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Journal articles on the topic 'Century of Bibles'
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1
den Hollander, August. "Biblical Geography." Church History and Religious Culture 99, no. 2 (August 12, 2019): 137–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18712428-09902005.
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Abstract Maps in Dutch printed Bibles made their debut when the Bible was first printed in large folio format in the Low Countries. The first complete Dutch Bible in the folio format that appeared on the market, by Jacob van Liesvelt in 1526, already included a map. This was a map of the Exodus, the Israelites’ journey through the desert from the land of Egypt to the promised land of Canaan. In the course of the second half of the sixteenth century, additional maps appeared in Bibles published in the Low Countries. In the sixteenth century, maps are found in both Catholic and Protestant Bibles.
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von Flotow, Luise. "Women, Bibles, Ideologies." TTR : traduction, terminologie, rédaction 13, no. 1 (March 19, 2007): 9–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/037390ar.
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Abstract Women, Bibles, Ideologies - Julia Evelina Smith's Bible translation was undertaken in response to the religious fervour of the Millerites in 1840s USA. Published in 1876, in the highly politicized context of the women's suffrage movement, it influenced "The Woman's Bible" (1895). Yet its "literal" approach results in a text that is quite unlike a late 20th century "literal" version by Mary Phil Korsak from yet another ideological movement.
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Wong, Simon. "Digitization of Bibles in Greater China (1661–1960)." Bible Translator 72, no. 2 (August 2021): 241–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/20516770211013079.
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Bible translations in (or for) Greater China may be classified into three categories: Chinese, Han dialects, and indigenous languages. All these language groups witness translation activities by Protestant missionaries. However, in its earliest history, Bible translation was pioneered by missionaries of Eastern Christianity in the seventh century or even earlier, whereas from the Catholic side, clear historical narrative has recorded Bible translation work in the thirteenth century by John of Montecorvino (1247–1328) into a Tatar language. Sadly, this work was not preserved. The earliest extant Bible translation in this vast area was published in 1661 in the Siriya language of Taiwan. This article reports on two major digitization projects: digitization of old Chinese Bibles (1707–1960), including 51 translations in total, and digitization of Bibles in Han dialects/fangyan and indigenous languages (1661–1960)—about 50 languages (including dialects) and 60 translations. These two projects represent the largest and most systematic full-text digitization of the Bible heritage of the area ever undertaken.
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Shemyakova, Yana V. "The Apocalypse iconographic sources in Russian murals of the 17th century." Vestnik of Saint Petersburg State University of Culture, no. 3 (56) (2023): 130–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.30725/2619-0303-2023-3-130-134.
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The fact of the Dutch Bibles engravings by Borcht and Piscator (Visscher) use in Russian art in the 17th century well studied for a long time. But these ouvrages practically didn`t become the subject of Russian scientists’ research. The Borcht and Piscator Bibles have been reprinted many times with additions and corrections. At some point some of Borcht’s prints became part of the Piscator Bible, replacing earlier graphic cycles and one of them is the Apocalypse. It was the first cycle that Russian artists created by Western European engravings. Studies of Russian monumental painting rarely concern the type of Piscator edition that the artists used. The Piscator and Borcht-Piscator Bibles often serve as the prototype of the same monument, but they have significant differences in the number of scenes and the design of individual compositions. The identification of the differences between the apocalyptic engravings in the Borcht and Piscator editions can outline ways to solve the problem of identifying iconographic sources of apocalyptic cycles in Russian murals of the 17th century. Today this problem is not only not solved, but also insufficiently emphasized.
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Perry, Seth. "Scripture, Time, and Authority among Early Disciples of Christ." Church History 85, no. 4 (December 2016): 762–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640716000780.
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This article explores the relationship between the idealization of the Bible and the material characteristics of printed bibles among the Disciples of Christ in the early nineteenth century. The Disciples were founded on the principles of biblical primitivism: they revered the “pure” Bible as the sole source for proper faith and practice. The tenacity with which Disciples emphasized their allegiance to an idealized, timeless Bible has obscured their attention to its physical manifestations and use as printed scripture. The timeless authority of the Bible was entangled with the historical contingencies of mere bibles, and the ways in which they dealt with these tensions offer important perspective on nineteenth-century bible culture. Scholars have treated primitivism as an ahistorical impulse—the idealization of the New Testament church as a mythical sacred era outside of time that could be perpetually inhabited. By contrast, through an examination of the New Testaments edited and published by Disciples leader Alexander Campbell and the heavily-annotated preaching bible of Thomas Allen, an early Disciples preacher, I argue that in seeking to recover the New Testament era through historicized understandings of scripture, primitivists like Campbell and Allen situated the early church itself firmly within historical, not primordial, time.
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GRIGONIS, EVALDAS. "ŠVENTOJO RAŠTO LEIDINIAI VILNIAUS UNIVERSITETO BIBLIOTEKOS XVI AMŽIAUS KNYGŲ FONDUOSE." Knygotyra 56 (January 1, 2011): 149–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/kn.v56i0.1506.
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Vilniaus universiteto bibliotekos Retų spaudinių skyriusUniversiteto g. 3, LT-01122 Vilnius, LietuvaEl. paštas: evaldas.grigonis@mb.vu.ltStraipsnyje analizuojami XVI a. Šventojo Rašto leidiniai, saugomi Vilniaus universiteto bibliotekos Retų spaudinių skyriaus fonduose. Pateikiama statistinės informacijos apie šių spaudinių kalbinį pasiskirstymą, leidimo vietas, kai kurie iš jų nagrinėjami plačiau, žvilgsnį telkiant į vietinius leidėjus, kurių spaustuvėse pasirodė dabar VUB esantys minėto laikotarpio Šventraščiai. Taip pat analizuojami šių knygų nuosavybės ženklai (proveniencijos), remiantis jais aptariamas buvusių LDK vienuolynų ar apskritai vienuolijų (jos buvo dažniausios Biblijos skaitytojos) sąlytis su spausdintiniu Dievo Žodžiu, atkreipiamas dėmesys į nemažos dalies Šventojo Rašto leidinių (jų leidėjų ir komentatorių) sąsajas su protestantizmu.Reikšminiai žodžiai: Šventasis Raštas, Biblija, XVI a., Vulgata, lotynų kalba, Vilniaus universiteto biblioteka, nuosavybės įrašai, Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Katalikų bažnyčia, vienuolynai, Reformacija Europoje, draudžiamųjų knygų sąrašai, leidėjai, spaustuvininkai, iliustracijos.PUBLICATIONS OF THE HOLY SCRIPT IN THE BOOK COLLECTIONS OF THE 16TH CENTURY AT VILNIUS UNIVERSITY LIBRARYEVALDAS GRIGONIS AbstractThe Holy Script has already lost its special significance to an ordinary Western man in modern times, although since the entrenching of Christianity in the 4th century A.D. the Holy Script was for long centuries the main cultural text of the European civilization. No wonder the first printed book from which the era of the printed word began in the culture of the world was the so-called 42-Line Bible of J. Gutenberg (in Latin, published in c. 1456).There are in total 149 pieces (or separate parts) of the Bible in the Vilnius University Library, issued between 1501 and 1600. The majority of these editions were published in Latin (70% of the Bibles), so it is natural that in the 16th century the printed Latin Bible (Vulgate) experienced its age of flowering in Europe (in total, 438 editions of Vulgate were issued ). The path of the Holy Scripture to the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) varied from such Catholic countries as France (the latter “presented” the bulk – over 25% – of Bibles kept at the Vilnius University Library from the 16th century), Belgium, Poland, Italy, Austria to such a “heretical” land as England, or such Protestant towns as Geneva, Basel, Strasbourg, Zurich and quite a few towns of Lutheran Germany such as Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig, Rostock, etc. There is also the Holy Script published in the GDL – the famous Brest (or Radvila) Bible (issued in 1563). The wide geography of the publications’ origin as well as the miscellaneous (from the point of view of confessions) cast of Bibles’ editors, commentators, translators or publishers raises certain questions about the existence of ecclesiastical discipline in the GDL, for in accordance with various Indices librorum prohibitorum (Indexes of Prohibited Books), which were obligatory for Catholics, almost 46% of the 16th-century Holy Scriptures in the present Vilnius University Library were forbidden to be used at one time. On the other hand, the markings of ownership (provenances) in these books show that of all the 16th-century Bibles kept at the Vilnius University Library, which have such markings (91 copies), even over ¾ for some time belonged to monasteries, Catholic churches and colleges. Furthermore, more than half of private owners consisted of Catholic clergy and monkery. Talking of separate monasteries, the provenances also indicate that the majority of the 16th-century Bibles found their way to the Vilnius University Library from the Grodno Dominicans; the most affluent “donors”among monkhood were Franciscans (including both Observants and Conventuals). These findings, though indirectly, indicate the influence of Western and Central Europe on the religious life of the 16th-century GDL through the Holy Script – the fundamental writing for Christians.
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Westbrook, Vivienne. "The Victorian Reformation Bible: Acts and Monuments." Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 90, no. 1 (March 2014): 179–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/bjrl.90.1.9.
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In 1611 the King James Bible was printed with minimal annotations, as requested by King James. It was another of his attempts at political and religious reconciliation. Smaller, more affordable, versions quickly followed that competed with the highly popular and copiously annotated Bibles based on the 1560 Geneva version by the Marian exiles. By the nineteenth century the King James Bible had become very popular and innumerable editions were published, often with emendations, long prefaces, illustrations and, most importantly, copious annotations. Annotated King James Bibles appeared to offer the best of both the Reformation Geneva and King James Bible in a Victorian context, but they also reignited old controversies about the use and abuse of paratext. Amid the numerous competing versions stood a group of Victorian scholars, theologians and translators, who understood the need to reclaim the King James Bible through its Reformation heritage; they monumentalized it.
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Weinberg, Bella Hass. "Index structures in early Hebrew Biblical word lists." Indexer: The International Journal of Indexing: Volume 22, Issue 4 22, no. 4 (October 1, 2001): 178–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/indexer.2001.22.4.5.
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The earliest Hebrew Masoretic Bibles and word lists are analyzed from the perspective of index structure. Masoretic Bibles and word lists may have served as models for the first complete Biblical concordances, which were produced in France, in the Latin language, in the 13th century. The thematic Hebrew Biblical word lists compiled by the Masoretes several centuries earlier contain concordance-like structures - words arranged alphabetically, juxtaposed with the Biblical phrases in which they occur. The Hebrew lists lack numeric locators, but the locations of the phrases in the Bible would have been familiar to learned people. The indexing methods of the Masoretes are not known, but their products contain many structures commonly thought to date from the modern era of information systems, among them word frequency counts, distinction of homographs, positional indexing, truncation, adjacency, and permuted indexes. It is documented that Hebrew Bibles were consulted by the Latin concorders; since Masoretic Bibles had the most accurate text, they were probably the editions consulted. This suggests the likely influence of Masoretic lists on the Latin concorders.
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Casanellas, Pere. "Bible Translation by Jews and Christians in Medieval Catalan-Speaking Territories." Medieval Encounters 26, no. 4-5 (December 29, 2020): 386–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12340080.
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Abstract Despite bans on the reading or possession of Bibles in the vernacular, numerous medieval Catalan translations of the Bible survive, in particular a complete Bible from the fourteenth century, some ten psalters, and a fifteenth-century version of the four Gospels. Moreover, Catalan was the second Romance language in which a full Bible was printed (1478), following the Tuscan Bible of 1471. Most of these translations were commissioned by Christians for the use of Christians. In some cases, however, it is clear that the translators were converted Jews. In some others, the translations appear to have been written by Jews for Jewish readers. We also find one case in which Catalan was the source rather than the target language: the first extant translation of the four Gospels into Hebrew (late fifteenth century) was undertaken, probably by a Jew, using the aforementioned fourteenth-century Catalan Bible.
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Helmstadter, R. J., and Leslie Howsam. "Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society." History of Education Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1993): 263. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/368356.
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Puganova, Ekaterina L. "The Russian Tradition of Publishing Illuminated Bibles." Observatory of Culture 20, no. 5 (November 2, 2023): 498–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.25281/2072-3156-2023-20-5-498-508.
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The article is devoted to the tradition of publishing engraved biblical albums in Russia (17th — early 20th centuries), made by Russian engravers after the prototypes of European engravings or after author’s drawings by graduates of the Russian Academy of Arts. Illustrated collections on the subjects of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament based on drawings by Russian artists — A.E. Egorov, A.A. Agin, M.N. Koshelevskaya, V.S. Kryukov, V.D. Fartusov — are considered. The source material for the work were copies from large collections of graphic art: the isofond of the Russian State Library, the Museum of Christian Art “Church-Archaeological Study” of the Moscow Theological Academy and the Sergiev Posad State Historical and Art Museum-Reserve, which are first introduced by the author into the scientific turnover.At present, Western European illustrated Bibles are widely studied by specialists in various fields of scientific knowledge as a large-scale phenomenon of book culture. The ways of penetration and distribution of foreign editions in the Moscow state are studied; the search, accounting and description of copies in domestic library collections are carried out; marginalia on the pages of albums and captions to images are investigated; techniques, biographies of masters, stylistics of works and methods of copying foreign samples in Russian artistic practice are studied. At the same time, the tradition of publishing Russian illuminated Bibles, created by analogy with foreign ones, remains poorly studied.Pre-revolutionary catalogues of Russian illustrated editions contain descriptions of Bible albums of the first half of the 19th century, while the vast array of illustrated printed matter of the second half of the century has not yet been systematised and catalogued.The purpose of this study is to partially fill this lacuna, to restore the chronology of the appearance of the first domestic folio Bibles, and to present an overview of lithographed editions of pictures of the Sacred History of the Old and New Testament of the second half of the 19th century.
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Kavaliūnaitė, Gina. "Old Testament translations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their contexts." Vilnius University Proceedings 48 (June 17, 2024): 117–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/lkac.2024.10.
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From the 15th century onwards, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a multiconfessional and multicultural state. Apart from Lithuanians, its population comprised Ruthenians (the ancestors of Belarusians and Ukrainians), Poles, and smaller Jewish, Tatar, and Karaim communities. After its Christianization, Lithuania officially fell under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Church, but most of its inhabitants were of the Eastern Christian rite. Reformed Protestantism spread among the nobility at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, while Lutheranism flourished in Lithuania Minor. Smaller ethnic groups also had their confessional communities. All confessional groups had their sacred books. This article gives an overview of Christian vernacular translations of the Old Testament that were read in the Grand Duchy between the 15th and the 18th centuries. It briefly discusses the circumstances of the translation of the Old Testament into Ruthenian (the Skaryna Bible), Old Church Slavonic (the Ostrog Bible), Polish (the Brest, Nesvizh and Gdansk Bibles) and Lithuanian (the Bretkūnas, Chylinski and Quandt Bibles) as well as their characteristic features.
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Szpiech, Ryan. "Translating between the Lines: Medieval Polemic, Romance Bibles, and the Castilian Works of Abner of Burgos/Alfonso of Valladolid." Medieval Encounters 22, no. 1-3 (May 23, 2016): 113–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12342218.
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The Hebrew works of convert Abner de Burgos/Alfonso de Valladolid (d. ca. 1347) were translated into Castilian in the fourteenth century, at least partly and probably entirely by Abner/Alfonso himself. Because the author avoids Christian texts and cites abundantly from Hebrew sources, his writing includes many passages taken from the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud. The Castilian versions of his works translate these citations directly from Hebrew and do not seem to make any direct use of existing Romance-language Bibles (although his work might have relied indirectly on Jewish Bible translations circulating orally in the fourteenth century). Given the abundance of citations, especially in Abner/Alfonso’s earliest surviving work, the Moreh ṣedeq (Mostrador de justicia), his writing can serve as a significant source in the history of Hebrew-to-Romance Bible translation in the fourteenth century. The goal of this article is to consider the impact of polemical writing on Bible translation in the Middle Ages by analyzing these citations in Abner/Alfonso’s Castilian works.
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Sjökvist, Peter. "The Reception of Books from Braniewo in the 17th-century Uppsala University Library." Biblioteka, no. 24 (33) (June 7, 2021): 101–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/b.2020.24.4.
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It is well known that Swedish armies took a number of literary spoils of war from Poland in the 17th century, among others, the library of the Jesuit College in Braniewo in 1626. This article discusses how the collections from Braniewo were received and arranged in the first library building of Uppsala University, to which they had been donated by the Swedish King Gustavus II Adolphus. Books with contents related to theology are discussed in particular. As is shown in the article, books from Braniewo by Catholic authors or editors that were of a more neutral nature, such as books on Church history, Bibles and Bible concordances, were generally considered more useful at this Lutheran university than books by Catholic authors containing, for instance, Bible commentaries, sermons and dogmatics.
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Unzeitig, Monika. "Illustration und Textaneignung." Literaturwissenschaftliches Jahrbuch 61, no. 1 (October 1, 2020): 135–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3790/ljb.61.1.135.
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Johannes Gutenberg designed his edition of the Vulgate without illustrations. However, the subsequent evolution of media affected the vernacular appropriation of the Holy Scripture. Vernacular printed Bibles typically featured extensive pictorial representations of the biblical narrative. From an iconographic perspective, this case study examines which types or parts of the images were maintained, transferred but also reconfigured in the woodcuts. In addition, from the perspective of reader-response criticism, it analyzes how the placement of illustrations guides, structures and augments the reading of the Holy Scripture. While the canonical biblical text follows a 14th-century German translation, these illustrations offer new ways of understanding. By looking at the conceptions of Creation, Paradise and Fall of Man in pre-Reformation printed Bibles, this case study examines how religious knowledge changed through these processes of appropriation in the context of a print production which was no longer dominated by clerical but commercial interests. Finally, the findings are compared with Luther’s Bible.
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Smith, Catherine Delano. "Maps as ArtandScience: Maps in Sixteenth Century Bibles." Imago Mundi 42, no. 1 (January 1990): 65–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03085699008592692.
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Krasner, Jonathan. "Making the Bible Modern: Children's Bibles and Jewish Education in Twentieth-Century America (review)." American Jewish History 91, no. 2 (2003): 325–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ajh.2004.0051.
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Feather, John. "Cheap Bibles: Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Leslie Howsam." Library Quarterly 63, no. 1 (January 1993): 127–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/602545.
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Sinclair, Alex. "Making the Bible Modern: Children's Bibles and Jewish Education in Twentieth-Century America (review)." Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies 24, no. 1 (2005): 162–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sho.2005.0202.
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Scheick, William J. "TABLEAUX OF AUTHORITY: THE TITLEPAGES OF SIXTEENTH - CENTURY BIBLES." Explorations in Renaissance Culture 26, no. 2 (December 2, 2000): 177–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23526963-90000220.
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Ziaud Din and Javed Khan. "The Concept of the Hell in the Leading Twentieth-Century Bibles: An Analytical and Descriptive Study." Journal of Islamic and Religious Studies 1, no. 2 (July 1, 2016): 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.36476/jirs.1:2.12.2016.17.
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Since Eschatological Sciences are playing a vital role in shaping theologoy and philosophy of the major world religions. The concept of Hell is conceived as a place where human actions are judged and then rewarded accordingly on the Day of Judgment. Aim of the paper is to find out how the terminlolgy of Hell and its concept is evolved in several versions of the English Bibles of the twenthith century. The paper highlighted that due to numerous English translations of the Bible in ninthenth and twentheith century, not only caused amalgamation in supplementary concepts but also caused change in the concept of Hell as well. This resulted confusion in other eschatological dogmas evolved around the subject. Keeping in view its evolved concept over the history the research shows how it affected other related concepts to it.
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Fiddyment, Sarah, Bruce Holsinger, Chiara Ruzzier, Alexander Devine, Annelise Binois, Umberto Albarella, Roman Fischer, et al. "Animal origin of 13th-century uterine vellum revealed using noninvasive peptide fingerprinting." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 49 (November 23, 2015): 15066–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1512264112.
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Tissue-thin parchment made it possible to produce the first pocket Bibles: Thousands were made in the 13th century. The source of this parchment, often called “uterine vellum,” has been a long-standing controversy in codicology. Use of the Latin term abortivum in many sources has led some scholars to suggest that the skin of fetal calves or sheep was used. Others have argued that it would not be possible to sustain herds if so many pocket Bibles were produced from fetal skins, arguing instead for unexpected alternatives, such as rabbit. Here, we report a simple and objective technique using standard conservation treatments to identify the animal origin of parchment. The noninvasive method is a variant on zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS) peptide mass fingerprinting but extracts protein from the parchment surface by using an electrostatic charge generated by gentle rubbing of a PVC eraser on the membrane surface. Using this method, we analyzed 72 pocket Bibles originating in France, England, and Italy and 293 additional parchment samples that bracket this period. We found no evidence for the use of unexpected animals; however, we did identify the use of more than one mammal species in a single manuscript, consistent with the local availability of hides. These results suggest that ultrafine vellum does not necessarily derive from the use of abortive or newborn animals with ultrathin hides, but could equally well reflect a production process that allowed the skins of maturing animals of several species to be rendered into vellum of equal quality and fineness.
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McArthur, Tom. "The usage industry." English Today 2, no. 3 (July 1986): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026607840000211x.
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Guides to ‘good usage’ have been part of the tradition of ‘standard English’ since the 17th century. Such works have been a commercial success and are as abundant today as in the past. What characterizes the tradition of these ‘bibles of usage’?
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Wolosky, Shira. "Women's Bibles: Biblical Interpretation in Nineteenth-Century American Women's Poetry." Feminist Studies 28, no. 1 (2002): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3178503.
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Stosic, Ljiljana. "Caspar Luyken’s illustrated bible among the Serbs and Bulgarians in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries." Balcanica, no. 42 (2011): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/balc1142037s.
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The engraving of the Finding of Moses from Caspar Luyken?s Amsterdam (1694) and Nuremberg (1708) bibles served as a model for Teodor Kracun?s painting for the small iconostasis of the Orthodox cathedral in Sremski Karlovci (1780), for the Viennese printer J. G. Mansfeld?s frontispiece of Dositej Obradovic?s Poem of the Deliverance of Serbia (1789) and for Dimitar Zograf ?s fresco in the vault of the exonarthex of the Rila Monastery (1843). Three different versions of the original copper engraving reveal how Luyken?s Bible was used in support of the cause of religious revival and national liberation of the Serbs and Bulgarians in the Habsburg and Ottoman empires respectively in the late eighteen century and the first half of the nineteenth.
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Marsden, Richard. "Manus Bedae: Bede's contribution to Ceolfrith's bibles." Anglo-Saxon England 27 (December 1998): 65–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263675100004804.
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Bede entered Wearmouth–Jarrow at the age of seven and thereafter, he tells us at the conclusion of his Historia ecclesiastica, spent all his life ‘applying myself entirely to the study of the Scriptures’. He goes on, ‘From the time I became a priest until the fifty-ninth year of my life I have made it my business, for my own benefit and that of my brothers, to make brief extracts from the works of the venerable fathers on the holy scriptures, or to add notes of my own to clarify their sense and interpretation.’ Bede's modest remarks preface an impressive list of his own works, which includes commentaries on Genesis, I Samuel, Kings, Proverbs, the Prophets, Mark, Luke, Acts and Revelation, and many other exegetical, didactic and historical volumes. Installed at Jarrow from about 679 until his death in 735, he contributed more than anyone to the intellectual distinction of early-eighth-century Northumbria. At the same time, the twin house of Wearmouth–Jarrow was winning lasting renown for the products of its scriptorium (or scriptoria). Not least among these were the three great Vulgate bible pandects which Abbot Ceolfrith caused to be made, an achievement celebrated by the chroniclers of the house, who included Bede himself. One of these pandects, which we know today as the Codex Amiatinus, was dispatched to St Peter's in Rome in 716, then spent more than 900 years at Monte Amiata in the Appenines, and is now in Florence (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Amiatino 1). The other two were for use in the Wearmouth and Jarrow churches. One of these has been lost without trace, but the second survived in the cathedral priory of Worcester until the sixteenth century, when an entrepreneurial Nottinghamshire family made use of some of its torn-out leaves as document wrappers. Twelve of these, with some fragments of a thirteenth, are now in the British Library under three different shelfmarks (Loan 81, Add. 37777 and Add. 45025).
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Korpan, Roxanne L. "Scriptural Relations: Colonial Formations of Anishinaabemowin Bibles in Nineteenth-Century Canada." Material Religion 17, no. 2 (March 15, 2021): 147–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17432200.2021.1897279.
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Shaked, Guy. "Musical Instruments in the Sephardic Illuminated Bibles." Espacio Tiempo y Forma. Serie VII, Historia del Arte, no. 10 (August 24, 2022): 225–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/etfvii.10.2022.32906.
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Some Iberian Hebrew Bibles produced from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century feature depictions of musical instruments within the full-page illustrations of the Temple implements. These instruments have been found to be similar to those in two contemporary Iberian Christian manuscripts: Cantigas de Santa Maria Codex E and Peter Comestor’s Historia Scholastica. The trumpets and ram’s horn appear next to one another in the Bibles and their appearance together is a unique feature in Jewish art. Also noteworthy is the fact that most of the trumpets have some gold or are entirely of gold or are gilded whereas the Temple’s and Tabernacle’s trumpets were specifically said to be made of pure silver. This article suggests that these two features reflect an attempt on the part of Iberian Jews to associate their music with that of the court of King Alfonso X and his heirs, as the illustrations imply that they and the king had shared musical roots.
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DE GRUTTOLA, RAISSA. "The Union Version and the Sigao Bible: An Analysis and Comparison of Two Chinese Bibles." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 30, no. 1 (November 19, 2019): 147–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1356186319000373.
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AbstractThe importance of the Mandarin Union Version for the Protestant Churches in China can be compared to the relevance acquired by the Sigao Shengjing 思高聖經 for Chinese speaking Catholics soon after its publication. The 1919 Union Version was the result of a collaboration among Protestants after a century of separation and many lone translations, while the 1968 Sigao Bible was the first version of the Bible in Chinese completed by Catholics.1 This translation project was undertaken in 1935 by the Franciscan missionary Gabriele Allegra.The purpose of this paper is to analyze and compare these two noteworthy versions. A brief introduction will present the translation process of the Union Version and of the Sigao Bible. Subsequently, some handwritten documents of Gabriele Allegra will be analyzed, to outline his attitude towards the missionary activity and the translations of the Protestants. Thereafter, some passages from the Gospel of John in the two versions will be examined and compared to analyze the features of the two translations.
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Hoogvliet, Margriet. "Manual Labour and Biblical Reading in Late Medieval France." Journal of Early Modern Christianity 6, no. 2 (December 18, 2019): 277–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jemc-2019-2009.
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Abstract This article discusses artisans and people doing manual work in the French-speaking areas of Western Europe who owned and read the Bible or parts of its text during the late Middle Ages and the early sixteenth century. The historical evidence is based on post-mortem inventories from Amiens, Tournai, Lyon, and the Toulouse area. These documents show that Bibles were present in the private homes of artisans, some of them well-to-do, but others quite destitute. This development was probably related to a shift in the cultural representation of manual work in the same period: from a divine punishment into a social space of religion. The simple artisan life of the holy family, as imagined based upon the Gospel text, and their religious reading practices were recommended as an example to follow by both lay people and clerics.
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Halama, Ota. "Biblické ilustrace Jana Konůpka." Acta Musei Nationalis Pragae – Historia litterarum 68, no. 3-4 (2024): 35–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.37520/amnpsc.2023.0023.
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In the 19th century, illustrated Bibles reappeared in the Czech environment. On the one hand, these were illustrations taken from the milieu of the Nazarene movement, combining admiration for the old Renaissance and Baroque masters with modern works. On the other hand, particular popularity among Czech Catholics as well as Protestants was enjoyed by the illustrations of Gustave Doré. At the beginning of the 20th century, the circle of Czech bibliophiles conceived the idea of commissioning a completely Czech illustrated Bible. It was implemented in 1936–1939 through the efforts of the private publisher and printer Jaroslav Picka based on the Bible of Kralice, translated by the Unity of the Brethren; this edition was printed in the original typeface of Karel Dyrynk on Velké Losiny paper and supplemented with a number of illustrations, initials and decorations by Jan Konůpek (1883–1950). This complete edition of the New Testament was later complemented by selected passages of the Old Testament. Konůpek had devoted himself to Biblical images from the beginning of his career. His Biblical illustration work is mainly associated with the books of Arno Sáňka, Miloslav Novotný, Josef Portman, Jakub Deml and the above-mentioned Jaroslav Picka. Konůpek’s work is characterised by a combination of Biblical stories with Czech nature, architecture and history. His Biblical illustrations are still unique and remarkable.
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Padley, Jonathan. "'Declare the interpretation': Redacting Daniel in Early Bibles for English Children." Biblical Interpretation 19, no. 3 (2011): 311–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156851511x577387.
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AbstractIt is a commonplace that adults who had access to the Bible as youngsters remember being told the tale of Daniel in the lions' den. It is easy to see why, and why this story has become a staple of Christian teaching: it is action-packed, distinctive, and reaches a conclusion that favours the apparent righteousness of its protagonist. However, Daniel's theological and historical consequences clearly extend far beyond the lions' den, so this article investigates the history of its limited pedagogical deployment by examining redactions of it in five popular eighteenth-century Bibles for English children. The theological issues in Daniel that captured the imaginations of its early adapters are ascertained, and evidence is found that the book's prophetic, visionary, and apocalyptic content has long-since been regarded as difficult for young people (especially in comparison to its apparently more straightforward court stories). Equally, in these problematic areas where the source's density raises opportunities for interpretative latitude, this essay contends that ecclesiological rather than theological responses to the text tended to surface, as Daniel's retellers—often obliquely—attempted to manage the book's indubitable complexity by domesticating it to their own subjective priorities.
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Gutjahr, Paul. "Reviews of Books:Making the Bible Modern: Children's Bibles and Jewish Education in Twentieth-Century America Penny Schine Gold." American Historical Review 110, no. 2 (April 2005): 510–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/531405.
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Harris, Julie A. "Marking Segulah in the Illuminated Bibles of Jewish Iberia." Medieval Encounters 28, no. 2 (September 30, 2022): 148–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12340130.
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Abstract The power ascribed to the Bible codex was expressed by the word Segulah, which in biblical Hebrew translates as “treasured possession.” In the later Middle Ages, however, this word is better translated as “remedy” or “occult virtue,” reflecting an infusion of medical and magical concepts which can be seen to align with ideas present in writings about Torah study by Profiat Duran (Ma’aseh Efod, 1403). This article finds visual evidence for a multi-faceted understanding of Segulah in the Seder marks which were added to the thirteenth-century Iberian Bible known as the Damascus Keter (JNUL 4 790).
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Wosh, Peter. "Bibles, Benevolence, and Bureaucracy: The Changing Nature of Nineteenth Century Religious Records." American Archivist 52, no. 2 (April 1989): 166–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.17723/aarc.52.2.403v3142u38177v0.
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Hitchin, Neil W. "The Politics of English Bible Translation in Georgian Britain (The Alexander Prize)." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 9 (December 1999): 67–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3679393.
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The eighteenth century is a lost era in the history of English bible translation. The long tenure of the King James, or Authorised Version (AV), has caused historians to overlook the existence of the scores of translations which were attempted between 1611 and 1881–5, when the Revised Version was published. Darlow and Moule'sHistorical Catalogue of English Bibleslists the publication of at least forty-four new English translations of bibles, testaments, individual books, or groups of books between 1700 and 1800. There were many more translations of biblical texts than these, however, as the recent and more comprehensive catalogue by W. Chamberlin has conclusively demonstrated. Many have been lost to historical sight, or were never published, which could have easily been the fate of the celebrated translation by Anthony Purver, were it not for the patronage of the wealthy physician and fellow Quaker, Dr John Fothergill.
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Nussbaum, Damian. "Laudian Foxe-hunting? William Laud and the status of John Foxe in the 1630s." Studies in Church History 33 (1997): 329–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400013322.
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When the prosecutors of William Laud were seeking damning evidence against the Archbishop, they seized upon the fate of John Foxe’s Acts and Monuments in the 1630s. They produced a catalogue of abuses, occasions on which Laud had attacked, impugned, or banned the volumes. In his report of the trial, Prynne gave these cases of Foxe-hunting an important position, directly after the accusation that Laud had hindered the distribution of Bibles. The prominence given to Foxe, and the close association with the Bible, were typical of the ways the martyrologist was handled in the early seventeenth century, and tell us much about the regard in which he was held within the English Church. His Book of Martyrs had attained the status of a quasi-biblical text. His works, invoked with an almost scriptural reverence, were appealed to as an unquestionable authority on matters of ecclesiastical history and Protestant tradition.
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Gebarowski-Shafer, Ellie. "Catholics and the King James Bible: Stories from England, Ireland and America." Scottish Journal of Theology 66, no. 3 (July 16, 2013): 253–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0036930613000112.
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AbstractThe King James Bible was widely celebrated in 2011 for its literary, religious and cultural significance over the past 400 years, yet its staunch critics are important to note as well. This article draws attention to Catholic critics of the King James Bible (KJB) during its first 300 years in print. By far the most systematic and long-lived Catholic attack on the KJB is found in the argument and afterlife of a curious counter-Reformation text, Thomas Ward's Errata of the Protestant Bible. This book is not completely unknown, yet many scholars have been puzzled over exactly what to make of it and all its successor editions in the nineteenth century – at least a dozen, often in connection with an edition of the Catholic Douai-Rheims Bible (DRB). Ward's Errata, first published in 1688, was based on a 1582 book by Catholic translator and biblical scholar Gregory Martin. The book and its accompanying argument, that all Protestant English Bibles were ‘heretical’ translations, then experienced a prosperous career in nineteenth-century Ireland, employed to battle the British and Foreign Bible Society's campaign to disseminate the Protestant King James Bible as widely as possible. On the American career of the Counter-Reformation text, the article discusses early editions in Philadelphia, when the school Bible question entered the American scene. In the mid-nineteenth century, led by Bishop John Purcell in Cincinnati, Bishop Francis Patrick Kenrick in Philadelphia and Bishop John Hughes in New York City, many Catholics began opposing the use of the KJB as a school textbook and demanding use of the Douai Rheims Bible instead. With reference to Ward's Errata, they argued that the KJB was a sectarian version, reflecting Protestant theology at the expense of Catholic teachings. These protests culminated in the then world-famous Bible-burning trial of Russian Redemptorist priest, Fr Vladimir Pecherin in Dublin, in late 1855. The Catholic criticisms of the KJB contained in Ward's Errata, which was reprinted for the last time in 1903, reminded the English-speaking public that this famous and influential Protestant version was not the most perfect of versions, and that it was not and never had been THE BIBLE for everyone.
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Korshunova, Natalya G. "FOUR RELIGIOUS PAINTINGS OF THE MIDDLE OF THE XVIII CENTURY FROM THE CHURCH OF THE RESURRECTION OF CHRIST OF THE GREAT TSARSKOYE SELO PALACE." Articult, no. 4 (2020): 54–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.28995/2227-6165-2020-4-54-64.
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For the first time in scientific circulation information is being introduced about four religious paintings of the middle of the XVIII century which stayed safe after the looting of the Church of the Resurrection of Christ of the Great Palace of Tsarskoe Selo during the German occupation of the town of Pushkin in 1941-1944. These are the work of artists: I.P. Argunov’s “John of Damascus”, G.G. Deryabi’s “Healing of the Relaxed”, M.L. Kolokolnikov’s “Archangel Michael” and “Archangel Gabriel”. For the first time, information about four preserved Church images of the middle of the XVIII century from the Court Church of the Resurrection in the Big (Catherine) Tsarskoye Selo Palace is introduced into scientific circulation. Stylistic, iconographic and comparative analysis of these works is carried out. The typological systematization of the picturesque design of the temple is introduced. For the first time, the iconographic connection of the plot of images of the Court Church with the engravings of the Western European Bibles, in particular with the engravings of the Bible (1695) by Weigel is revealed. Information about the museum status of the preserved works is given. Two periods in the work of the creation of the picturesque decoration of the Court Church in the middle of the XVIII century are considered on the example of the preserved works.
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Porto, Rosa M. Rodríguez. "Forgotten Witnesses: The Illustrations of Ms Escorial, I.I.3 and the Dispute over the Biblias Romanceadas." Medieval Encounters 24, no. 1-3 (May 29, 2018): 116–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12340019.
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Abstract This article offers a preliminary survey of the miniatures illustrating the Biblia romanceada held at the Escorial Library under the shelf number I.I.3, whose precise date and provenance have been a matter of dispute among scholars for decades. The scrutiny of the stylistic features of these illustrations together with a reassessment of the scarce archival sources related to this work allows for a definite association of Escorial, MS I.I.3 with Enrique de Guzmán, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia (d. 1492). However, the contextualized analysis of this lavishly decorated manuscript—which was part of a trend in aristocratic patronage and the epitome of already established traditions in Bible illustration—may contribute not only to a re-appraisal of this singular work but also to a better understanding of the multifaceted phenomena lying behind the production and reception of the remaining fifteenth-century illustrated Bibles in the vernacular, all of them translated from Hebrew but intended for a Christian audience.
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Rodriguez Velasco, Maria. "Color Symbolism in the Castilian Atlantic Bibles: Initials and Scenes from the Bible of Avila (BNM, Vit. 15-1)." Multidisciplinary Journal of School Education 9, (2) 18 (December 31, 2020): 169–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.35765/mjse.2020.0918.09.
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The Atlantic Bibles of the Umbro-Roman school are associated with the needs of the Gregorian Reform, which began at the end of the 11th century. Their first impression is one of great ornamental sobriety, in accordance with the early stages of what Garrison and Berg have labelled the “geometric style.” This was first manifested in the decoration we find concentrated in the initials heading the individual books of the Bible. In Castile, one outstanding example is the Bible of Avila, begun by the Umbro-Roman school and finished in a Castilian scriptorium. This double perspective can be observed in a similarly double palette of color: Italian and Spanish.
It is especially in this second phase when a reduction to the minimum of polychromy leads us to think that color has here a symbolic use. Red and blue, having had symbolic connotations since the birth of Christian iconography, are the principal colors of the scenes illustrated in the Bible of Avila, with the addition of green and yellow, which are also rich with symbolism. This possible symbolism of color may work to reinforce the conceptual nature of these miniatures, in direct relation to the text they decorate and to the liturgy they accompany. The Bible in the Middle Ages, in the context of monastic schools, was the most important manuscript for teaching and learning. Its miniatures and the symbolism of its colors contribute to the transmission of meanings.
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RIVERS, ISABEL. "THE FIRST EVANGELICAL TRACT SOCIETY." Historical Journal 50, no. 1 (February 13, 2007): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x06005899.
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The study of how popular religious publishing operated in Britain in the eighteenth century has been neglected. Recent work on such publishing in the nineteenth century ignores the important eighteenth-century tract distribution societies that were the predecessors of the much larger nineteenth-century ones. This article provides a detailed account of the work of a society that is now little known, despite the wealth of surviving evidence: the Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor, founded in 1750, which should properly be considered the first of the evangelical tract societies. It was founded by dissenters, but included many Anglicans among its members; its object was to promote experimental religion by distributing Bibles and cheap tracts to the poor. Its surviving records provide unusually detailed evidence of the choice, numbers, distribution, and reception of these books. Analysis of this particular Society throws light more generally on non-commercial popular publishing, the reading experiences of the poor, and the development of evangelical religion in the eighteenth century.
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Darwish, Mahmoud Ahmed. "Two Armenian Bibles with Arabic Influences of miniature painting (Gregor Tatevatsi 1346-1410)." International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 4, no. 8 (August 31, 2016): 72–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.31686/ijier.vol4.iss8.578.
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About a century ago, Armenian illuminated manuscripts attracted the attention of scholars and lovers of art. Since that time intensive studies of medieval Armenian art had been conducted a unique historical panorama of the art of illumination, embracing more than thirteen centuries has been given.The heritage of a number of miniature schools and their outstanding representatives has been studied; the significance of medieval Armenian painting in the history of world art has been revealed. Although, most of them illuminated, many have not yet been published. Among the best examples of medieval Armenian illumination are those of the following two manuscripts, where the researcher published (28 miniatures) from the Gospel of folios paper in Matenadaran of Mashtots, for the first time: 13th, dated (1297) and (1378), the miniatures were executed by Grigor Tatevatsi and his pupil in (1378), and15th, dated in the end of 14th century and beginning of 15th century, the scribe is Grigor Tatevatsi and the anonymous painter of Syuniq. The research deals two Armenian bibles with Arab Influences by Grigor Tatevatsi (1346–1410), it begins with an introduction for Armenia with a focus on Syuniq which produced the two manuscripts, and includes three sections:1st. Study of Armenian miniatures with a focus on Grigor Tatevatsi school, where the proportion of miniature paintings, his pupil or anonymous painter of Syuniq.2nd. Analytical study.3ed. The influences of the Arabic miniature painting.
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Bebbington, David. "The Spiritual Home of W. E. Gladstone: Anne Gladstone’s Bible." Studies in Church History 50 (2014): 343–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424208400001820.
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‘Popery is the religion of Cathedrals’, wrote J.W. Cunningham, the evangelical vicar of Harrow in his novel The Velvet Cushion (1815), ‘– Protestantism of houses’. It is a commonplace in the secondary literature that the household was the citadel of the evangelical version of Protestantism in nineteenth-century England. ‘Evangelicalism’, according to a representative comment by Ian Bradley, ‘was above all else the religion of the home.’ The head of the household conducting family prayers was the embodiment of the evangelical spirit. It is not the purpose of this essay to question that received image, but it does suggest that a clearer picture of the religious atmosphere of the evangelical home can be obtained from sources other than the manuals published for the paterfamilias to read to the assembled household. The books of family prayers tell us what was prescribed; but alternative sources show us what was practised. Spiritual journals, reflective meditations and candid correspondence can often be more revealing. Nowhere, however, is the kernel of household piety more evident than in the Bibles that some zealous believers annotated for their own benefit. The study of the Bible, as Edward Bickersteth, a leading evangelical divine, put it in his book A Scripture Help (1816), was ‘a great and important duty’. When members of evangelical families retired to the privacy of their own rooms, they might spend time in devotional reading of the Scriptures and leave a record of their reflections in the margins. Such Bibles, one of which is to be examined here, are treasuries of authentic domestic spirituality. They show something of the heartbeat of evangelical religion.
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Lawrance, Jeremy. "Jewish Forerunners of the Spanish Biblia romanceada: A Thirteenth-Century Witness (Bodleian MS Hunt. 268)." Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 138, no. 2 (June 1, 2022): 399–421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zrp-2022-0018.
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Abstract Despite Church prohibitions, almost twenty medieval Bibles in Spanish survive. The Old Testament versions derived in many cases from translations from Hebrew made by Jews. These were characterized by a unique rabbinical “calque-language” that would be preserved by Sephardim for centuries after the Expulsion in 1492; but the Inquisition destroyed the medieval Jewish copies. This article studies a new witness, the oldest known: a thirteenth-century Hebrew commentary on the Hagiographa with Spanish glosses. These fully confirm the amazing continuity of the Ladino scriptolect.
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Kozhinowa, A. A. "Features of expression of modal meanings in 16th-century biblical translations created on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania." Sibirskiy filologicheskiy zhurnal, no. 3 (2020): 216–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/18137083/72/17.
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The paper deals with the features of expression of some modal meanings in the Masoretic text of the book of Genesis by means of particles and the special construction of infinitivus absolutus, which serves to express modality in Hebrew. The ways of translating into Slavic languages in 16th-century bibles created on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania are considered as well. The data from classical translations – LXX, the Vulgate, and the Czech Venetian Bible – are also used for analysis. The particles were chosen because they are desemantized and do not make considerable changes in the semantics of sentences, but merely specify them. The infinitivus absolutus constructions are a means of expressing modal semantics. They are absent in Slavic languages and require understanding and special translation efforts from the translator. It is concluded that even the translator dealing with sacred texts corrects modal semantics and changes the formal means of its expression, indicating that the modality is understood as a category of a special kind, with unclearly defined borders and a diverse and non-rigid set of means of expression. The analysis of translated texts made using various original texts shows that translators while trying to preserve the spirit and letter of the original or authoritative translation (the Masoretic text, Church Slavonic translation, the Venetian Bible, the Vulgate), nevertheless, consider modality to be a category that can be easily sacrificed in translation, by changing or even eliminating the modal meaning.
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Kovács, Ábrahám. "British Evangelicals and German Pietists Promoting Revival through the Work of the Bible and Tract Societies in Hungary." Scottish Church History 49, no. 2 (October 2020): 100–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/sch.2020.0031.
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This article demonstrates how British evangelicals, German pietists, and Hungarian Protestants sought to ‘educate’ the masses outside the educational framework of ecclesiastical and state structures within the Hungarian Kingdom in the nineteenth century. More specifically the study intends to offer a concise overview of the history of Protestants who spread the gospel through the distribution of affordable Bibles, New Testaments and Christian tracts. It shows how various denominations worked together and directs attention to their theological outlook which transcended ethnic boundaries. It is a well-known fact in mission and church history that such undertakings were carried out to stir revivalism. The study also throws light on the influential role the Scottish Mission, as well as Archduchess Maria Dorothea, played in stirring revivalism through the aforementioned means. The history of these endeavours, especially those of the British and Foreign Bible Society and Religious Tract Society, has not been treated adequately by intellectual historians, social historians or historians of religion and education. This account adds to scholarly understanding of the multi-ethnic and trans-denominational work of international Protestantism in Central Europe.
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Lamarre, Christine. "Early Hakka Corpora Held by the Basel Mission Library: An Introduction." Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 31, no. 1 (2002): 71–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/19606028-90000099.
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This paper gives a brief outline of the Hakka Bibles and other religious or educational books in Hakka held by the Basel Mission Library, translated, edited and published during the 19th century by protestant missionaries of the Basel Evangelical Missionary Society. These documents provide us with some very valuable material available for grammatical, phonological or lexical studies of the Hakka colloquial. They also tell us how a Chinese dialect happened to develop (for a limited period though) a written language in Latin script and then in Chinese characters.
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Mercado, Monica L. "“Have You Ever Read?”: Imagining Women, Bibles, and Religious Print in Nineteenth-Century America." U.S. Catholic Historian 31, no. 3 (2013): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cht.2013.0023.
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Beck, Roger B. "Bibles and Beads: Missionaries as Traders in Southern Africa in the Early Nineteenth Century." Journal of African History 30, no. 2 (July 1989): 211–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700024105.
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Trade across the Cape frontier in the first three decades of the nineteenth century, and government attempts to regulate that trade, cannot be understood without first considering the role of Protestant missionaries as traders and bearers of European manufactured goods in the South African interior. From their arrival in 1799, missionaries of the London Missionary Society carried on a daily trade beyond the northern and eastern boundaries of the Cape Colony that was forbidden by law to the colonists. When missionaries of the Methodist Missionary Society arrived in the mid-1810s they too carried beads as well as Bibles to their mission stations outside the colony. Most missionaries were initially troubled by having to mix commercial activities with their religious duties. They were forced, however, to rely on trade in order to support themselves and their families because of the meagre material and monetary assistance they received from their societies. They introduced European goods among African societies beyond the Cape frontiers earlier and in greater quantities than any other enterprise until the commencement of the Fort Willshire fairs in 1824. Most importantly, they helped to bring about a transition from trade in beads, buttons and other traditional exchange items to a desire among many of the peoples with whom they came into contact for blankets, European clothing and metal tools and utensils, thus creating a growing dependency on European material goods that would eventually bring about a total transformation of these African societies.