Relevant bibliographies by topics / Cement clinkers

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Academic literature on the topic 'Cement clinkers'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 31 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Cement clinkers"

1

Žibret, Lea, Katarina Šter, Maruša Borštnar, Mojca Loncnar, and Sabina Dolenec. "The Incorporation of Steel Slag into Belite-Sulfoaluminate Cement Clinkers." Applied Sciences 11, no. 4 (February 19, 2021): 1840. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11041840.

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The potential use of steel slag from treated steel slag in belite-sulfoaluminate cements was investigated in this study. Cement clinkers with two phase compositions were synthesized, allowing the incorporation of different amounts of steel slag. The phase composition and microstructure of cement clinkers at three different sintering temperatures were studied by X-ray powder diffraction and the Rietveld method, as well as scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometry. The results showed that the targeted phase composition of clinkers was achieved at a sintering temperature of 1250 °C. However, a higher amount of perovskite instead of ferrite was detected in the clinker with a higher content of Ti-bearing bauxite. Apart from the main phases, such as belite, calcium sulfoaluminate, and ferrite, several minor phases were identified, including mayenite, perovskite, periclase, and alkali sulfates. In both clinker mixtures, a higher content of MgO in the steel slags resulted in the formation of periclase. Furthermore, the hydration kinetics and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days were studied in two cements prepared from clinkers sintered at 1250 °C. As evidenced by the results of isothermal calorimetry, the hydration kinetics were also influenced by the minor clinker phases. Cement with a higher content of calcium sulfoaluminate phase developed a higher compressive strength.
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Enríquez, M. K., J. I. Tobón, and J. H. Ramírez. "Use of industrial wastes for the synthesis of belite clinker." Materiales de Construcción 70, no. 339 (June 26, 2020): 226. http://dx.doi.org/10.3989/mc.2020.14219.

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The synthesis of belite clinker was studied using industrial wastes: paper sludge, cement kiln dust and rice husk ashes, as substitutes for natural raw materials. Wastes were characterized by XRF, XRD and TG analysis. Different formulations were prepared to produce clinker at 1300, 1350 and 1400 °C. The clinker obtained was characterized using optical microscopy, XRD and f-CaO content determined by ethylene glycol method. Finally, the hydration of prepared cements with the clinkers was evaluated by isothermal microcalo­rimetry. It was found that by mixing paper sludge, cement kiln dust and rice husk ashes, it is possible to obtain belite clinker with f-CaO content below 0.5%, in clinkering temperatures between 1350 °C and 1400 °C without the use of natural raw materials. It was found that these cements have a high hydration kinetic, far above the rate of Ordinary Portland Cement, due mainly by the amorphous phase content in clinkers obtained.
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Taimasov, B. T., B. K. Sarsenbayev, T. M. Khudyakova, A. S. Kolesnikov, and N. N. Zhanikulov. "Development and Testing of Low-Energy-Intensive Technology of Receiving Sulphate-Resistant and Road Portlandcement." Eurasian Chemico-Technological Journal 19, no. 4 (December 29, 2017): 347. http://dx.doi.org/10.18321/ectj683.

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The article presents the obtaining results of clinkers of sulfate resistant and road cement during the production tests process. The usage of man-made wastes such as lead slag, coal mining waste as well as clay component and additives. X-ray, chemical analyzes of starting materials, clinkers and obtained cements were carried out. The regularities of charge compositions, saturation coefficient, modules, burning regimes on chemical and mineralogical composition and quality of clinkers and cements, improvement of rotary kiln operation, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption are established. Various methods of analysis were used, calculations of raw mixtures composition were carried out according to the program "Shikhta" (designed to calculate the raw mix and the mineralogical composition of the clinker for the production of Portland cement. The program was developed in the V.G. Shukhov Belgorod State Technical University, Russia) and "Calculation of raw mixtures or CRM" (designed to calculate the raw mix of clinker. The program was developed in the M. Auezov South-Kazakhstan State University, Kazakhstan). The strength of factory and experimental cements was tested after 3, 7 and 28 days and after steaming.
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Shen, Yan, Xi Chen, Jiang Li, Peifang Wang, and Jueshi Qian. "Preparation and Performance of Ternesite–Ye’elimite Cement." Materials 15, no. 12 (June 20, 2022): 4369. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15124369.

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Ternesite–ye’elimite (TCSA) cement is a new type of environmentally advantageous binder prepared by introducing ternesite, a reactive phase, into belite calcium sulfoaluminate cement clinker. This paper reports the laboratory production of TCSA cement by the addition of minor elements to achieve the coexistence of ternesite and ye’elimite. The influence of dopants on the mineralogical composition of clinkers and the clinkering conditions for the preparation of TCSA cement clinkers were investigated by X-ray powder diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The mechanical properties and hydration products of the cement pastes were also studied. The results indicated that the addition of CaF2, P2O5 and Na2O can promote the coexistence of ternesite and ye’elimite, and that Na2O is the most effective candidate. TCSA cement clinkers could be successfully prepared at 1150 °C for 30 min by doping 0.3% Na2O. The TCSA cement clinkers exhibited shorter setting times than the BCSA cement clinkers. The later strength of TCSA cement showed a significant increase compared with BCSA cement. The effect of Na2O was different on the strength development for TCSA and BCSA cement. The dissolution of ternesite could promote the formation of ettringite. The reactivity of belite was higher in TCSA cement due to the formation of strätlingite.
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Bădănoiu, Alina, Adriana Moanță, Ovidiu Dumitrescu, Adrian Ionuț Nicoară, and Roxana Trușcă. "Waste Glass Valorization as Raw Material in the Production of Portland Clinker and Cement." Materials 15, no. 20 (October 21, 2022): 7403. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15207403.

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The paper presents experimental results regarding the synthesis of Portland clinker starting from raw mixes based on two types of clayey precursors, i.e., clay and marl (the most common types of raw materials used in the cement industry), with and without glass waste content. The soda-lime glass waste addition (5.36–5.59 wt %), used to control the silica ratio of the raw mix, improved the raw mix burnability and decreased the calcination temperature (by 20 °C), leading to a decrease in fuel consumption and contributing to the reduction in CO2 emissions associated with clinker and cement production. The clinkers obtained by the calcination of raw mixes with glass waste content at 1430 °C with a 30 min plateau had a similar mineralogical composition and microstructure to the clinkers obtained from the reference raw mixes and fulfilled the requirements of the specific standard EN 197-1. The obtained clinkers were used to produce two types of Portland cement, i.e., a unitary cement (CEM I) and a binary blended cement with slag (CEM II/B-S). The main characteristics of these cements, i.e., loss on ignition, insoluble residue, sulfate and chloride contents, as well as the setting time and soundness, meet the conditions stipulated in the EN 197-1 standard. The values of compressive strength, assessed on mortars after 2, 7 and 28 days of curing, allow the classification of all CEM I cements in the 42.5 R class. In the case of CEM II/B-S cements, those obtained from raw mixes with clay can be classified in the 42.5 N class, while those obtained from raw mixes with marl are classified in the 32.5 R class.
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Samchenko, Svetlana, and Dmitriy Zorin. "Electricity costs for grinding of cement with expanding additives." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 2.23 (April 20, 2018): 274. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.23.11930.

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The most popular building material, including on transport facilities, is cement. Cement production is associated with the electricity costs. The biggest cost item is the consumption for the cement clinker grinding. It is known that disperse characteristics of cements, such as fineness of grinding, specific surface, coarseness of grading, largely determine their hydraulic properties, and for expanding cements - the deformation ones. In the paper, the issues of electric power consumption were considered when grinding extender expanders: aluminous slag, sulfoaluminate, sulfoferrite and sulfoalumoferrite clinkers.
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Dolenec, Sabina, Katarina Šter, Maruša Borštnar, Klara Nagode, Andrej Ipavec, and Lea Žibret. "Effect of the Cooling Regime on the Mineralogy and Reactivity of Belite-Sulfoaluminate Clinkers." Minerals 10, no. 10 (October 15, 2020): 910. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min10100910.

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This study investigated the influence of different cooling regimes on the microstructure and consequent reactivity of belite-sulfoaluminate clinkers. The cement clinkers were synthesized by incorporating secondary raw materials, such as titanogypsum and bottom ash, to the natural raw materials. Clinker phases were determined by Rietveld quantitative phase analysis, while the distribution morphology and the incorporation of substitute ions in the phases were characterized by scanning electron microscopy using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS). Clinker reactivity was studied using isothermal calorimetry and was additionally investigated through compressive strength, which was determined for the cement prepared from the synthesized clinkers. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that, as well as the three main phases (belite, calcium sulfoaluminate, and ferrite), the clinkers contained additional minor phases (mayenite, gehlenite, arkanite, periclase, and perovskite), the ratios of which varied according to the cooling regime utilized. Microscopic observations indicated that the cooling regime also influenced the crystal size and morphology of the main phases, which consequently affected clinker reactivity. Furthermore, a smaller amount of substitute elements was incorporated in the main phases when cooling was slowed. Results showed that, in comparison to clinkers cooled at slower rates, air quenched clinkers reacted faster and exhibited a higher compressive strength at 7 days.
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Luo, Li, Yimin Zhang, Shenxu Bao, and Tiejun Chen. "Utilization of Iron Ore Tailings as Raw Material for Portland Cement Clinker Production." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2016 (2016): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/1596047.

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The cement industry has for some time been seeking alternative raw material for the Portland cement clinker production. The aim of this research was to investigate the possibility of utilizing iron ore tailings (IOT) to replace clay as alumina-silicate raw material for the production of Portland cement clinker. For this purpose, two kinds of clinkers were prepared: one was prepared by IOT; the other was prepared by clay as a reference. The reactivity and burnability of raw meal, mineralogical composition and physical properties of clinker, and hydration characteristic of cement were studied by burnability analysis, differential thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, and hydration analysis. The results showed that the raw meal containing IOT had higher reactivity and burnability than the raw meal containing clay, and the use of IOT did not affect the formation of characteristic mineralogical phases of Portland cement clinker. Furthermore, the physical and mechanical performance of two cement clinkers were similar. In addition, the use of IOT was found to improve the grindability of clinker and lower the hydration heat of Portland cement. These findings suggest that IOT can replace the clay as alumina-silicate raw material for the preparation of Portland cement clinker.
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Orazimbetova, Gulistan, Umid Turdialiev, and Laura Biniyazova. "Composition of raw mixes for portland cement clinkers using andesic basalt rock." E3S Web of Conferences 452 (2023): 06001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202345206001.

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This article studies, calculation of compositions of raw mixes and development of clinker production technology on the basis of using local raw materials of Karakalpakstan, is an effective solution to the problem of covering the needs of the construction industry of the autonomous republic in cement. As well as component composition of raw mixes with different values of saturation coefficient (SC), silicate (n) and alumina (p) modules, calculated chemical and mineralogical composition of clinker on the base of new raw mixes. Some properties of clinkers and Portland cements based on them have been studied. Keywords: limestone, andesibasalt, brown ironstone, barchan sand, raw mixes, firing, clinker, general construction, sulphate-resistant, Portland cement
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León-Reina, L., A. G. De la Torre, J. M. Porras-Vázquez, M. Cruz, L. M. Ordonez, X. Alcobé, F. Gispert-Guirado, et al. "Round robin on Rietveld quantitative phase analysis of Portland cements." Journal of Applied Crystallography 42, no. 5 (September 8, 2009): 906–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0021889809028374.

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Interlaboratory studies on the precision and accuracy of Rietveld quantitative phase analysis (R-QPA) of mixtures of crystalline phases have already been carried out. However, cement-related materials are samples of variable complexity, ranging from three phases in white Portland clinkers to more than eight phases in grey cements, that need to be specifically investigated. Here, the results are reported from a round robin on the R-QPA of cement-related materials from laboratories with experience in this type of analysis. The aim of the work was to evaluate the levels of precision and accuracy associated with Portland clinkers and cements. Two sets of samples have been investigated, artificial mixtures and commercial samples. Artificial mixtures were prepared by mixing (weighing) synthesized single-crystalline phases in the appropriate proportions: (i) white clinker (Ca3SiO5, Ca2SiO4and Ca3Al2O6) and (ii) grey cement (Ca3SiO5, Ca2SiO4, Ca3Al2O6, Ca4Al2Fe2O10, CaCO3and CaSO4·2H2O). These two samples were used to assess the accuracy and uncertainty of the procedure, as an expected mineralogical phase fraction, the `true mineralogical percentage', is available under the assumption of negligible non-diffracting contents. In order to assess the validity and limitations of the Rietveld-based approach for cement materials, three commercial samples were measured: (i) white Portland clinker, (ii) grey Portland clinker and (iii) a type-I grey Portland cement. The samples studied have been chosen in order to cover most of the different typologies of binders. Reproducibilities and general uncertainty values, with a level of confidence of 95%, are reported and discussed.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Cement clinkers"

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Peterson, Vanessa Kate. "Diffraction investigations of cement clinker and tricalcium silicate using Rietveld analysis /." Electronic version, 2003. http://adt.lib.uts.edu.au/public/adt-NTSM20040830.173127/index.html.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Technology, Sydney, 2003.
"Submited for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Technology, Sydney, Dept. of Chemistry, Materials and Forensic Sciences, August 2003" Bibliographic references: leaves 224-232.
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Skalamprinos, Solon. "Hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cements." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 2017. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=234036.

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The necessity to reduce CO2 emissions has increased the driving force for the cement research community to develop alternatives to traditional Portland cement (PC). One of the alternative cements being investigated is calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CS ̅A), first developed commercially in China in the 1970's. CS ̅A cements are produced by clinkering together limestone, bauxite, clay and calcium sulfate to produce mainly ye'elimite (C4A3S ̅) and belite (C2S). Due to the presence of ye'elimite, SO3 content is typically between 6 – 10 wt%. The abundance of elemental sulfur arising from the desulfurisation of oil and gas and its use to produce CS ̅A clinkers were the starting points of the Green Concrete Project (GCP), which aimed to develop a novel approach to produce CS ̅A cement via the combustion of elemental sulfur, recycling this by-product and reducing the dependence on hydrocarbon fuels. Integrating the current knowledge on the production of CS ̅A, a new generation of CS ̅A belite calcium sulfoaluminate (BCS ̅A) and belite-ye'elimite-ternesite (BYT) clinkers incorporating the combustion of elemental sulfur has been successfully developed and produced in a pilot plant production process. A high-temperature thermodynamic model was developed to predict stable assemblages and to complement and validate experimental results. Within the frame of the GCP, the title thesis focused on collecting conditional thermodynamic data for ye'elimite and ternesite (enthalpy of formation) that were determined experimentally using isothermal conduction calorimetry. The enthalpies of formation of ye'elimite and ternesite at 25 °C were determined to be -8523 kJ/mol and -5993 kJ/mol, respectively. The thesis was also focus on characterising two clinkers of interest (designated BCS ̅A and BYT) obtained from a pilot plant trial (with the novelty of sulfur combustion). The obtained clinkers, BCS ̅A and BYT, have a distinctive mineralogy where alpha prime belite (α΄-C2S) and ternesite (C5S2S ̅) are present, respectively. Both phases are candidates to replace a significant amount of ye'elimite and therefore reduce the need of expensive bauxite to establish a more sustainable cement. The alpha prime polymorph of belite proved to be more reactive than the beta. However, actions had to be taken to control the fast setting of this BCS ̅A cement. To provide a solution to the fast setting problem a variety of retarders were investigated: 0.5 wt% citric acid with an additional 5 wt% gypsum showed the best results. A fundamental solution was also Abstract 5 investigated in order to avoid the use of any retarders. The results showed that the clinkering temperature should be around 1300 °C. The hydration of ternesite in the BYT cement was found to be moderate. Therefore, a thorough investigation was conducted to understand and find ways to enhance its reactivity. It was found that the addition/presence of 0.4 wt% MgO, 0.2 wt% K2O and 0.1wt% Na2O in the raw meal required for the synthesis of ternesite, can increase its reactivity. Furthermore, it was found that particle size distribution above 600 m2/kg can also accelerate its reactivity. Single-phase chemically activated ternesite hydrated rapidly at 25 °C, achieving compressive strengths of ≈ 30 and ≈ 65 MPa at 28 and 90 days respectively, with C-S-H and gypsum as hydration products.
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Swart, Dustin W. "The utilization of alternative fuels in the production of Portland cement." Auburn, Ala., 2007. http://repo.lib.auburn.edu/07M%20Theses/SWART_DUSTIN_26.pdf.

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Akkapeddi, Srikanth Schindler Anton K. "Alternative solid fuels for the production of Portland cement." Auburn, Ala., 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10415/1432.

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Wilson, William S. M. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Grinding of cement clinkers : linking multi-scale fracture properties to system chemistry, mineralogy and microstructure." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/82861.

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Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2013.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 162-172).
Growing environmental concerns encourage the cement industry to improve its environmental performance, which in turn renews the interest in clinker grinding efficiency. Current knowledge on clinker grinding was built over the past decades, but contributions from fracture mechanics remained limited. This research aimed to contribute to this field by investigating industrial clinkers with innovative techniques such as multiscale microscratching and statistical electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA). Microstructure investigations were first performed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and three characteristic length scales were defined for clinkers: the nodules at the macroscale, the clinker matrix and porosity at the intermediate scale, and the clinker phases at the microscale. A statistical EPMA method was developed to allow simultaneous determination of the clinker bulk chemistry, the chemistry of the clinker phases, and their abundance. The microscratch test method was downscaled to measure the fracture properties at each characteristic scale of clinkers. Measurements on single silicate grains provided access to the intrinsic fracture toughness, which was three to four time lower than the macroscale fracture toughness. A combination of microstructure effects and toughening mechanisms (crack deflection, crack tip shielding by microcracks, crack trapping, and crack pinning) explained this behavior. Comparison of industrial clinkers showed that higher macroscale toughness (i.e., poor coarse grindability) was associated with oversized alite crystals, which was explained by the increase of microcracks toughening with larger grain size. In contrast, lower macroscale fracture toughness (i.e., better coarse grindability) was associated with either poorly burned clinkers showing excessive porosity or well burned clinkers having a good repartition of small silicates. However, difficulties in fine grinding were expected for the poorly burned clinkers because of the increased amounts of clustered belite. Overall, this thesis presents new experimental methods to investigate clinkers, as well as links between clinkers properties and grindability, both of which hold interest to the scientific community and the cement industry.
by William Wilson.
S.M.
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Puthur, Jayapalan Amal Raj. "Properties of cement-based materials in the presence of nano and microparticle additives." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/49104.

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Cement clinker production is a highly resource and energy intensive process and contributes substantially to annual global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. One potential pathway to reduce the environmental footprint of cement-based materials is through the reduction of clinker content in concrete by partial replacement of cement with fillers. In this investigation, the partial replacement of cement with chemically inert nano and microsized fillers of titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and limestone was examined. The effects of nano and micro fillers on early-age properties, long-term properties, photocatalytic properties (for TiO₂-cement mixtures) and life cycle costs were measured and compared. Investigation of early-age properties shows that nanoparticles increase rate and degree of early cement hydration and chemical shrinkage due to heterogeneous nucleation effect. In contrast, coarser microparticles (>3µm in this research) maintain or marginally decrease the rate and degree of early cement hydration and decrease chemical shrinkage due to a dilution effect. In addition, temperature sensitivity of hydration reactions increases in the presence of nanoparticles. Investigation of long-term properties shows that pore size refinement is possible with the partial replacement of cement with nanoparticle fillers. But the long-term tests of filler-cement mixes also demonstrate that, compared to ordinary portland cement mix, the strength decreases and permeability increases. Analysis of photocatalytic properties of TiO₂-cement mixtures showed a lack of an appropriate testing procedure for nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) gas conversion by cement-based materials. Thus, a new standardized procedure and photocatalytic efficiency factor for characterizing photocatalytic NOₓ binding by cementitious materials is proposed. Life cycle analysis demonstrates that although inclusion of TiO₂ increases initial environmental impact of cementitious materials, the innovative photocatalytic properties of TiO₂ could improve sustainability. Life cycle analysis also shows that partial replacement of cement with limestone decreases environmental impact of cementitious mixtures due to lower processing “costs” of limestone compared to cement. Thus, the results from the current research demonstrate that variation of dosage and particle size of inert fillers can be used to tailor properties and structure of cement-based materials and that environmental sustainability can be improved by partial replacement of cement with inert fillers that introduce additional functionalities or fillers with lower embodied-energy and emissions.
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Van, Rompaey Gilles. "Etude de la réactivité des ciments riches en laitier, à basse température et à temps court, sans ajout chloruré." Doctoral thesis, Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/210780.

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Le ciment Portland est de loin le liant hydraulique le plus connu et utilisé depuis de très nombreuses années tant dans le secteur de la construction civile qu’au niveau du stockage des déchets (barrières ouvragées ou matériau de confinement). Le processus industriel qui donne naissance au clinker, constituant de base du ciment Portland, n’a pas subi de modifications depuis des décennies.

Par ailleurs, au cours de ces dernières années, certaines considérations telles que le réchauffement climatique et le développement durable ont mis à mal les industries qui émettent des gaz à effets de serre et qui sont grosses consommatrices d’énergie.

Or, la production de ciment Portland n’est pas uniquement consommatrice de calcaires, d’argiles, de marnes et de combustibles fossiles, elle produit et libère ces gaz à effets de serre tels que le dioxyde de carbone (CO2) et l’hémioxyde nitreux (N2O). Le dioxyde de soufre (SO2), l’acide chlorhydrique (HCl) ainsi que d’autres oxydes d’azote (NOx) sont également émis lors du processus de fabrication du clinker. Le secteur des matériaux de construction contribue de façon importante aux émissions de CO2, le principal responsable du réchauffement climatique.

La problématique majeure de l’industrie cimentière provient d’un simple processus chimique de transformation :la décarbonatation du calcaire ou de la craie, débutant vers 550°C, qui forme de la chaux (CaO) et qui libère du dioxyde de carbone selon la réaction suivante :

CaCO3 =\
Doctorat en sciences, Spécialisation géologie
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

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Boulot, Karine. "Les éléments mineurs dans le procédé cimentier." Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, INPL, 1993. http://www.theses.fr/1993INPL149N.

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Du potassium, sodium, soufre et chlore passent en phase gazeuse dans les fours de cimenterie. Ils circulent alors a contre courant de la matière, se condensent dans les zones plus froides du four, sont repris par le circuit matière et retournent en zone chaude. Ils constituent une charge circulante perturbant la cuisson. Or, il devient économiquement intéressant d'utiliser des matières et combustibles à fortes teneurs en éléments volatils. Il s'avère alors nécessaire d'en maitriser la recirculation. - introduction : mise en évidence des problèmes industriels lies a la recirculation. - éléments bibliographiques : étude bibliographique de base et industrielle dont la synthèse a permis le choix des voies de recherche. - étude de la volatilisation primaire : le sodium commence à se volatiliser à 1450C°. Le potassium commence à se volatiliser aux environs de 1200C° A 1450C°, il reste de 5 a 40 % du potassium initial (qui dépend de la phase minérale porteuse). - étude de la volatilisation secondaire : il se forme, dans les fours, du chlorure de potassium, du sulfate de potassium, de sodium et de calcium qui se comportent différemment les uns des autres. Le chlorure de potassium : volatilisation pour des températures bien inferieures a 1450C°. Le sulfate de potassium : en atmosphère oxydante, sa volatilisation est limitée par la pression de vapeur saturante du sulfate de potassium gazeux. En atmosphère réductrice, elle s'effectue par décomposition. Le sulfate de sodium : volatilisation très faible en atmosphère oxydante ; mais importante, par décomposition, en atmosphère neutre ou réductrice. Le sulfate de calcium : volatilisation par décomposition influencée par l'atmosphère de cuisson. - étude du piégeage du chlore gazeux. Entre 700 et 800c. - étude de la recirculation dans un four vertical a gradient thermique. - l'influence du sodium et de sulfates sur la clinkerisation : à hautes doses, ils sont des poisons de la clinkerisation
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Champenois, Jean-Baptiste. "Etude de l’hydratation des ciments sulfo-alumineux par des solutions de borate de sodium : de la spéciation du bore au retard à l'hydratation." Thesis, Montpellier 2, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012MON20252/document.

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Dans le circuit primaire des réacteurs nucléaires à eau pressurisée, le bore participe au contrôle des réactions de fission. Le traitement de cette solution génère des déchets aqueux contenant une forte concentration en bore (de 1 à 3 mol/L). Le conditionnement de ces déchets à l'aide d'un ciment silico-calcique est compliqué par le fort pouvoir retardateur des ions borate sur l'hydratation du liant. Un traitement des déchets à la chaux est nécessaire pour précipiter les ions borate sous forme d'hexahydroborite. Cette stratégie, si elle limite le retard d'hydratation, ne le supprime pas. Par ailleurs, l'hexahydroborite est instable en milieu cimentaire et se convertit dans le temps en boroaluminate de calcium. Une autre approche pourrait consister à utiliser un ciment sulfoalumineux bélitique à forte teneur en ye'elimite. Ce liant présente en effet l'avantage de former en quantité importante des phases de type AFm et/ou AFt lors de son hydratation, phases qui peuvent incorporer des ions borate dans leur structure.Au cours de ce travail, l'hydratation de ciments sulfoalumineux par des solutions de borate de sodium a été étudiée au jeune âge et à plus long terme (sur une durée de 2 ans) dans l'objectif de préciser l'influence d'un ensemble de paramètres (pH du déchet, concentration en bore, taux de gypse du ciment) sur la vitesse d'hydratation du liant, la nature des hydrates formés, et les propriétés du matériau obtenu (résistance mécanique, stabilité dimensionnelle). Pour ce faire, une démarche analytique, procédant par complexification progressive des systèmes étudiés, a été mise en œuvre. Ainsi ont été successivement abordées la spéciation du bore en solution alcaline, l'étude des phases précipitant au sein des systèmes {CaO, B2O3, Na2O, H2O}, {CaO, B2O3, Al2O3, H2O} et {CaO, Al2O3, B2O3, SO3, H2O}, puis celle des pâtes de ciment gâchées avec une solution boratée simulant le déchet. L'approche expérimentale a été complétée par des modélisations thermodynamiques s'appuyant sur une base de données spécialement développée pour les besoins de l'étude.Il apparaît que le gypse joue un rôle primordial dans le contrôle de la réactivité du ciment. L'ajout de gypse fixe, par un mécanisme indirect, le pH de la solution interstitielle à une valeur proche de 11, ce qui favorise la précipitation transitoire d'un composé boraté faiblement cristallisé, l'ulexite. La dissolution des phases anhydres du ciment est alors fortement ralentie jusqu'à l'épuisement du gypse, conduisant ainsi à des retards de prise considérables. En l'absence de gypse, le retard à l'hydratation est de plus faible amplitude. Dans ces conditions, le pH de la solution interstitielle atteint des valeurs plus élevées, ce qui permet de déstabiliser rapidement l'ulexite. A plus long terme, les ions borate sont incorporés au sein d'une phase de type AFt, en solution solide avec les ions sulfate. Les résultats obtenus permettent de conclure que ce sont les ciments sulfo-alumineux contenant une faible teneur en gypse qui sont les plus adaptés au conditionnement de solutions à forte concentration en bore
In the primary circuit of pressurized water reactors, boron helps controlling the fission reactions. The treatment of this solution produces aqueous low-level or intermediate-level and short lived radioactive with a high boron concentration (up to 1 to 3 mol/L). Stabilization/solidification of such wastes with calcium silicate cement is complicated by the strong retarding effect of borate ions on cement hydration. A calcium hydroxide addition is required to precipitate borate ions into hexahydroborite. With this approach, the hydration delay is limited, but not suppressed. Besides, hexahydroborite is unstable in the cement paste and is progressively converted into a hydrated calcium boroaluminate phase. Another strategy may consist in using belite calcium sulfoaluminate cement with high ye'elimite content. During hydration, this binder forms indeed large amounts of AFm and/or AFt phases which can incorporate borate ions into their structure.In this work, hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cement by borated solutions was investigated at early age, and over a 2-year period, in order to determine the influence of a set of parameters (boron concentration and pH of the waste, gypsum content of the cement) on the hydration rate of the binder, on the phase assemblage formed, and on the properties of the resulting material (mechanical strength, volume change). An analytical approach was adopted, based on a progressive increase in the complexity of the investigated systems. The focus was successively placed on the speciation of boron in alkaline solution, on the study of the phases formed within the {CaO, B2O3, Na2O, H2O}, {CaO, B2O3, Al2O3, H2O} and {CaO, Al2O3, B2O3, SO3, H2O} systems, and on the characterization of cement pastes prepared with a borate solution which mimicked the waste. The experimental approach was completed by thermodynamic modelling using a database specially developed for the needs of the study. Gypsum appears to play a key role in controlling the reactivity of cement. The gypsum addition sets, by an indirect mechanism, the interstitial solution pH at a value close to 11, which promotes the precipitation of a poorly crystallized borated compound, ulexite. Dissolution of the anhydrous phases is strongly slowed down until the exhaustion of gypsum, and major delays are observed. Without any gypsum, the hydration delay is shorter. Under these conditions, the pore solution pH reaches higher values after mixing. Ulexite is consequently quickly destabilized. Borate anions are then incorporated into a mixed borate/sulphate AFt type phase. It appears that calcium sulfoaluminate cements with low gypsum contents should be recommended to solidify borated solutions
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Krour, Hichem. "Recyclage du ciment dans le ciment : incorporation des déchets de construction et de démolition dans le cru cimentier." Electronic Thesis or Diss., Université de Lorraine, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021LORR0008.

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Le projet Européen « SeRaMCo » vise à la fabrication d’éléments préfabriqués en béton contenant des granulats recyclés et du ciment « recyclé ». Ce ciment est fabriqué en incorporant des déchets de construction et de démolition dans le cru cimentier, notamment la fraction fine qui est la plus riche en pâte de ciment durci. Cette thèse de doctorat a permis de mieux comprendre l’impact de la variabilité chimique et minéralogique des granulats recyclés sur le taux d’incorporation et sur la proportion des autres constituants du cru. Les synthèses en laboratoire et caractérisations associées ont permis de suivre l’évolution de la minéralogie au cours de l’élévation de la température et pour plusieurs types et taux de granulats recyclés. Les essais ont aussi montré, notamment par microscopie électronique en transmission, que pour un taux élevé d’incorporation, la présence de quartz, de feldspath et de céramique peut altérer l’aptitude à la cuisson du cru et les mécanismes réactionnels. En partenariat avec le cimentier VICAT, les travaux ont prouvé qu’il est possible de produire un ciment « recyclé » industriel aux propriétés usuelles en ajustant au besoin le procédé de fabrication ou en réduisant le taux d’incorporation. Un taux d’incorporation même limité permet de valoriser sans difficultés les déchets disponibles à l’échelle régionale d’une cimenterie en préservant ses ressources naturelles. Ces travaux offrent également de nouvelles perspectives quant à la valorisation d’autres matériaux en cimenterie et l’étude de leur réactivité
The European "SeRaMCo" project aims to manufacture precast concrete elements containing recycled aggregates and "recycled" cement. This cement is obtained by incorporating construction and demolition waste into its raw material, in particular the fine fraction which is the richest in hardened cement paste. This PhD thesis provided a better understanding of the impact of the chemical and mineralogical variability of recycled aggregates on the incorporation rate and on the proportion of other raw materials. Laboratory syntheses and associated characterizations allowed to follow the evolution of the mineralogy during the rise in temperature and for several types and rates of recycled aggregates. Tests, including transmission electron microscopy, have also shown that for a high rate of incorporation, the presence of quartz, feldspar and ceramic can affect the burnability of the cement raw meal and the reaction mechanisms. In partnership with the cement manufacturer VICAT, the work has shown that it is possible to produce an industrial "recycled" cement with usual properties by adjusting the manufacturing process as needed or by reducing the rate of incorporation. Even a limited incorporation rate allows to recover easily the waste available on a regional scale from a cement plant while preserving its natural resources. This work also offers new perspectives for the recovery of other materials in cement works and the study of their reactivity
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Books on the topic "Cement clinkers"

1

Sprung, S. Technological problems in pyroprocessing cement clinker: Cause and solution. Düsseldorf: Beton-Verlag, 1985.

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B, Khydyrov M., Dmitrievskiĭ A. N, and Turkmenskiĭ nauchno-issledovatelʹskiĭ geologorazvedochnyĭ institut, eds. Alinitovye vi͡a︡zhushchie. Ashgabat: Ylym, 1992.

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Bikbau, M. I͡A. Alinitovyĭ t͡sement. Moskva: Stroĭizdat, 1989.

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Krcmar, Wolfgang. Untersuchungen über das Verhalten der Spurenelemente bei der Zementherstellung. Karlsruhe: Universität Karlsruhe, 1991.

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United States International Trade Commission. Certain calcium aluminate cement and cement clinker from France. Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1993.

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United States International Trade Commission. Certain calcium aluminate cement and cement clinker from France. Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1994.

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United States International Trade Commission. Certain calcium aluminate cement and cement clinker from France. Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1993.

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Rickert, Jörg. Zum Einfluss von Langzeitverzögerern auf der Basis von Phosphonsäure auf die Hydratation einzelner Klinkerphasen, Portlandzementklinker und Portlandzemente. Düsseldorf: Bau + Technik, 2004.

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United States International Trade Commission, ed. Portland hydraulic cement and cement clinker from Colombia, France, Greece, Japan, Mexico, the Republic of Korea, Spain, and Venezuela: Determinations of the Commission in investigations nos. 731-TA-356 through 363 (preliminary) under the Tariff Act of 1930, together with the information obtained in the investigations. Washington, DC: U.S. International Trade Commission, 1986.

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Campbell, Donald H. Microscopical examination and interpretation of portland cement and clinker. Skokie, Ill: Construction Technology Laboratories, 1986.

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Book chapters on the topic "Cement clinkers"

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Aranda, Miguel A. G., Angeles G. De la Torre, and Laura Ledn-Reirta. "5. Rietveld Quantitative Phase Analysis of OPC Clinkers, Cements and Hydration Products." In Applied Mineralogy of Cement & Concrete, edited by Maarten A. T. M. Broekmans and Herbert Pöllmann, 169–210. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781501508356-007.

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Kurdowski, Wieslaw. "Portland Cement Clinker." In Cement and Concrete Chemistry, 21–127. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7945-7_2.

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Kurdowski, Wieslaw. "Hydration of Clinker Phases." In Cement and Concrete Chemistry, 129–203. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7945-7_3.

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Sengupta, Prasunjit. "Coating and Burnability of Clinker." In Refractories for the Cement Industry, 185–92. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21340-4_8.

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Mishin, D. A., S. V. Kovalev, S. I. Antsiferov, A. V. Karachevtseva, and N. S. Lubimyi. "White Cement Clinker Roasting Intensification." In Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 336–41. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20459-3_42.

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Huang, G., Y. Zhuge, T. Benn, and Y. Liu. "Optimisation of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement Based on Response Surface Method." In Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 103–12. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3330-3_13.

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AbstractLimestone calcined clay cement (LC3) is a new type of cement that contains Portland cement, calcined clay, and limestone. Compared with traditional cement clinker, LC3 reduces CO2 emissions by up to 40%, and is a promising technology for the cement industry to achieve its emission target. We used a numerical approach to predict the optimum composition of LC3 mortar. The experiments were performed using central composite rotational design under the response surface methodology. The method combined the design of mixtures and multi-response statistical optimization, in which the 28-day compressive strength was maximized while the CO2 emissions and materials cost were simultaneously minimized. The model with a nonsignificant lack of fit and a high coefficient of determination (R2) revealed a well fit and adequacy of the quadratic regression model to predict the performance of LC3 mixtures. An optimum LC3 mixture can be achieved with 43.4% general purpose cement, 34.16% calcined clay, 20.6% limestone and 1.94% gypsum.
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Stutzman, Paul E. "3. Microscopy of Clinker and Hydraulic Cements." In Applied Mineralogy of Cement & Concrete, edited by Maarten A. T. M. Broekmans and Herbert Pöllmann, 101–46. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781501508356-005.

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Krishnan, Sreejith, Arun C. Emmanuel, and Shashank Bishnoi. "Effective Clinker Replacement Using SCM in Low Clinker Cements." In RILEM Bookseries, 517–21. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9939-3_64.

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Krishnan, Sreejith, and Shashank Bishnoi. "High Level Clinker Replacement in Ternary Limestone-Calcined Clay-Clinker Cement." In Advances in Structural Engineering, 1725–31. New Delhi: Springer India, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2187-6_131.

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Shen, Dejian, and Xin Wang. "Simulation on Mixed-Control of Dissolution and Diffusion Mechanisms of Tricalcium Silicate." In Simulation on Hydration of Tricalcium Silicate in Cement Clinker, 39–64. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4598-6_3.

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Conference papers on the topic "Cement clinkers"

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Krivoborodov, Yury. "THE USE OF SULPHATE WASTE FOR MODIFYING CEMENT CLINKERS." In 19th SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference EXPO Proceedings. STEF92 Technology, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2019/6.2/s26.039.

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Alex, Aleena, B. S. Sindu, and Saptarshi Sasmal. "Uniaxial Tension and Compression Studies on Cement Clinkers Using Molecular Dynamic Simulations." In 5th International Congress on Computational Mechanics and Simulation. Singapore: Research Publishing Services, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.3850/978-981-09-1139-3_054.

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El Fami, Nisrine, Hind Agourrame, Nacer Khachani, Ali Boukhari, and Adeljebbar Diouri. "Influence of the Variability of Limestone and Fly Ash on the Setting and Mechanical Properties of a Moroccan Composite Cement." In 4th International Conference on Bio-Based Building Materials. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/cta.1.549.

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The Moroccan cement industry is looking for new processes to effectively minimize the high energy costs associated to cement manufacturing. This work presents the effect of three types of limestone with different chemical compositions and different CaCO3 contents on the physical and mechanical properties of resulting composite cements by the addition of fly ash in the proportions by weight of: 5 % and 10 %. The samples are studied in order to evaluate the interaction between different types of limestone and fly ash. Ternary cements based on fly ash-limestone-clinker induce a significant prolongation of the setting time compared to binary cements based on limestone-clinker. The substitution of clinker by limestone induces an improvement in mechanical strength compared to ternary cements in the first days; at 28 days, cements prepared with fly ashes reach significant strength due to their pozzolanic reaction.
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El-Shafey, Ramadan E., Mohamed Heikal, Hatem El-Dsoky, Gehad Mohamed Saleh, and Ahmed Abubakr Omar. "Geochemical and Experimental Investigations of some Egyptian Volcanic Tuffaceous Rocks as Natural Supplementary Cementitious Materials." In 15th International Conference on Sustainable Green Construction and Nano-Technology "Advances in Fire Safety, HVAC-R, and Built Environment". Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/p-1q2wab.

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Supplementary cementitious materials are additives that are used to improve the qualities of Portland cement while also reducing its environmental impact. The production of such blended cements relies on the regional availability of additional components. Despite the prevalence of volcanic tuffs in the Eastern Desert and South Sinai encountered in Egypt, there is a scarcity of knowledge regarding experimental research on cement manufacture. The main objective of this study is to analyze the geochemical and experimental characteristics of several volcanic tuffaceous rocks exploited as natural additional cementitious materials and their impact on the characteristics of the resulting blended cement. The partially replacement can play an important role in reducing the local environmental impacts (CO2 emissions). Various volcanic rock specimens have been collected from the Sinai (Wadi Kid) and the Eastern Desert (Gabal Umm Zarabit, Wadi Umm Khariga, Gabal Igla El-Iswid, and Abu Wassat), Egypt. The samples under study were examined for their mineralogy, petrography, and chemical composition in order to identify their specifications. In addition, a total of fifteen blended cement samples were produced by partially replacing clinker with the investigated samples. The substitution ratios used were 10%, 20%, and 25% by mass. A control mix was also designed, consisting of ordinary Portland cement without any other substances. An assessment has been conducted on the effects of partially replacing clinker with volcanic rocks on the characteristics of the resulting blended cement. The physico-mechanical parameters, including Blaine, setting time, flexural strength, and compressive strength, of the hardened blended mortars were measured at specific times (7 and 28 days). The study demonstrated that the strength of the studied blended cement mixes decreased as the fraction of the examined volcanic rocks to clinker ratio increased throughout the early stages. The highest compressive strength among the mixtures evaluated was achieved when using a 10% ratio of volcanic rocks as clinker replacement.
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Cohen, S. M. "Fluid Bed Cexent Clinker Applications." In IEEE Cement Industry Technical Conference. IEEE, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/citcon.1992.687633.

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Bohan, R. P., and J. P. Kline. "Breakthrough in Clinker grinding." In 2013 IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference. IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/citcon.2013.6525273.

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Amin, A. B., and J. M. Kutz. "Hydraulic drive systems for Clinker coolers." In 2013 IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference. IEEE, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/citcon.2013.6525263.

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Taylor, H. F. W. "Sulfates in Portland clinker and cement." In International RILEM Workshop on Internal Sulfate Attack and Delayed Ettringite Formation. RILEM Publications SARL, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1617/2912143802.001.

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de Oca, P. M. "Quality of clinker related to preheater performance." In 2012 IEEE-IAS/PCA Cement Industry Technical Conference. IEEE, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/citcon.2012.6215698.

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Scheinherrova, Lenka, Michal Benes, Milan Steffek, Jitka Krejsova, and Robert Cerny. "THE EFFECT OF CALCINATION TEMPERATURE AND DURATION ON THE COMPOSITION AND MORPHOLOGY OF SYNTHESIZED C3A." In 23rd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2023. STEF92 Technology, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2023v/6.2/s26.72.

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Green building materials are gaining attention for achieving carbon neutrality in civil engineering. To reduce CO2 emissions from cement, using low-cement or cement-free materials with local supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is promising. Blended cements with SCMs enhance long-term strength, but low-clinker blends often have low early strength. To address this, understanding the hydration of ordinary Portland cement is crucial. While C3S has been studied, the role of C3A, the most reactive component of cement, has been explored less. This study aims to produce C3A in laboratory conditions, assessing the effects of calcination temperature and time on its composition and morphology. The C3A samples are prepared using the empirically computed amounts of CaCO3 and Al2O3. The proposed design aims to produce pure cubic C3A, with up to 3 wt.% of unreacted CaO and no mayenite C12A7 as side products. The results obtained demonstrated that the duration for which the maximum temperature is maintained before extracting the samples from the furnace is a crucial factor that exerts the most significant influence on the presence of mayenite in the C3A structure. The synthesized C3A will then be added into blends, and its impact on early strength will be evaluated. The findings from this study have the potential to provide valuable insights for designing and producing more environmentally friendly cements, with a specific focus on achieving superior early strength performance.
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Reports on the topic "Cement clinkers"

1

Stutzman, Paul E. X-ray powder diffraction analysis of three portland cement reference material clinkers. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.4785.

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Stutzman, Paul E., Jeffrey Bullard, and Pan Feng. Quantitative Imaging of Clinker and Cement Microstructure. National Institute of Standards and Technology, April 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.tn.1877.

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Matar, Walid, and Doaa Filali. Alternative Fuels for Saudi Cement Manufacturing with Time-varying Carbon Pricing. King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center, January 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.30573/ks--2022-dp12.

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After cement production in Saudi Arabia surged in the first half of the 2010s due to the country’s rapid economic development, it has slowed measurably in recent years as economic growth has declined. This is shown in Figure 1, along with the evolution of the Kingdom’s real gross domestic income (RGDI). Still, it ranks among the top 10 countries for existing cement kiln capacity. The Saudi cement industry has relied on Arab Heavy crude oil, heavy fuel oil (HFO), and natural gas to produce clinker, a key cement ingredient.
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Struble, L., and H. Kanare. Cooperative calibration and analysis of cement clinker phases. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.89-4164.

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Stutzman, Paul, and Alan Heckert. Certification of standard reference material SRM2687a, Portland cement clinker. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, March 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.sp.260-195.

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Stutzman, Paul, Laura Mundy, and Alan Heckert. Certification of Standard Reference Material® 2686b Portland Cement Clinker. National Institute of Standards and Technology, April 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.sp.260-204.

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Bullard, Jeffrey. MicroChar: An Application for Quantitative Analysis of Cement and Clinker Microstructure Images. National Institute of Standards and Technology, April 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.tn.1876.

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Stutzman, Paul E., and Leslie Struble. Instructions in Using GSAS Rietveld Software for Quantitative X-ray Diffraction Analysis of Portland Clinker and Cement. National Institute of Standards and Technology, June 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.tn.1884.

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Habert, Guillaume, and Francesco Pittau. Joint synthesis “Sustainable Concrete Structures” of the NRP “Energy”. Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), February 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.46446/publication_nrp70_nrp71.2020.5.en.

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All structures in Switzerland - that is, all buildings, roads, infrastructure constructions and so on - consume over their entire life cycle around 50 % of Switzerland's final energy requirement. They are also responsible for around 30 % of emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2. In recent decades, the energy requirements and CO2 emissions resulting from the use of such structures have fallen sharply. However, the grey energy contained within the structures as well as the CO2 emissions associated with the construction, renovation and demolition of buildings, remain high. There is great potential for improvement here. The joint project “Low energy concrete” provides an important basis for transforming the construction industry into a sustainable sector. It primarily focuses on the building material concrete, which is responsible for an especially high amount of grey energy and significant CO2 emissions. The results of this joint project are summarised and interpreted in this synthesis on “Sustainable Concrete Structures”. The chief objectives of the joint project were as follows: CO2 emissions and grey energy are reduced by drastically decreasing the amount of clinker in the cement. Grey energy is reduced by replacing reinforcing and prestressing steel in concrete structures with wood and plastic. The service life of the structures is extended by professional monitoring and adequate renovation measures; this reduces the average annual grey energy and CO2 emissions. The research work shows that the CO2 emissions caused by concrete and concrete structures can be reduced by a factor of 4, while the bound grey energy can be decreased by a factor of 3.
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Quantitative x-ray powder diffraction methods for clinker and cement. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.5403.

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