 c Y3 (0.25 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg) 4.47±0.02 c 32.12±0.06 f 37.15±0.01 c SE, Standard error; IU, international unit; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; GR, glutathione reductase; *statistically significant at P < 0.05; **statistically significant at P < 0.01. Means with different letters within the same column showed a statistically significant difference. 3.3. Effects of MTX and MTX-omega-3 combination on chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells Rats receiving higher concentrations of MTX (sub-group X3) showed a significant increase in all types of chromosomal aberrations, i.e., chromatid gaps, chromosome gaps, chromatid breaks, chromosome breaks, deletions and simple fragments (Figure 2 and Table 2) than those of the control group or other treated sub-groups. All rats treated with MTX-omega-3 combination showed a significant decrease in almost all types of chromosomal aberrations compared to their counterpart rats receiving MTX alone (Table 2). Figure 1. Effect of MTX and MTX-omega-3 on the MI of bone marrow cells of treated rats compared to the controls. The groups X1 (0.05 MTX), X2 (0.125 MTX) and X3 (0.250 MTX) were compared to the control group, while the groups Y1 (0.05 MTX+ omega-3), Y2 (0.125 MTX+ omega-3) and Y3 (0.25 MTX+ omega-3) were compared to X1, X2 and X3, respectively. Figure 2. Effect of MTX and MTX-omega-3 on chromosomal aberration as seen under fluorescence microscope after staining with acridine orange: (1) a simple fragment; (2) a chromatid gap; (3) a chromosomal gap (A) and a chromosomal break (B). 4. Discussion The present experiment reveals that the addition of omega-3 to MTX alleviates its effects on the activities of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD and GR, and decreases the MI as well as all types of chromosomal aberrations in the bone marrow cells. Daham et al. [16] showed that the decline in antioxidants associated with chemotherapy is attributed to the increase in lipid peroxidation caused by these kinds of drugs, which increase the level of free radicals. In addition, Weijl et al. [17] showed that some chemotherapeutic drugs have a negative effect on the antioxidant levels such as GR, whose activity decreases as a result of its involvement in many cellular processes such as cell defenses against the toxicity of some compounds. Al-Dalawy et al. [18] found that the decrease in the level of SOD is an evidence of its increased activity due to the increased release of free radicals. MTX causes an increase in the release of free radicals, including the OH radical that causes direct damage to DNA [16]. Al-Helaly [19] showed that the amount of food taken has an effect on antioxidants, where nutritional deficiency decreases the antioxidant levels, thus increasing free radicals that cause damage to DNA. Table 2. Chromosomal aberrations of bone marrow cells in rats treated with MTX and MTX-omega-3 Group Type of chromosomal aberration(mean ± SE) Chromatid gap Chromosome Gap Chromatid breaks Chromosome breaks Deletion Simple Fragments Chromosomal aberration (%) Control 1.33±0.33 e 0.00±0.00 e 1.67±0.33 c 0.33±0.15 c 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.33 cd 0.04±0.005 f X1 2.75±0.47 cd 1.50±0.28 cd 2.50±0.64 bc 1.00±0.41 bc 0.50±0.28 bc 0.75±0.25 bcd 0.09±0.02 de Y1 1.75±0.47 de 0.75±0.25 de 1.50±0.28 c 1.00±0.00 bc 0.75±0.25 abc 0.75±0.25 abc 0.065±0.005 ef X2 4.67±0.33 b 2.67±0.33 ab 2.67±0.33 bc 1.67±0.33 ab 0.67±0.33 abc 1.67±0.33 ab 0.14±0.006 bc Y2 3.00±0.00 c 2.00±0.00 bc 3.00±0.057 bc 1.33±0.33 b 0.67±0.33 abc 0.33±0.15 d 0.106±0.003 cd X3 6.80±0.37 a 3.00±0.31 a 4.60±0.74 a 2.40±0.24 a 1.40±0.24 a 1.80±0.37 a 0.20±0.017 a Y3 5.60±0.40 ab 2.40±0.24 ab 3.60±0.24 ab 1.80±0.20 ab 1.20±0.20 ab 1.40±0.24 abc 0.16±0.003 b LSD 1.231** 0.814** 0.602** 0.841** 0.774* 0.941** 3.499* SE, Standard error; * statistically significant at P < 0.05; ** statistically significant at P < 0.01. Means with different letters within the same column showed a statistically significant difference. X1 (0.05 mg MTX/ kg); X2 (0.125 mg MTX/ kg); X3 (0.25 mg MTX/ kg); Y1 (0.05 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg); Y2 (0.125 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg); Y3 (0.25 mg MTX + 300 mg omega-3/ kg). In the present study, the intraperitoneal administration of MTX to rats also caused a decrease in the MI of bone marrow and a significant increase in the rate of abnormal chromosomal aberration compared to the control rats. This finding is consistent with those reported previously [20], [21]. The effect of MTX can be attributed to its ability to interfere with the genetic material, leading to the appearance of toxic and mutagenic consequences. Rushworth et al. [22] reported that MTX leads to a lack of dihydrofolate reductase, which is the key to the growth and cell division processes. This, in turn, leads to a reduction of the nucleotides involved in the building of DNA and, therefore, to a stop or obstruction of the repair mechanisms of the damaged DNA. In addition, Wong and Choi [23] concluded that MTX inhibits the action of enzymes controlling the purine metabolism, which leads to the accumulation of adenosine in addition to the damage of the molecule itself and to the occurrence of chromosomal aberrations. Jafer et al. [24] reported the ability of MTX to induce chromosomal aberration in humans or animals by preventing the repair of DNA and affecting the proteins found in chromosomes. These findings were also confirmed by Hussain et al. [25], who found that MTX causes an increase in chromosomal aberrations. In the present study, the MI showed a significant increase in rat sub-groups treated with MTX-omega-3 combination, but there was a decrease in the rate of chromosomal aberration, which confirms the role of omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids in protecting the cell from the impact of free radicals [26], [27]. Attia and Nasr [28] reported the antioxidant effect of omega-3, which was attributed to the reduction in lipid peroxidation and the increase in SOD and CAT or the stimulation of GR. It is noteworthy that GR leads to the synthesis of reduced glutathione, which is important in the defense of the cell against toxic substances and the prevention of the occurrence of mutations [29]. 5. Conclusions MTX significantly decreases the activity of enzymatic antioxidants, reduce the MI and increase the chromosomal aberrations of all types in bone marrow. This gives further evidence on the genotoxic effects of MTX on the bone marrow. On the other hand, omega-3 shows a protective effect by reducing the toxic and mutagenic effects of MTX. Acknowledgments The authors thank the staff of the Water and Environment Directorate, Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad, Iraq for their cooperation. They also thank Dr. Jasim Al-Niami for his technical and scientific guidance. Authors' contributions INA, MMA and ASM contributed to the study design and analyzed data. All authors contributed to the manuscript drafting and revising and approved the final submission. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests associated with this article. Ethical approval The ethical clearance of this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the College of Science, University of Anbar (Reference No. A. D. 51 in 30/8/2015). References Yuen CW, Winter ME. Methotrexate (MTX). In: Basic clinical pharmacokinetics, Winter ME, editor. Philadelphia, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010. p.p. 304–25. 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Ghana has significantly improved its nuclear security infrastructure over the years. However, as threats increase by the day and new applications of nuclear and radiological technology are designed and implemented, Ghana must develop a rigid and comprehensive approach to mitigating the negative impacts on its nuclear security while improving prevention, detection, and deterrence of nuclear and radiological terrorism within its geographical space. This paper overviews the approaches adopted by Ghana to build a strong nuclear security regime within the past decade. These include improving legal frameworks for nuclear security by establishing an independent Nuclear Regulatory Authority; assessing nuclear security culture in facilities; strengthening nuclear security capabilities at facilities that hold radioactive materials by improving physical protection systems for deterrence and detection; and building strong and effective collaboration and cooperation with various stakeholders, both locally and internationally, to distribute responsibility and provide technical and logistic support to build a stronger nuclear security regime. Ghana also identified developments in human capacity in areas of nuclear security as a relevant approach to improving its nuclear security and has thus collaborated with the IAEA and the University of Ghana to establish a graduate school for training Ghanaians and Africans in nuclear-related disciplines.

AbstractIn the aftermath of the deadly attacks occurred in France at the beginning of 2015 the European Union has faced an unprecedented wave of terrorism which has led to the adoption of new measures set up to counter the increasing risk of further offences. Terrorism is not new on the EU agenda, in particular since 2001. Several EU Member States have been directly involved in the US “war on terror”, triggered by the 9/11 attacks. In the following years the tragic events occurred in Madrid and London have urged the EU to design a comprehensive counter-terrorism strategy, which is based on four pillars i. e. prevention, protection, pursuit and response. The terrorist attacks carried out in January 2015 have marked the beginning of a new era in the struggle against terrorism and have prompted the adoption of a new policy, based on enhancing citizens’ security, prevention and international cooperation, which added an additional layer to the EU strategy already in place. Despite the immediate response, a few months later Paris and the whole Europe have suffered from an even more dreadful attack, which led to question the effectiveness of the newly adopted approach. In light of the current developments, this contribution has a twofold purpose.

The article considers the characteristics of international terrorism as a phenomenon that requires joint efforts at the regional and supranational levels in political, social, economic, legal, ideological and other aspects, its causes and consequences, approaches to classification. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of existing problems of international regional security caused by terrorism, as well as the features of combating it on the example of the EU and the SCO. Scientific, official, historical sources of information were used in the research. The subject is the components of the strategy to combat international terrorism on the example of two regional international organizations, the EU and the SCO. The goal of the article is to determine the features and priorities of the fight against international terrorism at the regional level, their effectiveness and shortcomings on the basis of a comprehensive study of the features of the phenomenon. The objective is to analyze official sources on methods of combating international terrorism on the example of the EU and the SCO, to determine the causes, consequences and priorities for fighting against it. Research methods are comparative analysis, systematization and generalization. The following results were obtained: the main problem of combating international terrorism and its consequences at the regional level was identified, which is primarily related to the uniform content of agreements, statements, decisions, etc., without taking into account the region specifics. In addition, the priority areas of activity of international organizations that need attention have been identified, among them: prevention and cessation of terrorist financing, counteraction to the use of the Internet for terrorist purposes, promotion of cooperation in the fight against terrorism, etc. The conclusions of this work indicate the low efficiency of the organizations and the need to improve the tools of combating international terrorism on the basis of the general problems and priorities mentioned in the article.

Abstract An analysis of existing regulatory frameworks for chemicals reveals a fragmented situation with a number of regulatory frameworks designed for specific groups of chemicals; for protection of different end-points and covering different parts of the chemicals´ life cycle stages. Lack of- and fragmented information on chemicals (properties, use, emissions as well as fate, occurrence and effects in the environment) limit the ability for assessment and early action, and existing legislation would benefit from more transparency and openness of information and knowledge. To achieve harmonisation of existing legislation and an efficient control of chemical contamination of European waters, a solution-focused approach is proposed including increased ambitions (in monitoring, modelling, and risk assessment), cooperation and dialogue. More holistic and efficient development and implementation of existing legislation can be achieved by better cooperation, harmonisation and information exchange between different regulatory frameworks and by improved science–policy interactions. The introduction of an organisational structure and incentives for cooperation are proposed. Cooperation should focus on harmonisation of advanced monitoring activities, modelling, prioritisation, risk assessment and assessment of risk prevention (‘safe by design’) and minimisation options. A process for dialogue and information exchange between existing policy frameworks and with stakeholders (industry, NGO´s, etc.) should be included to identify feasible options for mitigation as well as regulatory gaps—on local and EU-scales. There is also a need to increase international cooperation and strengthen global agreements to cover the full life cycle of chemicals (produced and consumed globally) and for exchanging knowledge and experiences to allow early action. This recommended action would also provide knowledge and a framework for a shift towards a sustainable chemistry approach for chemical safety based on a “safe by design” concept.

Introduction: in the modern world, the models of civilizational development are changing. The authors analyze the transition from a bipolar model of international relations to a unipolar world, the prospects for the emergence of multipolarity, the growth of power centers, the state of the world legal order and its new content, Russia’s position in the world and probable threats, challenges, development of the regulatory framework and the factors determining Russia’s domestic and foreign policy, defense capability of our country and the CSTO countries. In the coming century, the study of the world order is especially important for ensuring national security. The authors draw attention to the key area of interaction between the EU and NATO, highlighting military mobility (the ability to quickly move forces across Europe, if necessary). It is a matter of concern that over the past four years, NATO has invested 2 billion euros in projects that support military mobility. The signing of the declaration of the EU and NATO on further cooperation is a reaction to the changed international situation and to the desire clearly expressed by European leaders to take care of their own defense. In these circumstances, national security becomes an indispensable condition and protector of our country’s development, creating conditions for a dignified and peaceful life for Russian citizens. Methods: in order to improve legal regulation in the area of the world order, the authors identify the approaches aimed to achieving its effectiveness. This applies to the conceptual and categorical instrument, the need to introduce the special subjects on national security in the educational process. Methodological tools of the research are the complex use of activity, system, socio-cultural, civilizational and other approaches involving the ideas and provisions of the theory of state and law, political science and other areas of science. Analysis: the main research aim for the analysis of the global legal order problems is the search for socio-cultural and value-based grounds for the security of the Russian Federation. Results: during the implementation of the security proposals, there appear some difficulties posed by the new types of war (hybrid, soft, diplomatic, trade), international terrorism. Prevention of wars can be based on an effective world order. There arises the need in its deep philosophical and political legal study, with the participation of scientists and practitioners – representatives of the humane, natural, scientific, technical, military and other branches of knowledge.

With this thematic issue the editorial board wishes to commemorate this important anniversary. Our objective was not to discuss military history, for we, as the name says, deal with Contemporary military challenges. However, we cannot avoid mentioning certain military topics and facts, as it is rather difficult to assess what we have learnt from the conflicts in the past one hundred years without examining and presenting the framework of certain events. It has been a long and dynamic century. A lot has been written about this period, especially from the security as well as military and defence aspects. World War One and Two were unexpectedly extensive in political, security, defence, economic, societal, geographical and geopolitical sense. The twentieth century was also marked by two other wars: the Cold War and the fight against terrorism. The latter was gradually renamed into combat against terrorism. In Slovenia, however, we came to an agreement that this area in fact refers to counter terrorism. The aforementioned wars were strongly influenced by developments in various fields, such as technology, informatics, civil engineering, logistics, engineering, aviation, armament, transport and so on. A lot of interesting individuals influenced the course of events in this period. It all started with Gavrilo Princip who fired at the heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand on that fatal Sunday, 28 June 1914. This eventually resulted in Austria-Hungary's decision to attack Serbia. A lot of names found their place on the historical timeline; some of them with a positive and others with a negative connotation. For Slovenians, the best symbol of that time is undoubtedly the first Slovenian General Rudolf Maister, even though some generations never even heard of him in school. The times are changing, and so are our views on certain historical memories and the facts related to them. It is therefore appropriate to remember certain things, persons and events, and it is also appropriate to analyse and to assess them in order to learn from them. Especially with the intent of not repeating that which is seen throughout the eyes of the history as wrongful, bad or harmful to an individual, nations, nature, states and the world. As the answer to our question whether we have learnt anything in the past one hundred years, Uroš Tovornik prepared a paper titled The time of the formation of a new world order, in which he claims that modern security issues originate, in particular, from the decisions adopted at the Versailles Peace Conference and the events that followed. In the conclusion, the author sums up that modern geopolitical situation differs substantially from the one a hundred years ago or, on the other hand, resembles it very much. In her paper Chemical weapons – particularity of World War I or a still imminent danger, Valerija Bernik takes us through the history of the use of different types of chemical weapons. The latter were first tested by the Austro-Hungarian soldiers on the Isonzo Front in combat with their Italian opponents. Further on she presents all efforts the international community invests in the prevention and limitation of the use of chemical weapons as well as in protection against them. It is nowadays difficult to imagine that a Slovenian would voluntarily engage in a war far from their homeland and fight in the region that lies on the border between Romania and Bulgaria. Jože Rozman writes about this particularity in his paper titled Military geographical dimension of Dobrogea and (Slovenian) volunteers in this battlefield in World War I. What was once a territory where severe combats took place, is now an area important for the allied forces combating the crisis in Ukraine. In the paper titled Market Garden – the epic and the tragedy of allied paratrooper units in the Netherlands, Mircea Tănase presents and analyses the mentioned allied operation in World War One in detail, assessing what went according to plans and what went wrong. Tănase concludes the paper by stressing the importance of intelligence both in the present and in the future. Viktor Potočnik writes about Slovenian Armed Forces size and character. A lot has already been written, in general, about how many members and which types of units the Slovenian Armed Forces should have. In this paper, the author confronts us with facts. His overview and the calculations are very simple and transparent. Is there anyone among the readers who does not share his opinion and would be willing to write an article about it? In her paper titled Military medical intelligence with limited resources in the case of small countries, Tanja Kremžar Kovač states that essential to this sub-type of intelligence and security activities is the acquisition of data on medical and environmental hazards and the medical capabilities in the international area in which members of the armed forces are engaged. Integrating her experience in the paper, the author also explains why this is an important topic and how this activity takes place. Maja Garb read the book of Thomas R. Mockaitis Soldiers of Misfortune? and wrote a peer review titled The challenges of military and security contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan. With this issue, we conclude the year of important anniversaries, as we have named the year 2014 at the very beginning. We invite you to write on and read about the topics for which we have prepared an open invitation for articles for 2015, which is published on our website http://www.slovenskavojska.si/en/publications/.