Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Cavitation bubble dynamics'

In this thesis two different models and numerical methods have been developed to investigate the dynamics of bubbles in viscoelastic fluids. In the interests of gaining crucial initial insights, a simplifed system of governing equations is first considered. The ambient fluid around the bubble is considered incompressible and the flow irrotational. Viscoelastic effects are included through the normal stress balance at the bubble surface. The governing equations are then solved using a boundary element method. With regard to spherical bubble collapse, the model captures the behaviour seen in other studies, including the damped oscillation of the bubble radius with time and the existence of an elastic-limit solution. The model is extended in order to investigate multi-bubble dynamics near a rigid wall and a free surface. It is found that viscoelastic effects can prevent jet formation, produce cusped bubble shapes, and generally prevent the catastrophic collapse that is seen in the inviscid cases. The model is then used to investigate the role of viscoelasticity in the dynamics of rising gas bubbles. The dynamics of bubbles rising in a viscoelastic liquid are characterised by three phenomena: the trailing edge cusp, negative wake, and the rise velocity jump discontinuity. The model predicts the cusp at the trailing end of a rising bubble to a high resolution. However, the irrotational assumption precludes the prediction of the negative wake. The corresponding absence of the jump discontinuity supports the hypothesis that the negative wake is primarily responsible for the jump discontinuity, as mooted in previous studies. A second model is developed with the intention of gaining further insight into the role of viscoelasticity and corroborating the finndings of the first model. This second model employs the full compressible governing equations in a two dimensional domain. The equations are solved using the spectral element method, while the two phases are represented by "marker particles". The results are in qualitative agreement with the first model and confirm that the findings presented are a faithful account of bubble dynamics in viscoelastic fluids.

The viability of a drug delivery system which encapsulates chemotherapeutic drugs (Doxorubicin) in the hydrophobic core of polymeric micelles and triggers release by ultrasound application was investigated at an applied frequency of 500 kHz. The investigation also included elucidating the mechanism of drug release at 70 kHz, a frequency which had previously been shown to induce drug release. A fluorescence detection chamber was used to measure in vitro drug release from both Pluronic and stabilized micelles and a hydrophone was used to monitor bubble activity during the experiments. A threshold for release between 0.35 and 0.40 in mechanical index was found at 70 kHz and shown to correspond with the appearance of the subharmonic signal in the acoustic spectrum. Additionally, drug release was found to correlate with increase in subharmonic emission. No evidence of drug release or of the subharmonic signal was detected at 500 kHz. These findings confirmed the role of cavitation in ultrasonic drug release from micelles. A mathematical model of a bubble oscillator was solved to explore the differences in the behavior of a single 10 um bubble under 70 and 500 kHz ultrasound. The dynamics were found to be fundamentally different; the bubble follows a period-doubling route to chaos at 500 kHz and an intermittent route to chaos at 70 kHz. It was concluded that this type of "intermittent subharmonic" oscillation is associated with the apparent drug release. This research confirmed the central role of cavitation in ultrasonically-triggered drug delivery from micelles, established the importance of subharmonic bubble oscillations as an indicator, and expounded the key dynamic differences between 70 and 500 kHz ultrasonic cavitation.

Cette étude sur la stabilité d’une bulle unique de cavitation acoustique s’inscrit dans le cadre d’un projet ANR démarré en septembre 2009 (SONONUCLICE ANR-09-BLAN-0040-02). Elle se situe dans la continuité des travaux sur l’optimisation du procédé de lyophilisation de produits pharmaceutiques menés par l’équipe « Transferts couplés de matière et de chaleur » du laboratoire LAGEP (ESCPE/UCB, Lyon), équipe porteuse du projet, et des travaux sur la cristallisation assistée par ultrasons du laboratoire RAPSODEE. L’application des ultrasons de puissance dans un liquide produit des milliards de bulles. Ce phénomène est appelé cavitation acoustique. Les bulles formées ne font pas toutes la même taille, leurs oscillations ne sont pas en phase, et leur densité dans le fluide est très inhomogène : ce phénomène très complexe implique donc de nombreuses variables difficiles à isoler. Même si le phénomène est chaotique, la cavitation permet d’observer des effets macroscopiques notables sur la nucléation et la croissance des cristaux de glace dans une solution sous-refroidie. Ces effets sont d’une importance capitale pour des applications de congélation ou de lyophilisation. Bien que les effets des ultrasons présentent des intérêts certains sur la cristallisation, leur origine reste mal connue. L’observation directe des milliards de bulles ne fournit aucune piste sur les mécanismes microscopiques mis en jeu. Afin d’isoler l’acteur essentiel de ces effets, l’étude menée vise à isoler une bulle de cavitation acoustique. Pour cela, une cellule de lévitation carrée en verre a été conçue. Le verre a été retenu comme matériau pour sa rigidité et sa transparence. Dans cette cellule, une onde de pression acoustique est imposée par un piézoélectrique collé à la base de la cellule. Il a été possible de reconstruire la dynamique de la bulle. Les étapes d’expansion, d’implosion et de rebonds sont clairement visibles. En vue de l’étude de la cristallisation, un principe de détection des cristaux a été spécifiquement élaboré. Il repose sur le suivi de la modification de la périodicité de la bulle (mesurée par un microphone) provoquée par l’apparition d’un corps étranger à son voisinage. Une méthode utilisant la corrélation de signaux acoustiques du microphone filtré à la fréquence d’excitation du PZT et les harmoniques du signal du microphone directe a été développée. Elle permet de connaître le régime d’oscillation de la bulle et de détecter toutes les modifications de sa dynamique. Des expériences de perturbation de la bulle ont été menées à l’aide d’une micro fibre de 7 μm. Le principe de détection est alors mis en oeuvre pour déclencher l’enregistrement d’images par une caméra rapide lors des derniers instants d’existence de la bulle. Cette méthode devrait permettre de détecter l’apparition des premiers cristaux au voisinage de la bulle. Autour de la cellule de lévitation, différents systèmes ont été développés. Un système de dégazage et de remplissage de la cellule de cavitation ont permis de travailler avec de l’eau ayant des teneurs en gaz dissous de l’ordre de 20 % de la saturation. Un système d’éclairage avec une LED de puissance et un jeu de lentilles optiques a été conçu pour visualiser correctement la bulle
This study of the stability of an acoustic cavitation bubble is part of an ANR project started in September 2009 (SONONUCLICE ANR-09-BLAN-0040-02). It takes place in the continuity of the works on the optimization process of lyophilisation of pharmaceutical products conducted by the “Transferts couplés de matière et de chaleur” team of LAGEP (ESCPE/UCB, Lyon) laboratory, which is the project’s team leader, and the studies of ultrasound-assisted crystallization in the RAPSODEE Centre. The application of power ultrasound into liquids produces thousands of bubbles. This phenomenon is called acoustic cavitation. The bubbles formed don’t have the same size, their oscillations are not in phase, and their spatial density in the fluid is not homogeneous: this phenomenon is very complex and involves multiple variables very difficult to isolate. Even if this phenomenon is chaotic, it allows to observe macroscopic effects on the nucleation and crystal growth of ice in undercooled solutions. These effects have a capital importance for industrial applications such as freezing and lyophilisation (also called freeze drying). Although ultrasound has a noticeable influence on crystallization, the origin of these effects remains unclear. The multi-bubble approach doesn’t give any hint on the microscopic mechanisms involved. In order to isolate the main actor of these effects, this study aims at isolating a single cavitation bubble. To do that, a cubic levitation cell made of optical glass was build. In this cell, an acoustic pressure is applied by a piezoelectric glued to the bottom’s external face of the cell. With this cell is possible to rebuild all the oscillations states of the bubble, and in combination with our optical system we can see the bubble’s dynamics and its stages like: expansion, collapse and rebounds. For the crystallization part of this study, a crystal’s detection system was developed. It is based on the variations of the bubble’s periodicity (measured by a microphone pill) introduced by the sudden appearance of a foreign body in its vicinity. This method requires the correlation of the signals from a filtered microphone and the harmonics signals from a microphone, in order to known the oscillation state of the bubble and detect variations on the bubble’s dynamics. Experiments of bubble perturbations by a thin wire were made. The detection system was used to trigger the image recording of a fast camera, in order to capture the final moments of the bubble. This method should be allowing the early detection of new crystals in the proximity of the bubble. Around the levitation cell, various systems have been developed. A degassing and filling system for the cavitation cell allow us to work with degased water around the 20 % of its saturated concentration of air. An illumination system based in a power LED and a set of optical lenses was used to view the bubble correctly

Firing an underwater spark discharge generates an expanding plasma which causes a spherical shockwave to propagate through the surrounding water. The shockwave can have many effects, including resonance effects on bubbles, mechanical destructive effects on solid surfaces and living organisms, and sonochemical oxidative effects on particles and chemical species present in the water. This phenomenon has been shown to improve the efficiency of ink removal in a laboratory flotation deinking cell, while simultaneously decreasing fiber loss. These process improvements are attributed to the sonochemical oxidation of ink particle surfaces, caused by shockwave-induced cavitation. This finding is supported by zeta potential measurements. Sparking was found to reduce the zeta potential of ink particles by up to 20 mV. When sparking was performed during deinking, no effect was found on either ink removal or solids loss. However, when the pulp was pretreated with sparking before flotation, a significant improvement was seen in the brightness gain. Further, fiber loss was decreased by up to 25% in a single flotation stage. The economics of this process are attractive; payback is on the order of three months based on fiber savings alone. Also, at about 1.5 kJ per spark, the power requirements are minimal with respect to the benefit derived.

In this thesis, the dynamics of an isolated cavitation bubble submerged in a steady flow is studied numerically. A Lagrangian-Eulerian approach is considered, in which properties of the fluid are computed first by means of Eulerian methods (in this study the commercial CFD software Ansys Fluent 19 was used) and the trajectory of the bubble is then computed in a Lagrangian fashion, i.e. the bubble is considered as a small particle moving relative to the fluid, due to the effect of several forces depending on fluid's pressure field, fluid's velocity field and bubble's radius. Bubble's radius dynamics, modeled by Rayleigh-Plesset equation, has a big influence on its kinetics, so a special attention is given to it. Two study cases are considered. The first one, motivated by acoustic cavitation is concerned with the response of the bubble's radius in a static flow under the influence of an oscillatory pressure field, the second one studies the trajectory of the bubble submerged in a fluid passing by a Venturi tube and a sharp-edged orifice plate.

Pour assurer le transport de la sève des racines vers les feuilles, les plantes vasculaires génèrent de très fortes dépressions dans le liquide, pouvant atteindre -200 bar, au niveau des feuilles. Cette dépression « tire » sur la colonne d'eau contenue dans l'appareil vasculaire de l'arbre. La cohésion de l'eau maintient la sève sous forme liquide. Cet état métastable peut se rompre : des bulles de cavitation apparaissent. Elles créent un « bouchon » d'air dans le réseau hydraulique de la plante et gênent la circulation de la sève. C'est ce que l'on appele l'embolie. Si ce phénomène se généralise, il peut provoquer la mort de la plante.Ce travail de thèse est consacré à 'invasion d'air dans des réseaux hydrauliques naturels ou artificiels initialement à pression négative. Nous avons d'abord étudié l'embolie dans les feuilles. Nous avons développé une technique novatrice permettant de relever la propagation spatiale de l'embolie dans le réseau hydraulique des feuilles. Nous montrons que l'embolie, quelque soit l'espèce, se propage par à-coups des plus grosses nervures aux plus petites.Afin de comprendre les lois physiques sous-jacentes, nous utilisons deux systèmes modèles. Nous réalisons d'abord des réseaux artificiels dans un hydrogel reproduisant les caractéristiques de la circulation de la sève ascendante. Après la relaxation de la tension dans le réseau par l'apparition de la bulle, nous observons des oscillations de surface et une croissance lente de la bulle, liée à l'évacuation de l'eau à travers l'hydrogel. Cette croissance peut atteindre un régime quasi-stationnaire. Ce systèmes ne nous permettant pas de reproduire toutes les caractéristiques géométriques du xylème, nous présentons une modélisation informatique reposant sur l'analogie entre réseaux hydrauliques et électrocinétique. Nous reproduisons les caractéristiques du xylème dans lequel circule la sève : les éléments conducteurs sont reliées par les ponctuations, des valves protégeant la plante de l'embolie. Nous retrouvons les à-coups caractéristiques de la propagation de l'embolie dans les feuilles.Enfin, nous discutons l'application des résultats précèdents dans le cas du bois et nous présentons quelques résultats obtenus sur du pin sylvestre
To assure the transport from the roots to the leaves, vascular plants create strong depressions in the sap, next to -200 bars. This depression pulls the water column contained by the tree vascular system. The water cohesion keeps the sap under liquid state. This metastable state can breaks: cavitation bubbles appear. They create an air plug inside the plant hydraulic network and impede sap flow. This phenomena called embolism could lead to the plant death by preventing the sap transport.This thesis is dedicated to the air invasion into hydraulics networks under negative pressure. First, we study the leaf embolism. We developed a new technique which allows us to record the spatial propagation of embolism in leaves hydraulic network. We show that the embolism propagates by steps from biggest veins to smallest veins.Next, in order to understand the underlying physical laws, we use two model systems. We build artificial networks in a hydrogel which mimics the sap flow characteristics. After the relaxation of the negative pressure in the network by the nucleation of a bubble, we observe surface oscillations and the slow growth of the bubble. This growth is linked to the water transport through the hydrogel and can reach a stationary regime.As we are not able to reproduce all the characteristics of the leaf network with the hydrogel, we create a computer modeling based on the Ohm analogy between hydraulics networks and electrical circuits. We reproduce the specific features of the xylem which transport the sap: the conduits are linked by pits, small valves which limit the progression of the embolism. We were able to recover the distinctiveness steps in embolism.Finally, we discuss the application of the preceding results to wood and we present some results on Pinus sylvestris

Ce travail de recherche est dédié à la compréhension des mécanismes physiques de l’érosion de cavitation dans un fluide compressible à l’échelle fondamentale de l’implosion d’une bulle de cavitation. Suite à l’implosion d’une bulle de vapeur à proximité d’une surface solide, des très hautes pressions sont générées. Ces pressions sont considérées responsables de l’endommagement (érosion) des surfaces solides observé dans la plupart des applications. Notre approche numérique démarre avec le développement d’un solveur compressible capable de résoudre les bulles de cavitation au sein du code volumes finis YALES2 en utilisant un simple modèle de mélange homogène des phases fluides. Le solveur est étendu à une approche ALE (Arbitraire Lagrangien Eulérien) dans le but de mener des simulations d’interaction fluide-structure sur un maillage mobile. La réponse du matériau solide est calculée avec le code de calcul éléments finis Cast3M, et nous a permis de mener des simulation avec un couplage d’abord monodirectionnel, ensuite bidirectionnel, entre le fluide et le solide. On compare des résultats obtenus à deux dimensions, puis à trois, avec des observations expérimentales. On discute les chargements de pression estimés, et les réponses de différents matériaux pour des implosions de bulle à des différentes distances de la surface. Enfin, à travers l’utilisation de simulations avec couplage bidirectionnel entre fluide et solide, on identifie l’amortissement des chargements de pression pour les différents matériaux
This research is devoted to understanding the physical mechanism of cavitation erosion in compressible liquid flows on the fundamental scale of cavitation bubble collapse. As a consequence of collapsing bubbles near solid wall, high pressure impact loads are generated. These pressure loads are believed to be responsible for the erosive damages on solid surface observed in most applications. Our numerical approach begins with the development of a compressible solver capable of resolving the cavitation bubbles in the finite-volume solver YALES2 employing a simplified homogenous mixture model. The solver is extended to Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation to perform fluid structure interaction simulation with moving mesh capabilities. The material response is resolved with the finite element solver Cast3M, which allowed us to perform one-way and two-way coupled simulations between the fluid and solid domains. In the end, we draw comparisons between 2D and 3D vapor bubble collapse dynamics and compare them with experimental observations. The estimated pressure loads on the solid wall and different responses of materials for attached and detached bubble collapses are discussed. Finally, the damping of pressure loads by different materials is identified with two-way coupled fluid-structure interaction

La supercavitation utilise le changement de phase du liquide-vapeur au mouvement rapide d'un projectile pour le profiler et ainsi réduire sa traînée. Dans cette thèse, nous abordons la supercavitation sous différents aspects : la cavitation induite par accélération en environnement confiné, la réduction de traînée engendrée par la cavité d'air et la stabilité des trajectoires des objets ainsi profilés. Plus précisément, nous nous intéressons dans un premier temps, à la fois expérimentalement et théoriquement, à la croissance des bulles de cavitation. Après avoir montré que cette croissance n'est possible que dans une enceinte déformable, nous prouvons, dans le cas particulier où la dépression à l'origine de l'apparition de ces bulles est transitoire, que leur dynamique suit l'équation de Rayleigh-Plesset et que leur rayon maximal peut être prédit analytiquement. Si la vitesse du projectile est assez grande, les bulles de cavitation grossissent et coalescent pour former une unique bulle, accrochée à la surface du projectile et située dans son sillage: c'est le régime dit de supercavitation. Nous montrons que ce régime peut être reproduit dans un canal hydraulique "classique", à faible vitesse, en injectant de l'air à la surface du projectile. Avec ce dispositif expérimental, nous démontrons que la taille relative de la bulle est uniquement déterminée par un paramètre adimensionnel. Dans le cas d'une sphère, nous mesurons la modification de trainée ainsi engendrée. Enfin, le système global {sphère + bulle} peut être considéré comme un projectile profilé de densité inhomogène. Nous montons que de tels projectiles profilés, suivent des trajectoires courbes après leur impact dans l'eau. Nous démontrons, à la fois expérimentalement et théoriquement, que la forme de leur trajectoire est déterminée par leur vitesse d'impact, leur forme et la position de leur centre de gravité
Supercavitation uses the phase transition liquid-gaseous, triggered by the fast motion of a projectile, to streamline its shape and reduce its drag. In this thesis, we address several aspects of supercavitation: cavitation triggered by acceleration in a confined geometry, drag reduction induced by the air cavity and the stability of the trajectory of such streamlined projectiles. More precisely, we first study both experimentally and theoretically the growth of cavitation bubbles. After showing that their growth is uniquely possible in a deformable container, we prove, in the case of a transient pressure drop, that the dynamic of the bubbles follows the Rayleigh-Plesset equation and that their maximum radius can analytically be predicted. If the velocity of the projectile is high enough, the bubbles grow and coalesce to form a large bubble pinned at the surface of the projectile and located in its wake: this is the so-called supercavitation regime. We show that this regime can be mimicked in "regular", low velocity, hydrodynamic tunnel via air injection at the surface of the projectile. In this set-up, we demonstrate that the relative size of the bubble is governed by an unique dimensionless parameter. In the case of a sphere, we measure the drag modification induced by the presence of the bubble. Finally, the overall system {sphere + bubble} is analogous to a inhomogeneous streamlined projectile. We show that such streamlined projectiles can follows curved paths, following their impact on water. We demonstrate, both experimentally and theoretically, that the morphology of their trajectory is governed by the impact velocity, their shape and the position of the center of mass of the projectile

Les liquides sont capables, comme les solides, de supporter des forces de traction. Ils sont alors à pression négative (c'est-à-dire en tension), dans un état qui est métastable. Le retour vers un état stable à pression positive peut se faire par la nucléation d'une bulle, un processus appelé cavitation. Dans cette thèse nous nous intéressons aux propriétés de la cavitation en milieu confiné, avec un accent particulier sur la dynamique des bulles. Ce sujet est motivé par l'étude du transport de l'eau dans les arbres dont une partie (la sève montante) se fait sous tension, dans des canaux micrométriques. La cavitation entraîne alors l'embolie des éléments conducteurs de sève, c'est-à-dire leur remplissage par du gaz. Une grande partie du manuscrit est consacrée à l'étude de la cavitation dans un milieu modèle, où de l'eau est confinée dans des inclusions sphériques micrométriques au sein d'un hydrogel. L'évaporation passive de l'eau à travers le gel permet de générer des pressions négatives, et la cavitation peut se produire spontanément ou être déclenchée à l'aide d'un laser. Nous résolvons la dynamique subséquente de la bulle à l'aide de diverses méthodes (caméra time-lapse ou caméra rapide, diffusion de la lumière, strobophotographie laser ...) et montrons qu'après une séquence inertielle ultra-rapide, la bulle atteint un état d'équilibre temporaire, puis grossit de manière quasi-statique sous l'effet des flux d'eau dans l'hydrogel, provoquant "l'embolie" de l'inclusion. Une place importante est accordée à un chapitre de théorie qui explore d'une part les propriétés thermodynamiques d'un liquide confiné à pression négative, et d'autre part la dynamique aux temps courts de bulles de cavitation dans de tels systèmes. Nous proposons ainsi une équation de Rayleigh-Plesset modifiée qui rend compte de l'accélération importante des oscillations radiales des bulles que nous avons observée expérimentalement. La compressibilité du liquide et l'élasticité du confinement sont des éléments-clés de ce modèle. Enfin, nous discutons l'application des résultats précédents dans le contexte des arbres, tout en proposant une nouvelle méthode expérimentale qui permet un suivi optique du processus d'embolie. Nous présentons quelques résultats obtenus sur des échantillons de pin sylvestre.

A cavitação e a dinâmica de bolhas são tópicos bastante recorrentes na literatura, devido sobretudo a seus efeitos em diversos tipos de fenômenos, como transferência de calor e escoamento em tubos. Considerando fases líquidas, sabe-se que estas estruturas de cavidade estão normalmente associadas ao equilíbrio metaestável, alcançado devido a quedas locais de pressão ou ao superaquecimento de uma substância pura (ou quase). Nestes casos é necessária a inicialização da mudança de fase através de algum mecanismo adequado, o qual gera uma sequência rápida de fenômenos. Apesar de comumente associado a danos, recentemente vários estudos vêm mostrando aplicações práticas deste tema, além de um campo ainda pouco explorado, que é o das macro cavidades. Essas cavidades podem ser geradas através do aquecimento de água a baixa pressão, sob condições específicas, criando sequências explosivas e formando movimentos como pistão para a água no interior de um invólucro convenientemente dimensionado. Este fenômeno mostra-se semelhante em diversos aspectos às micro cavidades, mais especificamente às cavidades próximas a superfícies livres, embora, sem dúvida, em escala muito maior. Os aspectos mencionados foram filmados com câmeras de alta velocidade e as características observadas foram comparadas com aquelas observadas em micro escala. Vários testes foram desenvolvidos de forma a melhor entender a dinâmica da formação e colapso dessas estruturas, sobretudo levando em conta um comportamento mais unidimensional para a evolução da bolha. Através de várias aproximações e análise de diferentes hipóteses para a variação de pressão e para a força de resistência, soluções analíticas e numéricas foram obtidas para a força exercida no fundo do contêiner e para a expansão e colapso das bolhas ao longo do tempo. As soluções propostas, em comparação com os dados experimentais, mostraram boa concordância entre si, sugerindo que os aspectos fundamentais da dinâmica da cavidade foram devidamente considerados e quantificados.
Cavitation and bubble dynamics are fairly recurring topics in literature, mostly due to their effects in various types of phenomena such as heat transfer and flow in pipes. Considering liquid phases, it is known that these cavity structures are normally associated with the metastable equilibrium, reached due to local pressure drop or overheating of a pure substance (or nearly so). In these cases, the phase change require a startup via some appropriate mechanism, which generates a fast sequence of phenomena. Although commonly associated with damage, recently several studies shown practical applications of these topics, and a still little explored field emerged, which is the field of macro cavities. These cavities can be generated by heating water at a low pressure, under specific conditions, creating an explosive sequences and forming piston like movements for the water inside a properly scaled casing. This phenomenon appears to be similar in many aspects to micro cavities, more specifically for cavities near free surfaces, although, without doubt, on a much larger scale. The mentioned aspects were filmed with high-speed cameras and the main features were compared with those observed in micro scale. Several tests have been developed to better understand the dynamics of the formation and collapse of these structures, especially taking into account a more one-dimensional behavior to the evolution of the bubble. Through various approximations, and analysis of different assumptions for the variation of pressure and the resistance force, analytical and numerical solutions were obtained for the force exerted on the bottom of the container and the expansion and collapse of bubbles over time. The proposed solutions in comparison with experimental data showed good agreement between each other suggesting that the fundamental aspects of the dynamics of the cavity were properly considered and quantified.

Cette thèse évalue d'abord le potentiel thermodynamique du cycle au CO2 supercritique (sc-CO2) pour une large gamme de température de source chaude et étudie son couplage aux applications nucléaires, 45.7% d’efficacité thermique étant obtenu pour un réacteur à neutrons rapides refroidi au sodium. Des simulations CFD sont réalisées sur un compresseur à échelle réduite et confrontées à une expérience, apportant des éléments de qualification. Des simulations sur un compresseur à échelle 1:1 révèlent des particularités liées à la compression du sc-CO2 au comportement gaz réel, offrant un retour d’expérience pour la conception. Dans ce cadre, une approche de cartes de performance est proposée et validée à l'aide de simulations. Enfin, une étude de la collapse d’une bulle dans le CO2 liquide au voisinage du point critique est réalisée et indique l'absence d’effet destructif de cavitation, ouvrant la voie au fonctionnement du compresseur en phase liquide, lieu optimum de l'efficacité du cycle
This study first evaluates the thermodynamic performance of the supercritical CO2 (sc-CO2) cycle in a large range of heat source temperature, with a focus on the nuclear applications; a thermal efficiency of 45.7% is reported for a Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor. Second, CFD simulations have been performed on a small scale sc-CO2 compressor and results have been confronted positively with the experimental data. Simulation results on a real scale compressor have then revealed some particularities during the compression of a real fluid, providing feedbacks for the component design. In addition, a reliable performance maps approach has been proposed for the sc-CO2 compressor and validated using the CFD results. Finally, an investigation of bubble collapse in the liquid CO2 near the critical point has disclosed the likely absence of detrimental effects. As such, risks of cavitation damage should be low, favoring the compressor operation in the liquid region for cycle efficiency improvement

This Thesis contains an account of theoretical and experimental work in which the origin and development of the cyclic pressure-tension cycles associated with cavitation phenomena in liquids are investigated and, for the first time, fully explained. The activation phenomena studied herein involve the growth and collapse of cavitation bubbles in a liquid which is subjected to dynamic stressing by pulses of tension. The dynamic stressing apparatus developed in the course of this work is described in Chapter 2 and is a development of that used by Chesterman (1952) and Overton and Trevena (1981). Chapter 3 contains an account of the improvements made to this apparatus and the ancillary pressure recording and high-speed photographic equipment. Contrary to previous indications in the literature, the theoretical work described in Chapter 4 shows that the pressure waves ascribed by previous workers to the collapse of cavitation bubbles actually originate in the growth phase of the bubbles during their rebound from minimum radius. Using a hydrodynamic argument, based on incompressible theory, it is also shown that the tension waves appearing in the cyclic pressure-tension records were wrongly ascribed in previous work to the attainment of maximum bubble radius and that these tension waves originate in an earlier stage of he deceleration of the bubble's surface. The experimental work described in Chapter 5 was designed to test the hypothesis that inadequacies in the pressure transduction technology used in previous dynamic stressing experiments had resulted in a failure to record the shockwaves expected to accompany cavitation bubble collapse. Using the improved apparatus described herein those shockwaves are recorded, as are their reflections, as pulses of tension, from the free surface of the liquid sample (water). High speed photography was used to confirm that cavitation accompanied these tension pulses and an important finding, reported herein for the first time, is that these tension pulses travel not at the expected value of the velocity of sound in liquid water but at a velocity appropriate to water-vapour. The later finding is exploited in the work described in Chapter 6 in order to estimate the effective tensile strength of water from measurements of tension pulse velocity. The results obtained, which yield an effective tensile strength of ca. 600 bar, are commensurate with the lower values in the range of theoretical estimates (Temperley, 1947). A further development of this work involving the reflection of compressional waves as tension is described in Chapter 7, that describes experiments in which the interface between two immiscible liquids is subjected to dynamic stressing. The results obtained support the idea that a layer of vapour, formed by cavitation, can act to reflect subsequent compressional waves incident upon it, as tension. Further, these results support the conclusion drawn by Couzens and Trevena (1974) that the maximum tension which the interface between two immiscible liquids can sustain is less than that which can be sustained by either liquid alone. The significance of the findings reported in this Thesis to certain aspects of engineering and biomedicine is discussed in Chapter 8 and recommendations for further work in this field are made.

Lors du fonctionnement d'une installation hydraulique, l'apparition de zone de cavitation dans l'écoulement peut entraîner un endommagement important sur la surface des matériaux. La quantification de l'intensité de cavitation sur les composants hydrauliques serait utile à la fois pour mieux concevoir les nouveaux équipements en projet, mais aussi pour améliorer la conduite et optimiser la maintenance des matériels existants. Au vu du grand nombre de paramètres régissant les écoulements cavitants, l'élaboration de lois de similitudes universelles à partir d'expériences est délicate. Avec l'augmentation des moyens de calculs, la simulation numérique est un outil pour étudier ce phénomène sur des géométries variées. La principale difficulté de cette démarche réside dans la différence d'échelles existant entre les simulations numériques U-RANS servant à simuler l'écoulement cavitant et les mécanismes d'implosion de bulles jugés responsables de l'endommagement sur le solide. La méthode proposée dans ce manuscrit s'appuie sur un post-traitement des simulations U-RANS afin de caractériser une distribution de bulles et de simuler leurs comportements à de plus petites échelles spatiales et temporelles. Dans un premier temps, notre travail consiste à expliciter les équations locales de conservation de masse, de quantité de mouvement et d'énergie pour un écoulement liquide/gaz comprenant deux espèces eau/air. Ce travail mène à l'élaboration de grandeurs de mélange prenant notamment en compte la présence de gaz incondensables au sein du fluide. Des hypothèses permettent de rendre ce système équivalent à ceux, utilisant une approche homogène, implémentés dans les codes de simulations d'écoulements cavitants instationnaires développés précédemment au laboratoire. La caractérisation des populations de bulles effectuée par le post-traitement prend ainsi en considération à la fois la tension superficielle et la présence de gaz incondensables. Dans un deuxième temps, l'élaboration d'un code de calcul permettant la simulation de la dynamique d'un nuage de bulles est débutée. Ce dernier a pour ambition de tenir compte à la fois des interactions entre les bulles et des déformations non sphériques que celles-ci peuvent subir à l'aide d'une méthode potentielle. Des premiers résultats de simulations sont présentés dans ce manuscrit et permettent de tenir compte de faibles déformations des bulles. La dernière étape de ce travail consiste à proposer une méthode de chaînage entre ces deux échelles en initialisant le calcul de dynamique de bulles à l'aide des résultats du calcul U-RANS. L'énergie émise lors de l'implosion des bulles et impactant la surface solide est ainsi calculée, caractérisant de ce fait le chargement imposé par l'écoulement sur le matériau. Cette méthode est par la suite appliquée sur différentes géométries en comparant à chaque fois les résultats obtenus à des expériences. Nous comparons également nos résultats à des méthodes précédemment établies au sein du laboratoire afin d'évaluer la pertinence de cette approche
During the life's cycle of a hydraulic installation, the occurrence of cavitation can cause significant damages on the material's surface. The quantification of the cavitation intensity in different geometry can be useful to get better designs for new installations, but also to improve the operating and to optimize maintenance of existing equipments. The development of universal laws of similarity from experiments is difficult due to the large number of parameters governing cavitating flows. With the increase of computational performance, numerical simulations offer the opportunity to study this phenomenon in various geometries. The main difficulty of this approach is the scale's difference existing between the numerical simulations U-RANS used to calculate the cavitating flow and mechanisms of bubble's collapse held responsible for damages on the solid. The proposed method in this thesis is based on a textbf{post-treatment} of the textbf{U-RANS} simulations to characterize a distribution of bubbles and to simulate their behavior at lower spatial and temporal scales. Our first objective is to make explicit a system of equations corresponding to phenomena occurring locally in the two-phase flow. This work leads to the development of mixture variables taking into account the presence of non-condensable gases in the fluid. Assumptions are taken to make the system, after using the Reynolds averaging procedure, equivalent to those, using a homogeneous approach, implemented in the unsteady cavitating flows solvers previously developed in the laboratory. The characterization of bubbles made by this post-treatment takes into account both the surface tension and the presence of non-condensable gases. The development of a solver for the simulation of the dynamic of a bubble cloud is started. It aims to take into account both the interactions between bubbles and non-spherical deformations with a potential method. First results of these simulations are presented and small non-spherical deformations occurring during the collapse can be observed. Finally, we propose a chained method between these two systems initializing the bubble dynamic solver with results of U-RANS simulations. The energy emitted during the implosion of bubbles impacting the solid surface is calculated. So the aggressiveness of the flow on the material can be characterized. We apply this method on different flows to compare numerical and experimental results

Cette thèse porte sur l’étude de la cavitation, c’est-à-dire l’apparition d’une bulle dans un liquide soumis à une dépression. Le contrôle du processus est d’un grand intérêt dans plusieurs domaines, de l’hydrodynamique à la biologie. En fait ce phénomène, apparemment inoffensif, peut provoquer des graves dommages comme la fracture d’hélices ou la mort d’arbres. La première partie de la thèse se focalise sur la cavitation dans un système biomimétique. Il s’agit de micro-volumes d’eau encapsulés dans un milieu poro-élastique. L’évaporation de l’eau à travers l’hydrogel génère des pressions négatives et finalement l’apparition d’une bulle. Lorsque la première bulle de cavitation apparait dans une cellule, elle peut déclencher en quelques microsecondes l’apparition d’autres bulles dans les cellules voisines, en amorçant un effet d’avalanche ultra-rapide. Nous résolvons la dynamique et l’acoustique des bulles, dans le cas des événements uniques ou multiples. La réalisation d’un dispositif innovant ou les volumes du liquide sont encapsulés entre l’hydrogel et une lame de verre ouvre la voie à l’investigation de l’eau métastable. Une deuxième partie du travail a été consacrée à une étude interdisciplinaire où la microfluifique et la biologie sont combinées et appliqués à la livraison de médicament. Le dispositif est composé d’un vaisseau sanguin artificiel en communication avec un tissu cible placé dans un compartiment créé exprès. Les parois du canal microfluidique sont tapissées de cellules endothéliales pour reproduire la paroi réelle d’un vaisseau sanguin in vivo. Ce dispositif permet l’étude des effets des bulles activées par des ultrasons sur la barrière endothéliale
The present thesis focuses on cavitation process, meaning nucleation and dynamics of a bubble within a liquid as a result of pressure decrease. In particular, we investigate the growth of the vapor phase in micrometric volumes of water confined by a poro-elastic material. In systems where water is encapsulated in a porous medium, molecules can evaporate from the pores resulting in a remarkable pressure reduction and bubbles nucleation. Once a vapor bubble nucleates, it can trigger within few microseconds the appearance of other bubbles in the neighbor cavities, activating an ultra-fast avalanche-like phenomenon. We resolved the dynamics and acoustics of cavitation bubbles, in case of singles or multiple nucleation events. The realization of an innovative device where water is encapsulated between a porous material and a glass window opens the way for metastable water investigation. A second part of the manuscript is devoted to a new project where microfluidics and biology are combined and applied to drug delivery. The device consists of an artificial blood vessel in communication with the target tissue accommodated in a purposely designed compartment (tissue-on-a-chip). The walls of the microfluidic channel mimicking the vessel are lined with endothelial cells to reproduce the actual walls of in vivo blood vessels. This device allows to investigate the effects of ultrasound-activated bubbles on the blood vessels wall

This thesis deals with the numerical solution of cavitation bubble dynamics and with cyanobacteria gas vesicle behaviour. A program for the numerical calculation of bubble dynamics is created using the Rayleigh-Plesset equation and its modifications. Subsequently, bubbles of different sizes are investigated during acoustic cavitation with various driving frequencies. Furthermore, a model for hydrodynamic cavitation is created. The model combines CFD computation of flow in the Venturi nozzle with the cavitation bubble dynamics calculation. The last part of the work is dedicated to cyanobacteria gas vesicle behaviour in a variable pressure field and during passage through the Venturi nozzle.

Dans cette thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à la cavitation de bulles de vapeur dans un liquide confiné sous tension (c’est-à-dire sous pression négative). Ce travail s’est développé en étudiant deux aspects différents mais complémentaires : la simulation numérique et l’expérience biomimétique. L’étude numérique utilise la simulation par dynamique moléculaire d’un liquide confiné dans une cellule solide. Cette méthode nous a permis d’étudier précisément l’effet de l’interaction entre le solide et le liquide (angle de contact), mais aussi de la géométrie sur la nucléation de bulles de vapeur. Nous avons également étudié l’interaction entre deux cellules voisines, et ainsi par comparaison avec un modèle, nous avons mis en évidence une corrélation entre deux évènements de cavitation ainsi que les paramètres importants dans ce phénomène. L’étude expérimentale, quant à elle, a été réalisée sur un dispositif en hydrogel de polymère inspiré de systèmes naturels. Cette méthode nous permet d’étudier un système ayant des caractéristiques mécaniques proches des observations naturelles sur les sporanges de fougères tout en pouvant contrôler sa géométrie. Nous avons alors mis en évidence l’effet de l’épaisseur des parois entre cellules permettant d’observer des cavitations isolées ou groupées de plusieurs centaines de bulles. La taille des cellules permet de mesurer des vitesses de propagation allant jusqu’à plus de 800 m/s. A l’aide d’un modèle acoustique nous avons mis en évidence les paramètres importants dans cette propagation
In this work, we have been interested in the cavitation process of vapor bubbles in a confined and stretched liquid. We have followed two complimentary points of view: numerical simulation and biomimetical experiments. For the numerical study we have used molecular dynamics simulations of a liquid confined in a solid cell. This method allows us to study precisely the effect of the interaction between the solid and the liquid (contact angle), and also the geometrical properties on the nucleation of vapor bubbles. We have also studied the interaction between two neighboring cells, and by comparing with a model, we have shown a correlation between two cavitation events and the important parameters taking place in this phenomenon. For the experimental study, we have used polymer hydrogel devices inspired from natural systems (ferns sporangia). This method allows us to study a system having almost the same mechanical properties as the natural one, and showing the possibility to control its geometry. We have shown that the wall thickness between the cells can control the propagation properties from isolated cavitation to grouped propagation (up to several hundreds of bubbles). The cell size controls the propagation velocity, up to values of 800 m/s. We have shown by comparing with an acoustical model the important parameters that control this phenomenon

The first and main part of this work presents the design, development and operation of a Cavitation Susceptibility Meter based on the use of a venturi tube for the measurement of the content of active cavitation nuclei in water samples. The pressure at the venturi throat is determined from the upstream pressure and the local flow velocity without corrections for viscous effects because the flow possesses a laminar potential core in all operational conditions. The detection of cavitation and the measurement of the flow velocity are carried out optically. The apparatus comprises a Laser Doppler Velocimeter for the measurement of the flow velocity and the detection of cavitation, a custom-made electronic Signal Processor for real time generation and temporary storage of the data and a computerized system for the final acquisition and reduction of the collected data. The various steps and considerations leading to the present design concept are discussed in detail and the implementation of the whole system is described in order to provide the all the information necessary for its calibration and operation. Finally, the results of application of the Cavitation Susceptibility Meter to the measurement of the water quality of tap water samples are presented and critically discussed with reference to other similar or alternative methods of cavitation nuclei detection and to the current state of knowledge on cavitation inception.

The second part of the present work presents the results of an investigation on the linearized dynamics of two-phase bubbly flows with the inclusion of bubble dynamics effects. Two flow configurations have been studied: the time dependent one-dimensional flow of a spherical bubble cloud subject to harmonic excitation of the far field external pressure and the steady state two-dimensional flow of a bubbly mixture on a slender profile of arbitrary shape. The inclusion of bubble dynamic damping and of the relative motion between the two phases and the extension of the results to the case of arbitrary excitation are discussed when examining the second flow configuration. The simple linearized dynamical analysis developed so far clearly demonstrates the importance of the complex phenomena connected to the interaction of the dynamics of the bubbles with the flow and provides an introduction to the study of the same flows with non-linear bubble dynamics.

Individual travelling cavitation bubbles generated on two axisymmetric headforms were detected using a surface electrode probe. The growth and collapse of the bubbles, almost all of which were quasi-spherical caps moving close to the headform surface, were studied photographically. Although the growth patterns for the two headforms were similar, the collapse mechanisms were quite different. These differences were related to the pressure fields and viscous flow patterns associated with each headform. Measurements of the acoustic impulse generated by the bubble collapse were analyzed and found to correlate with the maximum volume of the bubble for each headform. Numerical solutions of the Rayleigh-Plesset equation were generated for the same flows and compared with the experimental data. The experiments revealed that for smaller bubbles the impulse-volume relationship is determinate, but for larger bubbles the impulse becomes more uncertain. The theoretical impulse was at least a factor of two greater than the measured impulse, and the impulse-volume relationship was related to the details of the collapse mechanism. Acoustic emission of individual cavitation events was spectrally analyzed and the results were compared with relevant theoretical and emperical predictions. Finally, the cavitation nuclei flux was measured and compared to the cavitation event rate and the bubble maximum size distribution through the use of a simple model. The nuclei number distribution was found to vary substantially with tunnel operating conditions, and changes in the nuclei number distribution significantly influenced the cavitation event rate and bubble maximum size distribution. The model estimated the cavitation event rate but failed to predict the bubble maximum size distribution. With the above theoretical and experimental results, the cavitation rate and resulting noise production may be estimated from a knowledge of the non-cavitating flow and the free stream nuclei number distribution.

碩士
國立成功大學
機械工程學系
87
The nonlinear dynamics of a spherical bubble cloud with nuclei size distribution are studied numerically but the spectrum of nuclei is assumed uniform initially. Employing a nonlinear continuum bubbly mixture model with consideration of the presence of bubbles of different sizes. This model is then coupled with the Rayleigh-Plesset equation for the dynamics of bubbles. A numerical method based on the integral representation of the mixture continuity and momentum equations in the Lagrangian coordinates is developed to solve this set of integro-differential equations. Computational results show that the nuclei size distribution has significant effects on the cloud dynamics In comparison to the results for a single bubble size. One important effect is that the bubble collapse is always initiated near the surface of the cloud, even if the cloud has a very small initial void fraction. This effect has an important consequence, namely that the geometric focusing of the bubbly shock waves always a part of the nonlinear dynamics associated with the collapse of spherical cloud with nuclei size distribution.

The deposition of ultrasonic energy in tissue can cause tissue damage due to local heating. For pressures above a critical threshold, cavitation will occur in tissue and bubbles will be created. These oscillating bubbles can induce a much larger thermal energy deposition in the local region. Traditionally, clinicians and researchers have not exploited this bubble-enhanced heating since cavitation behavior is erratic and very difficult to control. The present work is an attempt to control and utilize this bubble-enhanced heating. First, by applying appropriate bubble dynamic models, limits on the asymptotic bubble size distribution are obtained for different driving pressures at 1 MHz. The size distributions are bounded by two thresholds: the bubble shape instability threshold and the rectified diffusion threshold. The growth rate of bubbles in this region is also given, and the resulting time evolution of the heating in a given insonation scenario is modeled. In addition, some experimental results have been obtained to investigate the bubble-enhanced heating in an agar and graphite based tissue- mimicking material. Heating as a function of dissolved gas concentrations in the tissue phantom is investigated. Bubble-based contrast agents are introduced to investigate the effect on the bubble-enhanced heating, and to control the initial bubble size distribution. The mechanisms of cavitation-related bubble heating are investigated, and a heating model is established using our understanding of the bubble dynamics. By fitting appropriate bubble densities in the ultrasound field, the peak temperature changes are simulated. The results for required bubble density are given. Finally, a simple bubbly liquid model is presented to estimate the shielding effects which may be important even for low void fraction during high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment.