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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Travis, Anthony S., Willem J. Hornix, Robert Bud, and Peter Reed. "The British chemical industry and the indigo trade." British Journal for the History of Science 25, no. 1 (March 1992): 113–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007087400045350.

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Even before the success of William Perkin's mauve at the end of the 1850s, there were attempts to synthesize artificial dyes that were identical with those found in nature. Alizarin, the dye derived from the madder root, was the first to be investigated, and it was Perkin who was to file for a patent in June 1869 just one day before the German chemists Heinrich Caro, Carl Graebe and Carl Liebermann. Rivalry between the parties soon turned to negotiations and collaboration. Perkin's company retained the British trade, while the Germans, in the form of the Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik (BASF) controlled the continental European and United States markets. This and similar agreements extinguished the madder trade, and subsequently artificial alizarin passed almost completely to the Germans. They achieved a monopoly by dictating the level and prices of supplies, which did much to diminish the strength of the dye-making industry in Britain. The formation in 1882–83 of the British Alizarine Company did little to redress the overall balance. This taught British dye firms a tough lesson. The same, they hoped, would not be allowed to happen again, even when the attention of the German research chemists turned to indigo.

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2

Denisenko, K. S. "The performance of the German chemical industry through the prism of geopolitical instability." Mezhdunarodnaja jekonomika (The World Economics), no. 12 (November 30, 2022): 918–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/vne-04-2212-07.

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The aggravated energy crisis caused by rising raw materials’ prices significantly reshapes the global chemical industry. The European Union is the second largest market in terms of turnover, lagging only behind the People’s Republic of China. The EU market is dominated by Germany that occupies the leading position in the industry and determines production standards for the entire European community. The industry faces new challenges as it has not yet completely recovered from COVID-19 pandemic. Growing costs for electricity and resources, disruption of supply chains, logistical delays in semi-processed and basic chemicals’ supply as well as diminishing demand lead to crises that are already traceable in the fi rst half of 2022. A fairly capital-intensive, energy-intensive and export-oriented German chemical industry significantly aff ects adjacent industries such as metallurgy, construction, automobile production, agriculture and healthcare. The given article analyses the current state of the German chemical industry and its positioning on the global markets in the context of geopolitical shifts as well as its adaptation to the rapidly changing conditions. The inability to comply with the strict norms of the European Commission within the framework of the green agenda as well as the insufficiency of energy resources are already forcing companies operating in the industry to take desperate measures and deviate from the original standards. Competition against the rapidly growing Japanese chemical industry in the recent years is forcing Germany to undertake critical measures aimed at protecting its share of the global market. Thus, there is a downward trend in production capacities that has a direct impact on the general state of the industry.

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3

Dumiter, Florin, Florin Turcas, and Anca Opret. "German Tax System: Double Taxation Avoidance Conventions, Structure and Developments." Journal of Legal Studies 16, no. 30 (December 1, 2015): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jles-2015-0006.

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Abstract This paper presents the fundamentals of the tax system in general, the basic elements of a tax system as well as the organization of the German tax system analysis, especially throughout the tax levy and how the taxation typology functions. This theme was chosen in order to expose the principles of German taxation system. With a tumultuous and troubled history, mainly caused by the two World Wars‟ destructions, the German state is considered the „economic locomotive” and a pillar of the European Union. Germany‟s economy is mainly driven by the automotive industry, chemical industry, telecommunications, commerce and agriculture. Of particular importance is the qualitative analysis of conventions for the avoidance of double taxation concluded by Germany; and related implications on fiscal policy. The methodology used in this paper consists of presenting literature derived theories and practical analysis of the German tax system in terms of tax legislation and the evolution of double taxation conventions concluded by Germany with different countries. After the study, the conclusions on the size of the national tax system driven by the example of the German tax system were founded.

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4

Stokes, Raymond G. "Autarky, Ideology, and Technological Lag: The Case of the East German Chemical Industry, 1945–1964." Central European History 28, no. 1 (March 1995): 29–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900011237.

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The ignominious and total collapse of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1989/90 revealed all too clearly the disastrous state of the country's economy, especially in comparison to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). This fact must not, however, be seen in isolation from another, apparently contradictory one: From the beginning to the end of its existence, the GDR was the shining economic and technological star in the communist firmament in Eastern Europe. GDR electronics and optics were crucial to the Soviet space program and to East-bloc military production, which counted among communism's few technological successes. Its chemical and automobile industries were also well regarded in the Eastern bloc and in many developing countries. The GDR's technological prowess—especially when combined with its favored and very lucrative relationship with the FRG—made for a reasonably high standard of living, not just in relation to other countries in the Soviet bloc, but in relation to other industrialized countries as well.

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5

Müller, Philipp. "Sovereignty Trade-Offs between Politics and the Economy: The Deconcentration of IG Farben after 1945." Central European History 55, no. 1 (March 2022): 53–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000893892100176x.

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AbstractThe postwar deconcentration of IG Farben AG shows that the Allied military governments and their German counterparts were anything but united on the extent and form of sovereignty the Federal Republic of Germany should receive. The American plan to divide the corporate enterprise into a large number of individual companies aimed to establish a democratic state independent from the influence of domestic business. By contrast, West German government officials and the business community were convinced that the future sovereignty of the Federal Republic depended on the global competitiveness of large industrial conglomerates. To thwart the American deconcentration plans, they traded off one dimension of sovereignty against the other. Leading members of the West German government accepted delegating the negotiations over the future of IG Farben to business representatives, thereby sharing domestic sovereignty because the delegation promised to maintain a powerful German chemical industry that could support the trade balance of the future West German state. This development contributed to the emergence of a Federal Republic characterized by the close involvement of economic actors in political decision-making. It contained important elements of a post-democratic sovereignty, which is commonly used to describe the development of the late twentieth century.

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6

Hayes, Peter. "Carl Bosch and Carl Krauch: Chemistry and the Political Economy of Germany, 1925–1945." Journal of Economic History 47, no. 2 (June 1987): 353–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700048117.

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Carl Bosch and Carl Krauch, accomplished scientists and prominent executives in the BASF and IG Farben chemical corporations, were drawn together by mutual admiration and common technical interests. In the Nazi era, however, they came to embody competing liberal and nationalist conceptions of German political economy. This article examines their relationship, the reasons for their divergent stances, and their individual contributions to the economic and productive power of the Third Reich. Ironically, Bosch's understanding of his industry, his nation, and scientific progress led him to oppose the Nazis, but also to lay the basis for their recruitment of Krauch and the German chemical industry for their expansionist purposes.

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7

Patton, C. ""Proletarian Protest"?: Skill and Protest in the German Chemical Industry, 1914-1924." Journal of Social History 25, no. 4 (June 1, 1992): 757–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jsh/25.4.757.

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8

Travis, Anthony S. "Science as Receptor of Technology: Paul Ehrlich and the Synthetic Dyestuffs Industry." Science in Context 3, no. 2 (1989): 383–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0269889700000879.

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The ArgumentIn Germany during the 1870s and 1880s a number of important scientific innovations in chemistry and biology emerged that were linked to advances in the new technology of synthetic dyestuffs. In particular, the rapid development of classical organic chemistry was a consequence of programs in which chemists devised new theories and experimental strategies that were applicable to the processes and products of the burgeoning dye factories. Thereafter, the novel products became the means to examine and measure biological systems. This took place as a result of two trends. The first was a move toward diversification in the dye industry – made possible by the extensive range of products – which in turn was stimulated by economic and political conditions. The second was the increasing availability of techniques, substances, and processes used in industry. This made possible a concrete program of introducing the qualitative and quantitative methods of chemistry into the domain of laboratory experimentation on biological materials, thereby realizing the abstract desire to transform cell biology into an exact science.Moreover, the conceptualization of biological systems that emerged from this endeavor leaned heavily on a theory of dye chemistry that indicated which particular arrangements of atoms performed specific functions. This biological modeling used the imagery of chemical structural formulae to transform chemical nuclei and their side chains (substituents) into adequate representations of protoplasmic structure.

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9

Hagen, Antje. "Patents Legislation and German FDI in the British Chemical Industry before 1914." Business History Review 71, no. 3 (1997): 351–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3116077.

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This article analyzes the investments in both manufacturing units and sales subsidiaries by German chemical companies in the United Kingdom prior to 1914. It extends the findings in the existing literature on the subject, as sales subsidiaries have not so far been investigated. In particular, the article focuses on the motives underlying these investments. By building sales subsidiaries, German companies hoped to improve their control over foreign distribution activities and to promote their own brand names. As for the creation of manufacturing outlets, the motives of the companies differed before and after the reform of the British patent law in 1907. Prior to patent law reform, branch plants were set up due to transport cost considerations, resource orientation, or the pursuit of monopoly. Further reasons included restrictions on the use of proprietary technology in the home country and capacity constraints in the home factory. It was only after 1907 that manufacturing units were established to safeguard the companies' British patents. Consequently, the traditionally held notion that it was solely the patent law of 1907 which sparked off German FDI in the British chemical industry needs to be modified.

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10

Voth, H. J. "Opting for Oil. The Political Econonmy of Technological Change in the West German Chemical Industry, 1945-1961." German History 13, no. 2 (April 1, 1995): 279–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/13.2.279.

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11

Patton, Craig D. "Economics, Politics and Labor Protest in the German Inflation: the Tax Strikes of 1920 in the Chemical Industry." Central European History 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 61–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900012796.

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In March 1920 the German Reichstag passed legislation which fundamentally altered the country's tax system. The tax package, known as the Erzberger taxreform after its chief architect, Finance Minister Matthias Erzberger of the Center Party, soughtto stabilize the chaotic financial affairs of the young Weimar Republic. Not unexpectedly, the effort provoked intense opposition from many segments of the population. Resistance to the tax plan was particularly strong among the working class, and when it was implemented in July and August, large-scale protests and strikes occurred in various parts of the country. Although an enormous literature exists on labor problems in the Weimar Republic, the tax protests of 1920 have been largely ignored.

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12

Travis, Anthony S., and Raymond G. Stokes. "Opting for Oil: The Political Economy of Technological Change in the West German Chemical Industry, 1945-1961." Technology and Culture 36, no. 4 (October 1995): 1057. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3106945.

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13

Travis, Anthony S., Willem J. Hornix, Robert Bud, and Ernst Homburg. "The emergence of research laboratories in the dyestuffs industry, 1870–1900." British Journal for the History of Science 25, no. 1 (March 1992): 91–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007087400045349.

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The focus of this paper is the emergence of the research laboratory as an organizational entity within the company structure of industrial firms. The thesis defended is that, after some groundwork by British and French firms, the managements of several of the larger German dye companies set up their own research organizations between the years 1877 and 1883. The analysis of the emergence of the industrial research laboratory in the dyestuffs industry presented here makes clear that both the older study on the subject by John J. Beer and a later paper by Georg Mseyer-Thurow contain some serious defects. Beer, like so many other authors of the 1950s who studied the ‘marriage’ between science and industry during the ‘Second Industrial Revolution’, incorrectly correlates the engagement of university-educated chemists with the rise of industrial research. The appointment of academic chemists by BASF and Hoechst at the end of the 1860s, for instance, was described as ‘the…acquisition of a research staff’. This reveals a misunderstanding of the roles of chemists within the nineteenth-century chemical industry. University-trained personnel were, in fact, working in industry as early as the start of the nineteenth century. However, they were employed as managers, works chemists and analysts, and only exceptionally in research.

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14

Berghahn, V. R. "The German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century, ed. John E. Lesch (Dortrecht/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000; PP.472. NLG 360)." English Historical Review 116, no. 469 (November 1, 2001): 1298–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/116.469.1298.

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15

Pahlow, Louis, and Verena Rassow. "Marktprognosen im Interesse der Strukturpolitik." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 59, no. 2 (November 27, 2018): 343–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2018-0012.

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Abstract The paper focuses on the forming of expectations by regulatory authorities in the case of merger control after 1973, when the German legislator stipulated a decision by its officials on future competition in relevant markets. The regulatory and decision-making behavior of officials is analyzed on the basis of selected merger procedures in the chemical industry, which underwent far-reaching structural change in the 1970s and 1980s. Here, institutionalization processes for overcoming information asymmetries and the formation of market expectations can be diagnosed inside the office as well as inside the firms. Adaptive expectations with regard to current market diagnoses and legal assumptions (“Vermutungstatbestände”) play a significant role for their forecast decisions. The study is based on previously unpublished files of the Federal Cartel Office.

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16

Llopart, Michael. "The French Nitrogen Industry during the Interwar Period: The Ambiguous Relationship between the State and Manufacturers." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 62, no. 1 (April 30, 2021): 191–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2021-0008.

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Abstract At the end of the First World War, the French government seized the opportunity to acquire the chemical processes of the German firm BASF, including the Haber-Bosch process. This patent made it possible to synthesize nitrogen from the air and thus produce nitrogen fertilizers in large quantities. French industrialists, however, refused to acquire these patents, and to make up for this lack of private sector involvement, the French Parliament decided in 1924 to create a national plant (ONIA), which became the first state-owned plant to be exposed to market competition. The intention was for the ONIA to supply the army with nitric acid in times of war, and, in peacetime, to sell fertilizers at the lowest possible prices in order to curb the monopoly of the private industry cartel. The purpose of this article is therefore to study the establishment and organisation of the French market for nitrogen fertilisers during the inter-war period by raising a number of questions about the ambiguous and complex relations between the state and private industry in this strategic sector. Why was the state policy initiated with the ONIA not successful at first? From 1927-1928, once the ONIA was operational, why and how did the public and private players jointly organise the marketing of fertilisers even though their interests were partially divergent? From the economic crisis of the 1930s onwards, how did the regulation of this mixed market evolve and how were public/private tensions overcome? In the French case, why did French producers leave the international cartel very early on in favour of state protectionism? And finally, to what extent can it be said that this “managed economy” framework succeeded in satisfying all the players in the French nitrogen industry?

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17

Voth, H. J. "Book Reviews : Opting for Oil. The Political Economy of Technological Change in the West German Chemical Industry, 1945-1961. By Raymond G. Stokes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1994. viii + 259 pp. 30.00." German History 13, no. 2 (January 1, 1995): 279–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635549501300234.

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18

Brook, Richard. "Geschichte der deutschen Grosschemie (History of the German Chemical Industry). By Walter Teltschik, VCH, Weinheim 1992, XIV, 426 pp., hardcover, DM 58, ISBN 3-527-28 444-3." Advanced Materials 5, no. 9 (September 1993): 688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/adma.19930050927.

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19

Cameron, Rondo. "Opting for Oil: The Political Economy of Technological Change in the West German Chemical Industry, 1945–1961. By Raymond G. Stokes. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1994. Pp. xi + 259. $49.95. ISBN 0-521-45124-8." Central European History 28, no. 1 (March 1995): 114–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900011390.

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20

Perova, M. K. "European trajectory of USА direct investment." Mezhdunarodnaja jekonomika (The World Economics), no. 12 (November 30, 2022): 850–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/vne-04-2212-01.

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The present paper focuses on the U.S. direct investment in European countries. To date Europe attracted 60 % of the total volume of US global investment. These ties become more complex, covering a growing number of different fields of activities. The study of this issue implies the analysis of the modern features of outward FDI fl ows and the main directions of their placement in Europe. New technologies have made noticeable changes in the usual investment pattern. A global presence without significant FDI is becoming the most important trend in the international activities of companies. However, 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act which fi rst turned capital outfl ows negative, and hen resolved the tax liability overhang on overseas assets, which have contributed to a jump in cross-border M&A purchases by United States MNEs. Thus, FDI fl ows have received a powerful impetus, including investment growth opportunities in European countries. The top countries receiving US FDI: аre Great Britain (identical US business conditions), Luxembourg and the Netherlands (minimizing tax bills), Ireland (export platform). France and Germany are also joining these countries. The most important directions in the industrial structure of US FDI are the information, the service sector, the chemical industry, including pharmaceuticals. The increased role of intangible assets forces branches of American companies to increase their attention to R&D. Europe remains one of the most competitive regions in the world in terms of scientific and technical potential.

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21

Onyshchuk, Mykhaylo. "The book industry in Germany." Вісник Книжкової палати, no. 6 (June 24, 2021): 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.36273/2076-9555.2021.6(299).18-26.

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The article analyzes book publishing, book distribution in Germany. Some features and tendencies of development of the German book industry in the modern period are covered. The article analyzes the geography of large publishing centers, shows German publishing houses that have their own history, traditions, market segment, publish books in the relevant field of knowledge, and finally have their own philosophy. Export markets of German books, problems of distribution of editions abroad are considered. Book market segments are highlighted. The role and place of e-book publishing, audiobook sector, e-book are clarified in the general system of the book industry. The features of book distribution, sales volumes of the largest publishers of Germany, specifics of activity of book trade networks are shown.

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22

Overy, R. J. "State and Industry in Germany in the Twentieth Century." German History 12, no. 2 (April 1, 1994): 180–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/12.2.180.

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23

Overy, R. J. "State and Industry in Germany in the Twentieth Century." German History 12, no. 2 (June 1, 1994): 180–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635549401200203.

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24

Deeg, Richard. "Industry and Finance in Germany since Unification." German Politics and Society 28, no. 2 (June 1, 2010): 116–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/gps.2010.280208.

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Since German unification there have been dramatic and highly visible changes in the German financial system and relations between banks and firms in Germany. The traditional Hausbank system has weakened, as securities markets have become more important for both borrowers and savers. The demands of financial investors on how German firms manage themselves have—for better or worse—become increasingly influential in this time. In this article, I advance the thesis that bank-industry relations in Germany became increasingly differentiated, with one set of firms moving into an institutional environment readily characterized as market-based finance. Meanwhile, most German firms remain in a bank-based environment that, while not quite the same as the Hausbank model that prevailed at the time of unification, is still easily recognized as such. These changes in the financial system have had numerous consequences for the German economy, including increased pressure on firms to make greater profits and increased pressure on labor to limit wage gains and make concessions in the interest of corporate competitiveness.

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25

Gutwein, Daniel. "Jewish financiers and industry, 1890–1914: england and Germany." Jewish History 8, no. 1-2 (March 1994): 177–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01915913.

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26

Hüttner, E., and R. Braun. "Chromosomal analysis in workers of the chemical industry in East Germany." Mutation Research/Environmental Mutagenesis and Related Subjects 271, no. 2 (1992): 190–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1161(92)91268-v.

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27

Schmidt, Axel, Dirk Köster, and Jochen Strube. "Climate Neutrality Concepts for the German Chemical–Pharmaceutical Industry." Processes 10, no. 3 (February 25, 2022): 467. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr10030467.

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This paper intends to propose options for climate neutrality concepts by taking non-German international experiences and decisions made into account. Asia-Pacific and Arabic countries do have already same lessons learned by large-scale projects with regard to economic evaluations. Quite a few conceptual studies to generate the climate neutrality of the chemical–pharmaceutical industry in Germany have been published recently. Most of the studies differ even in magnitude but do not refer to or evaluate the other ones. These are all first theoretical feasibility studies. Experimental piloting is not far developed; only few and only stand-alone parts are operated, with no overall concepts. Economic evaluation is missing nearly completely. Economic analysis shows a factor 3 more expensive green technologies. Even if a large optimization potential of about 30% during manufacturing optimization is assumed as significant, cost increases would result. To make green products nevertheless competitive, the approach is to increase the carbon-source cost analogue, e.g., by CO2/ton taxes by around EUR 100, which would lead to about factor 3 higher consumer prices regarding the material amount. Furthermore, some countries would not participate in such increases and would have benefits on the world market. Whether any customs-duties policy could balance that is generally under question. Such increasing costs are not imaginable for any social-political system. Therefore, the only chance to realize consequent climate neutrality is to speed up research on more efficient and economic technologies, including, e.g., reaction intensification technologies such as plasma ionization, catalyst optimization, section coupling to cement, steel and waste combustion branches as well as pinch technology integration and appropriate scheduling. In addition, digital twins and process analytical technologies for consequent process automation would help to decrease costs. All those technologies seem to lead to even less personnel, but who need to be highly educated to deal with complex integrated systems. Research and education/training has to be designed for those scenarios. Germany as a resource-poor country could benefit from its human resources. Germany is and will be an energy importing country.

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28

Konig, Wolfgang. "Science-Based Industry or Industry-Based Science? Electrical Engineering in Germany before World War I." Technology and Culture 37, no. 1 (January 1996): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3107202.

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29

Stokes, Raymond G. "The Oil Industry in Nazi Germany, 1936–1945." Business History Review 59, no. 2 (1985): 254–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3114932.

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The oil industry in Nazi Germany provides an excellent focus for studying the interplay between economics, politics, and government policy in the Third Reich. In this article, Mr. Stokes brings to this subject a comparative approach, making comparisons both within the oil industry and with the industry's major industrial counterparts. He concludes that a variety of factors—including the degree of shared interest between individual firms and the government, the size and concentration of a firm's production facilities, and the political position of key firm personnel—explain the success as well as the eventual collapse of a given industrial sector.

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30

Denisenko, Kristina S. "BREXIT’S EFFECTS ON GERMAN-UK COOPERATION IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY." Russian Economic Journal, no. 4 (August 15, 2022): 48–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.33983/10.33983/0130-9757-2022-4-48-61.

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Europe is the second largest chemicals producer in the world, yield only to the Asian region, where China is the undisputed leading country. The chemical industry is of great importance for both countries and it determines the structure of their economies. In turn, Brexit significantly affected the current dynamics and state of bilateral relations. Fairly long, stable trade and economic relations with Great Britain were of great importance for German business that did not hide its interest in adopting the agreement, which exclude rigorous trade tariffs and barriers. Being the largest EU economy with a clear export orientation, Germany was not ready to lose a huge export market. That is why Germany has made a significant contribution to negotiation process regulating the UK’s exit from the EU and put an effort to reach the consensus among parties concerned. Managing the UK’s departure from the European Union was not an exception from such ambitious program of six-month Germany’s Presidency of the Council of the EU (July–December 2020). Despite the fact that the Agreement on the UK’s withdrawal from the Eropean Union, which formally ended the state’s membership in the EU, had been adopted, a qualitatively new document was required. The Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) was adopted, which determines a new framework for relations between the EU and the UK. The TCA significantly determines the entire spectrum of cooperation areas and includes the new interplay in the chemical industry, including the implementation of REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) regulation. This article focuses on current state of German-UK economic ties and illustrates the role of chemical industry in the economies of both countries as well as points out the countries’ performance in the global industry.

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31

Denisenko, Kristina S. "BREXIT’S EFFECTS ON GERMAN-UK COOPERATION IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY." Russian Economic Journal, no. 4 (August 15, 2022): 48–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.33983/0130-9757-2022-4-48-61.

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Europe is the second largest chemicals producer in the world, yield only to the Asian region, where China is the undisputed leading country. The chemical industry is of great importance for both countries and it determines the structure of their economies. In turn, Brexit significantly affected the current dynamics and state of bilateral relations. Fairly long, stable trade and economic relations with Great Britain were of great importance for German business that did not hide its interest in adopting the agreement, which exclude rigorous trade tariffs and barriers. Being the largest EU economy with a clear export orientation, Germany was not ready to lose a huge export market. That is why Germany has made a significant contribution to negotiation process regulating the UK’s exit from the EU and put an effort to reach the consensus among parties concerned. Managing the UK’s departure from the European Union was not an exception from such ambitious program of six-month Germany’s Presidency of the Council of the EU (July–December 2020). Despite the fact that the Agreement on the UK’s withdrawal from the Eropean Union, which formally ended the state’s membership in the EU, had been adopted, a qualitatively new document was required. The Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) was adopted, which determines a new framework for relations between the EU and the UK. The TCA significantly determines the entire spectrum of cooperation areas and includes the new interplay in the chemical industry, including the implementation of REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) regulation. This article focuses on current state of German-UK economic ties and illustrates the role of chemical industry in the economies of both countries as well as points out the countries’ performance in the global industry.

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32

Bried, Rick. "The Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee [IAS History]." IEEE Industry Applications Magazine 21, no. 1 (January 2015): 74–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mias.2014.2362028.

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33

Freeman, C. "ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY:Innovative History of the Chemical Industry." Science 282, no. 5392 (November 13, 1998): 1273–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5392.1273.

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34

Cook, P. Lesley. "Government and the chemical industry: a comparative study of Britain and West Germany." International Affairs 66, no. 1 (January 1990): 181–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2622241.

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35

Salsbury, Stephen, Graham D. Taylor, and Patricia E. Sudnik. "Du Pont and the International Chemical Industry." Journal of American History 72, no. 3 (December 1985): 672. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1904319.

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Bathelt, H. "Global Competition, International Trade, and Regional Concentration: The Case of the German Chemical Industry during the 1980s." Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 13, no. 4 (December 1995): 395–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/c130395.

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The present transition from a Fordist to a post-Fordist stage of development is characterized by a structural crisis (the crisis of Fordism). Within the industrial sector, this crisis is associated with economic decline (especially in terms of employment) and substantial reorganization and modernization activities. The way in which the spatial patterns of production will be affected is largely unclear. In the case of the German economy, an increasing number of scholars are worried about the threats which might originate from global restructuring processes of industrial activities. In this context, the economic and spatial structure of the German chemical industry will be analyzed in this paper. It will be argued that the recent economic decline of the chemical industry of western Germany is not indicative of a general deindustrialization trend. The chemical industry is, because of its development path, characterized by a strong tendency to concentrate both economically and regionally. Only a few dominant firms, which form the basis for the spatial development of the industry, have retained, and will retain, technological leadership within the industry (particularly Bayer, Hoechst, and BASF). Their allocation of resources between world regions has remained relatively constant over the past twenty years. It seems unlikely that this geographical distribution will be dramatically changed in the near future through cost-induced relocation activities. Location decisions will, rather, be characterized by a distinct market orientation. This does not, however, imply that chemical production will be shifted away from German locations to other chemical core regions. In contrast to the situation in western Germany, the future existence of chemical production in eastern Germany seems questionable. This is not related to the Fordist crisis but is a consequence of remnants from the previous planned economy and problems associated with German unification.

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FISCHER, CONAN. "Scoundrels without a Fatherland? Heavy Industry and Transnationalism in Post-First World War Germany." Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (November 2005): 441–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777305002717.

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Germany's heavy industrial sector played a definitive role from 1870 onwards in the formation and subsequent shaping of the young German national polity. As such it has been identified with the aggressive, imperialistic tendencies that characterised so much of German history between 1870 and 1945. That said, industrial and national interests could diverge markedly, with heavy industry sometimes exhibiting a marked preference for transnational strategies, particularly during 1923 and 1924, when France and Belgium occupied Germany's industrial heartland – the Ruhr District. Resulting efforts to integrate the coal and metallurgical industries of France and Germany anticipated the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community after the Second World War.

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Oertel, Simon, and Kirsten Thommes. "History as a Source of Competitive Advantages: The watchmaking industry in East Germany." Academy of Management Proceedings 2012, no. 1 (July 2012): 13498. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2012.13498abstract.

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Uhl, Alexander, Axel Schmidt, Christoph Jensch, Dirk Köster, and Jochen Strube. "Development of Concepts for a Climate-Neutral Chemical–Pharmaceutical Industry in 2045." Processes 10, no. 7 (June 30, 2022): 1289. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr10071289.

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Global primary energy consumption has increased tenfold over the course of the 20th Century, the availability of non-renewable energy is becoming scarce, and the burning of fossil fuels is leading to global warming. Climate change has now become tangible. The will to act against fossil fuels has become apparent in the western world, and in Germany in particular. This poses a particular challenge for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry, since, in the future, not only will the energy input, but also the feedstock, have to come from non-fossil sources. They must be replaced by carbon capture and utilization, and the exploitation of a circular economy. Concepts for a climate-neutral chemical–pharmaceutical industry have been developed and evaluated. Due to a high predicted consumption of renewable energies and an insufficient expansion of these, Germany will remain an energy importer in the future. The largest consumer in a climate-neutral chemical–pharmaceutical industry will be electrolysis for hydrogen (up to 81%, 553 TWh/a). This can be circumvented by importing green ammonia and cracking. This will require investments of EUR 155 bn. An additional benefit will be increased independence from fossil resource imports, as green ammonia can be produced in a multitude of nations with strong potential for renewable energies and a diversified set of exporting nations.

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SALIKHOVA, Olena, and Daria HONCHARENKO. "DEVELOPMENT POLICY OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY IN GERMANY: LESSONS FOR UKRAINE." Economy of Ukraine 2020, no. 10 (October 25, 2020): 63–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/economyukr.2020.10.063.

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The evolution of the development of the German chemical and pharmaceutical industry from technology borrowing to endogenous innovations and becoming a global leader is shown. It is substantiated that the government of the country promoted the development of a new industry by increasing budget allocations for the training of scientific and industrial personnel; research subsidies; subsidies for transportation and raw materials. It is shown that the formation of large companies has provided economies of scale and accelerated development. The creation of specialized research institutes under the auspices of the government initiated public-private partnerships in research funding, industry associations helped mobilize the public to support the industry, and competent company managers and industry representatives together with prominent statesmen provided concerted action to strengthen its innovation potential. Cultivating the national consciousness that the purchase of German goods is the key to the welfare of the state has determined consumer preferences and has become a powerful stimulus to expand supplies to the domestic market. The introduction of high customs tariffs on finished medicines has provided protection for the new industry in its infancy. The close cooperation of banks with pharmaceutical companies has contributed to the implementation of investment and innovation projects and external expansion. The creation of cartels by chemical and pharmaceutical companies was an institutional response to the unprecedented phenomenon of industrialization and catching up in Germany. It is revealed that at the present stage the Government of Germany through national and regional programs continues to promote the development of technological and innovative potential of pharmaceuticals. The expediency of introduction of mechanisms of endogenization of production development of medicines and medical devices in Ukraine, and also expansion of sales in the domestic market through introduction of preferences at public purchases in the context of protection of essential interests of safety and health of the nation is proved.

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Bannikov, Aleksey Yurievich. "Spatial Structure of the Chemical Industry in North Germany in the Early 21th Century." Izvestiya of Saratov University. New Series. Series: Earth Sciences 14, no. 1 (2014): 5–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.18500/1819-7663-2014-14-1-5-10.

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Bühler, Fabian, Andrej Guminski, Anna Gruber, Tuong-Van Nguyen, Serafin von Roon, and Brian Elmegaard. "Evaluation of energy saving potentials, costs and uncertainties in the chemical industry in Germany." Applied Energy 228 (October 2018): 2037–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.07.045.

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43

Hochheiser, Sheldon, Graham D. Taylor, and Patricia E. Sudnik. "Du Pont and the International Chemical Industry." Technology and Culture 27, no. 3 (July 1986): 636. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3105410.

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Trescott, Martha M., Graham D. Taylor, and Patricia E. Sudnik. "Du Pont and the International Chemical Industry." American Historical Review 90, no. 5 (December 1985): 1285. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1859844.

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Kauffman, George B. "A History of the International Chemical Industry (Aftalion, Fred)." Journal of Chemical Education 69, no. 3 (March 1992): A103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed069pa103.1.

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Hachtmann, Rüdiger. "Fordism and Unfree Labour: Aspects of the Work Deployment of Concentration Camp Prisoners in German Industry between 1941 and 1944." International Review of Social History 55, no. 3 (December 2010): 485–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859010000416.

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SummaryThis article examines the relationship between Fordism and unfree labour in Nazi Germany. Fordism is understood here as a form of workplace rationalization (especially assembly-line production), but also as a “technology of domination” and an “exploitation innovation”. In contrast to the Weimar Republic, Fordism was established in broad sectors of German industry under Nazi rule in the form of “war Fordism”. In order to examine the connections between the specific historical variants of these two apparently contradictory production regimes – Fordism and forced labour – the article focuses on the “labour deployment” of the most severely terrorized and brutalized group of labourers in Nazi Germany: concentration camp prisoners. Surveying the existing literature, it explores the compatibilities and tensions between Fordism and the deployments of concentration camp prisoners in German industry. In closing, several theses are presented on how Fordism between 1941 and 1944 can be classified within an entire history of Fordism in Germany.

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Richardson-Little, Ned. "Arms intervention: Weimar Germany, post-imperial influence and weapons trafficking in warlord China." Journal of Modern European History 19, no. 4 (November 2021): 510–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/16118944211051858.

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The Treaty of Versailles aimed to strip Germany of both its colonial empire and the global reach of its arms industry. Yet the conflicts in warlord-era China led to the reestablishment of German influence on the other side of the world via the arms trade. Weimar Germany had declared a policy of neutrality and refused to take sides in the Chinese civil war in an effort to demonstrate that as a post-colonial power, it could now act as an honest broker. From below, however, traffickers based in Germany and German merchants in China worked to evade Versailles restrictions and an international arms embargo to supply warlords with weapons of war. Although the German state officially aimed to remain neutral, criminal elements, rogue diplomats, black marketeers and eventually military adventurers re-established German influence in the region by becoming key advisors and suppliers to the victorious Guomindang. Illicit actors in Germany and China proved to be crucial in linking the two countries and in eventually overturning the arms control regimes that were imposed in the wake of World War I.

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Milichovský, František, and Karel Kuba. "Expected Impact of Industry 4.0 on Employment in Selected Professions in the Czech Republic and Germany." Processes 11, no. 2 (February 8, 2023): 516. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr11020516.

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The topic of Industry 4.0 is more actual for various companies worldwide. Its impact is anywhere in company and government areas. Due to the individual parts of Industry 4.0, such as digitalization and robotization, we express changes impact on human resource management, where the most changes are defined. This contribution is focused on human resource management in the context of the application of Industry 4.0 in engineering companies operating in the Czech Republic and Germany. The main objective of the paper is to define potential connections between Industry 4.0 and its areas with the forfeiture of professions and preparedness for potential job changes. We employed a primary research approach with in-depth interviews and a questionnaire survey to reach a defined goal. The interviews were aimed at top managers and a questionnaire survey of ordinary employees and students/temporary workers. According to the gained results, there exist relevant statistical dependencies between Industry 4.0 knowledge (including its parts) and up-to-date situations in the companies in the Czech Republic and Germany.

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Bathelt, Harald. "Post-Reunification Restructuring and Corporate Re-bundling in the Bitterfeld-Wolfen Chemical Industry, East Germany." International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 37, no. 4 (January 22, 2013): 1456–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2012.01194.x.

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Travis, Anthony S. "Perkin's Mauve: Ancestor of the Organic Chemical Industry." Technology and Culture 31, no. 1 (January 1990): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3105760.

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