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1
Nanni, Giovanni Ettore. Enriquecimento sem causa. São Paulo, SP: Editora Saraiva, 2004.
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2
Savi, Sérgio. Responsabilidade civil e enriquecimento sem causa. São Paulo: Editora Atlas, 2012.
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3
A arte de produzir efeito sem causa. São Paulo, SP: Companhia das Letras, 2008.
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4
Dennis, Sales Bruce, Becker Judith V, and American Psychological Association, eds. Sex offending: Causal theories to inform research, prevention, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2008.
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5
Heller, Milton Ivan. De Catanduvas ao Oiapoque: O martírio de rebeldes sem causa. Curitiba: Instituto Histórico, 2007.
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6
Esnaola, Manuel Aróztegui. La causa formal del matrimonio según San Buenaventura: (IV Sent D 26). Madrid: Ediciones Universidad San Dámaso, 2012.
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7
Manus, Pedro Paulo Teixeira. Despedida arbitrária ou sem justa causa: Aspectos do direito material e processual do trabalho. São Paulo, SP: Malheiros Editores, 1996.
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8
Moscon, Cledi de Fátima Manica. O enriquecimento sem causa e o novo Código civil brasileiro: Arts. 884 a 886. Porto Alegre, RS: Síntese, 2003.
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9
Afanasenko, Ivan, and Vera Borisova. Logistics in the system of total knowledge. ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1521266.
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In the monograph, logistics is presented in an unusual form - as an element of a system of general, aggregate knowledge. This allowed the authors to reach new levels of knowledge and solve a number of complex problems.
The scientific theory of logistics is presented as a system of laws, categories and principles ordered according to internal causal necessity and explaining the nature of economic flows. The scientific substantiation of the complete logistics system as a set of complexes of activities and resistances is given. Using the example of the functioning of logistics flows, the effect of the law of selection and the law of measure is shown in the form of a struggle of forms, in which more perfect forms survive, and less perfect forms are destroyed.
A strict scientific approach, the richness of the text with information are combined with an accessible way of presentation, which allows the book to be addressed to a wide range of readers.
10
Independence: The struggle to set America free. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2011.
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11
Idezawa, Toshio. Nyūginia-sen no kenshō. Nagano-shi: Shinano Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1991.
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12
McKitrick, Jennifer. Causal Relevance. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198717805.003.0010.
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A causally efficacious or relevant property is a property of a cause. However, not every property of a cause is causally relevant to its effect. Further conditions are needed to screen off causally irrelevant properties. Proposals for further conditions include: The causally relevant property must have explanatory power; there must be counterfactual dependence of the effect on the causally relevant property; there must be a lawful connection between the causally relevant property and its effect; the complete set of causally relevant properties must exclude any other properties from playing a causal role; the causally relevant property must be independent from its effect, in some sense; and finally, the causally relevant property is a member of a set of properties that is minimally sufficient for the effect. The most plausible accounts count dispositions as causally relevant.
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Rogowski, Jon C., and Betsy Sinclair. Causal Inference in Political Networks. Edited by Jennifer Nicoll Victor, Alexander H. Montgomery, and Mark Lubell. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190228217.013.6.
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Though scholars have developed an increasingly rich set of research findings regarding the structure of political networks, identifying causal associations between these networks and political outcomes of interest presents a variety of challenges. Addressing these challenges is especially important given the prominence of networks in theories of individual and collective behavior. This chapter uses the framework of the Neyman-Rubin causal model (potential outcomes framework) to discuss challenges to identification researchers face when studying how networks affect political outcomes. It then describes a set of strategies researchers can employ to address these challenges, including suggestions for best practices in the context of both observational and experimental research designs.
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Golan, Amos. Causal Inference via Constraint Satisfaction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199349524.003.0011.
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In this chapter I introduce a number of ideas connected to causal inference that are inherently connected to info-metrics. In the context of this chapter, causal inference means the causality inferred from the available information. I begin by introducing and examining nonmonotonic and default logics, which were developed to deal with extremely high conditional probabilities. Other facets of info-metrics and causal inference are then discussed. I also show the direct effect of the complete set of input information on the inferred solution. I conclude the chapter with a detailed Markov example providing a more traditional approach to causal inference, developed within the info-metrics framework. The example builds on the notion of exogeneity and demonstrates that the info-metrics framework provides a simple way of incorporating additional exogenous information, thereby opening the way for empirical testing of causal inference. A short summary of the notion of “pure” causality is also provided.
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Pruss, Alexander R. The Axiom of Choice Machine. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198810339.003.0006.
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This is a mainly technical chapter concerning the causal embodiment of the Axiom of Choice from set theory. The Axiom of Choice powered a construction of an infinite fair lottery in Chapter 4 and a die-rolling strategy in Chapter 5. For those applications to work, there has to be a causally implementable (though perhaps not compatible with our laws of nature) way to implement the Axiom of Choice—and, for our purposes, it is ideal if that involves infinite causal histories, so the causal finitist can reject it. Such a construction is offered. Moreover, other paradoxes involving the Axiom of Choice are given, including two Dutch Book paradoxes connected with the Banach–Tarski paradox. Again, all this is argued to provide evidence for causal finitism.
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Weisberg, Deena Skolnick, and David M. Sobel. Constructing Science. The MIT Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/11939.001.0001.
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An examination of children's causal reasoning capacities and how those capacities serve as the foundation of their scientific thinking. Young children have remarkable capacities for causal reasoning, which are part of the foundation of their scientific thinking abilities. In Constructing Science, Deena Weisberg and David Sobel trace the ways that young children's sophisticated causal reasoning abilities combine with other cognitive, metacognitive, and social factors to develop into a more mature set of scientific thinking abilities. Conceptualizing scientific thinking as the suite of skills that allows people to generate hypotheses, solve problems, and explain aspects of the world, Weisberg and Sobel argue that understanding how this capacity develops can offer insights into how we can become a more scientifically literate society. Investigating the development of causal reasoning and how it sets the stage for scientific thinking in the elementary school years and beyond, Weisberg and Sobel outline a framework for understanding how children represent and learn causal knowledge and identify key variables that differ between causal reasoning and scientific thinking. They present empirical studies suggesting ways to bridge the gap between causal reasoning and scientific thinking, focusing on two factors: contextualization and metacognitive thinking abilities. Finally, they examine children's explicit understanding of such concepts as science, learning, play, and teaching.
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Enriquecimento sem Causa. Esplanada, 2000.
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18
Dowe, Phil. Causal Process Theories. Edited by Helen Beebee, Christopher Hitchcock, and Peter Menzies. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279739.003.0011.
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If the core idea of process theories of causation is that causation can be understood in terms of causal processes and interactions, then the approach should be attributed primarily to Wesley Salmon (1925–2001). Salmon takes causal processes and interactions as more fundamental than causal relations between events. To express this Salmon liked to quote John Venn: ‘Substitute for the time honoured “chain of causation”, so often introduced into discussions upon this subject, the phrase a “rope of causation”, and see what a very different aspect the question will wear’. According to the process theory, any facts about causation as a relation between events obtain only on account of more basic facts about causal processes and interactions. Causal processes are the world-lines of objects, exhibiting some characteristic essential for causation.
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Mahoney, James, and Celso M. Villegas. Historical Enquiry and Comparative Politics. Edited by Carles Boix and Susan C. Stokes. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0003.
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This article discusses historical enquiry, which has always been central to the field of comparative politics. It examines the various methods of causal analysis and temporal analysis, and shows how historical analysts properly use historical data. This article shows that historical analysis embodies a distinctive set of techniques for the assessment of causal hypotheses, for the analysis of data, and for the study of temporal processes.
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Plutynski, Anya. Evidence and Environmental Epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199967452.003.0005.
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In this chapter, I consider two case studies in environmental epidemiology of cancer, in service of several aims. First, I argue that while identification of mechanisms is useful, they are neither necessary nor sufficient to justify claims about causal regularities in epidemiology. Second, I argue that Hill’s list of considerations are not “criteria” for judging that X is a cause, but rather a set of guidelines and an argument for consideration of total evidence in conditions of uncertainty. Third, I argue that standards of evidence for establishing causation ought in part to hinge upon what we intend to use the evidence for. Since epidemiological data is so important for law and policy, the practical matter of what the causal information is for must be taken into account in setting standards of assessments of evidence.
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Franklin, Christopher Evan. Minimal Event-Causal Libertarianism. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190682781.003.0002.
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This chapter explains the differences between agency reductionism and nonreductionism, explains the varieties of libertarianism, and sets out the main contours of minimal event-causal libertarianism, highlighting just how minimal this theory is. Crucial to understanding how minimal event-causal libertarianism differs from other event-causal libertarian theories is understanding the location and role of indeterminism in human action, the kinds of mental states essential to causing free action, the nature of nondeterministic causation, and how the theory is constructed from compatibilist accounts. The chapter argues that libertarians must face up to both the problem of luck and the problem of enhanced control when determining the best theoretical location of indeterminism.
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McCleary, Richard, David McDowall, and Bradley Bartos. Design and Analysis of Time Series Experiments. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190661557.001.0001.
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Design and Analysis of Time Series Experiments develops a comprehensive set of models and methods for drawing causal inferences from time series. Example analyses of social, behavioral, and biomedical time series illustrate a general strategy for building AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) impact models. The classic Box-Jenkins-Tiao model-building strategy is supplemented with recent auxiliary tests for transformation, differencing, and model selection. The validity of causal inferences is approached from two complementary directions. The four-validity system of Cook and Campbell relies on ruling out discrete threats to statistical conclusion, internal, construct, and external validity. The Rubin system causal model relies on the identification of counterfactual time series. The two approaches to causal validity are shown to be complementary and are illustrated with a construction of a synthetic control time series. Example analyses make optimal use of graphical illustrations. Mathematical methods used in the example analyses are explicated in technical appendices, including expectation algebra, sequences and series, maximum likelihood, Box-Cox transformation analyses and probability.
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Neuberg, Steven L., and Andreana C. Kenrick. Discriminating Ecologies: A Life History Approach to Stigma and Health. Edited by Brenda Major, John F. Dovidio, and Bruce G. Link. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190243470.013.5.
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How does being discriminated against affect one’s health, and through what mechanisms? Most research has focused on two causal pathways, highlighting how discrimination increases psychological stress and exposure to neighborhood hazards. This chapter advances an alternative, complementary set of mechanisms through which stigma and discrimination may shape health. Grounded in evolutionary biology’s life history theory, the framework holds that discrimination alters aspects of the physical and social ecologies in which people live (e.g., sex ratio, unpredictable extrinsic causes of mortality). These discriminating ecologies pull for specific behaviors and physiological responses (e.g., risk-taking, sexual activity, offspring care, fat storage) that are active, strategic, and rational given the threats and opportunities afforded by these ecologies but that also have downstream implications for health. This framework generates a wide range of nuanced insights and unique hypotheses about the discrimination-health relationship, and suggests specific approaches to intervention while pointing to complex ethical issues.
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Goodman, Steven N., and Jonathan M. Samet. Causal Inference in Cancer Epidemiology. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0007.
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Judgments about causality are central to the development of interventions intended to reduce exposure to risk factors that cause cancer. Because causation is not directly observable in medicine, scientists and philosophers have had to develop sets of constructs and heuristics that define “cause” operationally. The criteria in this framework, often attributed to the British medical statistician Sir Austin Bradford Hill or to the 1964 Report of the US Surgeon General on tobacco, include consistency, strength of association, specificity, temporality, coherence/plausibility/analogy, biological gradient, and experiment. This chapter reviews these criteria in depth and considers the challenges of applying them to population research on cancer. It discusses the concepts of causation in the context of the multistage nature of cancer, the “counterfactual” notion of causation, the component cause model for understanding diseases with multiple causes, and the “weight of the evidence” approach for integrating information from multiple lines of research.
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Oaksford, Mike, and Nick Chater. Causal Models and Conditional Reasoning. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.5.
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There are deep intuitions that the meaning of conditional statements relate to probabilistic law-like dependencies. In this chapter it is argued that these intuitions can be captured by representing conditionals in causal Bayes nets (CBNs) and that this conjecture is theoretically productive. This proposal is borne out in a variety of results. First, causal considerations can provide a unified account of abstract and causal conditional reasoning. Second, a recent model (Fernbach & Erb, 2013) can be extended to the explicit causal conditional reasoning paradigm (Byrne, 1989), making some novel predictions on the way. Third, when embedded in the broader cognitive system involved in reasoning, causal model theory can provide a novel explanation for apparent violations of the Markov condition in causal conditional reasoning (Ali et al, 2011). Alternative explanations are also considered (see, Rehder, 2014a) with respect to this evidence. While further work is required, the chapter concludes that the conjecture that conditional reasoning is underpinned by representations and processes similar to CBNs is indeed a productive line of research.
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Mele, Alfred R. Living Without Agent Causation. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190659974.003.0011.
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This chapter explores a question about agent causation: If we were to learn that agent causation is impossible, what effect might that have on some philosophers’ reasoning about event-causal libertarianism? It is argued that, with agent causation off the table, event-causal libertarianism’s appeal would grow stronger for some philosophers. The stage for this argument is set partly by means of a review of issues about luck, control, and settling that surround some arguments subjected to critical scrutiny earlier in the book: namely, the same-control argument, the more-control argument, and Derk Pereboom’s disappearing agent argument. Special attention is paid to direct control. Two different accounts of direct control are offered.
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Bokulich, Alisa. Searching for Non-Causal Explanations in a Sea of Causes. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198777946.003.0008.
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In the spirit of explanatory pluralism, this chapter argues that causal and non-causal explanations of a phenomenon are compatible, each being useful for bringing out different sorts of insights. First the chapter reviews the author’s model-based account of scientific explanation, which can accommodate causal and non-causal explanations alike. Then it distills from the literature an important core conception of non-causal explanation. This non-causal form of model-based explanation is illustrated using the example of how Earth scientists in a subfield known as aeolian geomorphology are explaining the formation of regularly-spaced sand ripples. The chapter concludes that even when it comes to everyday “medium-sized dry goods” such as sand ripples, where there is a complete causal story to be told, one can find examples of non-causal scientific explanations.
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Rihoux, Benoît. Case‐Oriented Configura‐Tional Research: Qualitative Comparative Analysis (Qca), Fuzzy Sets, and Related Techniques. Edited by Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier, Henry E. Brady, and David Collier. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199286546.003.0031.
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This article investigates the tradition of case-oriented configurational research, focusing specifically on qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) as a tool for causal inference. It first presents two analytic procedures commonly used by comparative researchers. A short description of the state-of-the-art of QCA applications is offered, in terms of discipline, types of cases, models, combinations with other methods, and software development. It then reviews different uses of QCA, as well as generic ‘best practices’. Some key recent evolutions are illustrated: on the one hand the development, beyond dichotomous ‘crisp set’ QCA (csQCA), of multi-value QCA (mvQCA), fuzzy sets, and fuzzy-set QCA (fsQCA), and on the other hand technical advances and refinements in the use of the techniques. Finally, the article gives some concluding reflections as to expected developments, upcoming innovations, remaining challenges, expansion of fields of application, and cross-fertilization with other approaches.
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Glennan, Stuart. Mechanisms. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198779711.003.0002.
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This chapter introduces the account of minimal mechanism, according to which a mechanism consists of a set of parts or entities whose activities and interactions are organized so as to be responsible for some phenomenon. The concepts appealed to in this account—phenomena, entities, activities, organization—are elaborated, and the relation of minimal mechanism to other accounts is explored. Mechanisms are shown to be compounds that are organized in two dimensions, the horizontal dimension of causal dependence and a vertical or part-whole dimension called mechanistic constitution. I argue that almost all natural and social phenomena depend upon mechanisms so characterized, and that this fact leads to a new mechanical ontology, which alters the way we should think about traditional metaphysical categories like substances, processes, properties, dispositions, causes, and laws of nature.
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Ball, Derek. Semantics as Measurement. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198739548.003.0014.
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This chapter defends a view of semantics on which developing a semantic theory closely resembles developing a scale of measurement. The view helps explain how semantics has made so much progress despite deep disagreements about the target of semantic theorizing (e.g., between those who maintain that semantics is characterizing something psychological, and those who maintain that it is characterizing something social), how appeals to set-theoretic abstracta make sense despite Benacerraf-style worries and despite the fact that set-theoretic entities fit badly with standard (e.g., causal) metasemantic views, and why the threat of radical context sensitivity does not undermine the semantic project.
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Osuchowska, Dorota. Occupational Inequality and Sex-Role Stereotyping in Dictionaries of English: A Causal Link? Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Peter, 2021.
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Occupational Inequality and Sex-Role Stereotyping in Dictionaries of English: A Causal Link? Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Peter, 2021.
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Osuchowska, Dorota. Occupational Inequality and Sex-Role Stereotyping in Dictionaries of English: A Causal Link? Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, Peter, 2021.
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34
López Cardona, Nathali, and Carlos A. Hernández Medina. Avances en el diagnóstico del síndrome del tallo verde y retención foliar de la soya causado por el nematodo Aphelenchoides besseyi. Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (Agrosavia), 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.21930/agrosavia.folded248.
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El síndrome de retención foliar y del tallo verde de la soya (RFTV) es comúnmente conocido como soya loca en Brasil y puede causar pérdidas en el rendimiento de la leguminosa de alrededor del 60 %. Hasta el presente, al síndrome RFTV se le atribuyen tres posibles causas; la primera, asociada a un desorden nutricional por deficiencia de potasio; la segunda, relacionada con un ataque severo de los chinches Nezara viridula, Piezodorus guildinii y Euschistus heros cuya incidencia se popularizó como soya loca I; y la tercera, conocida como soya loca II, la cual se atribuye al nematodo del tallo verde Aphelenchoides besseyi, comúnmente aceptado por ser el agente causal de la soya loca II.
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Silva, Maria de Fátima, and Jorge Paiva. Teofrasto. Causas das plantas. Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/978-989-26-1976-7.
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<p>Depois do tratado que intitulou <em>História das plantas, </em>Teofrasto prosseguiu na sua investigação sobre matéria botânica e veio a publicar um segundo conjunto de resultados, agora intitulado <em>Causas das plantas. </em></p> <p>Assumindo o inevitável diálogo entre os dois títulos, Teofrasto avançou, no entanto, de um inventário para uma reflexão mais técnica, olhando a agricultura como uma ‘arte’ com capacidade para manipular a natureza e servir objetivos de natureza comercial, alimentar e medicinal.</p> <p>Este volume proporciona a primeira tradução existente em português de <em>Causas das plantas </em>de Teofrasto. A exigência da matéria não dispensou a colaboração de uma helenista e de um botânico, de modo a garantir o rigor da tradução e a especificidade da anotação e índices. Além de um número elevado de notas de rodapé, a tradução vem acompanhada de um amplo estudo introdutório, destinado a caraterizar Teofrasto, o seu universo intelectual e a estrutura científica do tratado. Completam o volume uma bibliografia e oito índices: quatro dos termos gregos e respectiva tradução, com remissão para os capítulos do tratado; outros quatro dos nomes latinos das espécies (plantas e animais), com remissão para a numeração das notas de rodapé.</p>
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Rosenblatt, Fernando. Party Vibrancy and Democracy in Latin America. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190870041.001.0001.
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How do political parties remain vibrant organizations? This qualitative study of political parties in Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay explains how party vibrancy is maintained and reproduced over time. A vibrant party is an active organization that operates beyond electoral cycles, has clear symbols, and maintains a significant presence in the territory. The study identifies the complex interaction between four causal factors that account for the reproduction of party vibrancy: Purpose, Trauma, Channels of Ambition, and moderate Exit Barriers. Purpose activates retrospective loyalty among members. Trauma refers to a shared traumatic past that engenders retrospective loyalty. Channels of Ambition are routes by which individuals can pursue a political career. Moderate Exit Barriers are rules that set costs of defection at reasonable levels. The case studies suggest that, after a process of consolidation and stability, the presence of the four causal factors explains party vibrancy. The presence of the factors then sustains the reproduction of this vibrancy over time. The four causal factors are observed during a party’s “golden age.” Vibrant parties are resilient. Yet the study also shows that the ability of Trauma to forge loyalty decreases over time and that the long-term reproduction of Purpose can be elusive, as has been shown in Latin America. Older vibrant parties thus exhibit a combination of only Channels of Ambition and moderate Exit Barriers, and are less resilient than those that also have Purpose and/or Trauma.
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Garrett, Aaron, and Silvia Sebastiani. David Hume on Race. Edited by Naomi Zack. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190236953.013.43.
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David Hume in a notorious footnote in “Of National Characters,” in his Essays, Moral, Political and Literary, explicitly wrote that there were human races and that nonwhites were inferior to whites. The footnote has been characterized as “just an offhand comment.” However, the footnote reflects Hume’s deeper views about methodology in the sciences of man, and it can be connected to passages in Hume’s other works and to a broader Scottish and European intellectual and historical setting. Hume consistently insisted on a natural inferiority of blacks which set them apart from other races and believed that the difference between Europeans and Amerindians was a great as the difference between human beings and animals. He rejected slavery, which rendered his ideology of white supremacy enigmatic, because his rejection of geographical or climatic differences as causes meant that he could not provide a convincing causal account of what he took to be racial difference.
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Anjum, Rani Lill, and Stephen Mumford. It All Started with a Big Bang. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198733669.003.0017.
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There can be causal chains that are extended through time, where A causes B, B causes C, and so on. There is a further question as to whether causation admits transitivity, such that A causes C, in this example. Causal chains could be depicted as the vehicle of determinism but not necessarily so. There are other ways in which determinism might work and causes cannot provide determinism unless causes somehow necessitate their effects. Indeterminism should be taken as the default starting assumption of our enquiries since it is so much easier for it to be true than determinism. We can see that causation should then be classed as non-transitive.
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McDowall, David, Richard McCleary, and Bradley J. Bartos. Interrupted Time Series Analysis. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190943943.001.0001.
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Interrupted Time Series Analysis develops a comprehensive set of models and methods for drawing causal inferences from time series. Example analyses of social, behavioural, and biomedical time series illustrate a general strategy for building AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) impact models. The classic Box-Jenkins-Tiao model-building strategy is supplemented with recent auxiliary tests for transformation, differencing and model selection. New developments, including Bayesian hypothesis testing and synthetic control group designs are described and their prospects for widespread adoption are discussed. Example analyses make optimal use of graphical illustrations. Mathematical methods used in the example analyses are explicated assuming only exposure to an introductory statistics course. Design and Analysis of Time Series Experiments (DATSE) and other appropriate authorities are cited for formal proofs. Forty completed example analyses are used to demonstrate the implications of model properties. The example analyses are suitable for use as problem sets for classrooms, workshops, and short-courses.
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Anjum, Rani Lill, and Stephen Mumford. Metascience and Better Science. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198733669.003.0001.
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Central to science is a set of norms for the correct, systematic acquisition of empirical knowledge, such as that data should be objective, results repeatable, and that theories should bring predictive success. These norms remain contested, however. Science cannot evaluate its own norms since doing so is a distinctly philosophical enterprise. This tells us that scientism is wrong: the idea that science can answer every question. A question that it cannot answer is what justifies science. We will answer this and other questions philosophically with a focus on the causal sciences. Science and metascience may then achieve a reflective equilibrium.
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Tooley, Michael. Causes, Laws, and Ontology. Edited by Helen Beebee, Christopher Hitchcock, and Peter Menzies. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279739.003.0019.
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Different approaches to causation often diverge very significantly on ontological issues, in the case of both causal laws, and causal relations between states of affairs. This article sets out the main alternatives with regard to each. Causal concepts have surely been present from the time that language began, since the vast majority of action verbs involve the idea of causally affecting something. Thus, in the case of transitive verbs describing physical actions, there is the idea of causally affecting something external to one — one finds food, builds a shelter, sows seed, catches fish, and so on — while in the case of intransitive verbs describing physical actions, it is very plausible that they involve the idea of causally affecting one's own body — as one walks, runs, jumps, hunts, and so on.
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Sonuga-Barke, Edmund J. S. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Edited by Philip David Zelazo. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199958474.013.0022.
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In this chapter I review the literature on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with the aim of providing a developmental synthesis. In the first section I ask: What is ADHD? I conclude that it is a relatively broad construct that, although having validity as a mental disorder dimension and utility as diagnostic category, is frequently comorbid with, but can be distinguished from, other disorders, and is highly heterogeneous. In the second section I ask: What causes ADHD? I conclude that ADHD has a complex set of causes implicating multiple genetic and environmental risks (and their interaction) reflected in alterations in diverse brain systems. The causal structure of ADHD is heterogeneous, with different children displaying different etiological and pathophysiological profiles. In the third section I reflect on developmental considerations. I conclude that ADHD-type problems present in different forms throughout the lifespan from the preschool period to adulthood and that existing data suggest patterns of continuity and discontinuity that support a lifespan perspective both at the level of clinical phenotype and underlying pathophysiology. In the light of this I argue for a developmental reconceptualization of the disorder, grounded in a biopsychosocial framework that would allow the complexity and heterogeneity of the condition to be understood in terms of risk, resilience, and protective factors, as well as mediating and moderating processes. I review the implications of the developmental perspective for nosological and diagnostic formulations of the condition. In the last section I set out priorities for future research in the genetics, imaging, neuropsychology, and treatment of the condition.
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Hooghe, Liesbet, Tobias Lenz, and Gary Marks. A Theory of International Organization. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198766988.001.0001.
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This book explains the design and development of international organization in the postwar period. It theorizes that the basic set up of an IO responds to two forces: the functional impetus to tackle problems that spill beyond national borders and a desire for self-rule that can dampen cooperation where transnational community is thin. The book reveals both the causal power of functionalist pressures and the extent to which nationalism constrains the willingness of member states to engage in incomplete contracting. The implications of postfunctionalist theory for an IO’s membership, policy portfolio, contractual specificity, and authoritative competences are tested using annual data for seventy-six IOs for 1950–2010.
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Keil, Frank C. Wonder. The MIT Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/13640.001.0001.
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How we can all be lifelong wonderers: restoring the sense of joy in discovery we felt as children. From an early age, children pepper adults with questions that ask why and how: Why do balloons float? How do plants grow from seeds? Why do birds have feathers? Young children have a powerful drive to learn about their world, wanting to know not just what something is but also how it got to be that way and how it works. Most adults, on the other hand, have little curiosity about whys and hows; we might unlock a door, for example, or boil an egg, with no idea of what happens to make such a thing possible. How can grown-ups recapture a child's sense of wonder at the world? In this book, Frank Keil describes the cognitive dispositions that set children on their paths of discovery and explains how we can all become lifelong wonderers. Keil describes recent research on children's minds that reveals an extraordinary set of emerging abilities that underpin their joy of discovery—their need to learn not just the facts but the underlying causal patterns at the very heart of science. This glorious sense of wonder, however, is stifled, beginning in elementary school. Later, with little interest in causal mechanisms, and motivated by intellectual blind spots, as adults we become vulnerable to misinformation and manipulation—ready to believe things that aren't true. Of course, the polymaths among us have retained their sense of wonder, and Keil explains the habits of mind and ways of wondering that allow them—and can enable us—to experience the joy of asking why and how.
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Nahmias, Eddy. Free Will as a Psychological Accomplishment. Edited by David Schmidtz and Carmen E. Pavel. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199989423.013.30.
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This chapter analyzes free will in terms of a complex set of psychological capacities that agents possess and exercise to varying degrees, focusing on the capacities for imagination. To have free will is to possess these psychological capacities such that the agent is the author of his or her actions and can deserve credit or blame for them. To act of one’s own free will is to have had (reasonable) opportunity to exercise these capacities in making decisions and acting. There is a long philosophical tradition of treating free will as the set of capacities that, when properly functioning, allow us to make decisions that contribute to a good or flourishing life. On this view, free will is a psychological accomplishment. Free will also allows us to be the causal source of our actions in a way that is compatible with determinism and naturalism.
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Kosch, Michelle. Rational Agency. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198809661.003.0002.
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Chapter 2 presents Fichte’s conception of rational agency and of the psychological dispositions and capacities on which he takes it to depend. It begins with an examination of Fichte’s notion of the spontaneity of the will, and compares his account of it to Kant’s. It then explains Fichte’s account of practical deliberation and its necessary conditions. Practical deliberation is means/ends or part/whole reasoning toward the end (viz. independence) provided by practical reason. Its conditions of possibility include empirical cognition, a set of naturally given conative attitudes, embodiment, causal efficacy, social interaction, and a sense of itself as one individual among others. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the variability of rational agency among individuals and the reasons for it.
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SILVA, G. V. Direito Civil. Direito das Obrigações: enriquecimento Sem Causa e Lucro da Intervenção. Dialética, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.48021/978-65-252-5061-8.
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Zelli, Fariborz. Effects of Legitimacy Crises in Complex Global Governance. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198826873.003.0010.
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This chapter explores the consequences of legitimacy in view of the growing institutional complexity of global governance. Global governance institutions do not operate as autonomous entities, but are entwined in dense patchworks of institutions with partly overlapping and competing mandates. The chapter suggests potential causal consequences of the legitimacy of a global governance institution for the institutional complexity of its issue field. Specifically, the analytical framework set out in the chapter theorizes the consequences of legitimacy crises for three dimensions of institutional complexity: the degree of complexity of the institutional architecture, the effectiveness of the institution within this architecture, and the modes of governance used by the institution to navigate this architecture. The chapter illustrates the potential of this framework with examples relating to climate change, energy, and trade governance.
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Elwood, Mark. Critical appraisal of a large population-based case–control study. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199682898.003.0017.
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This chapter shows a large population-based case-control study, to address the quantitative relationship between alcohol consumption and breast cancer. It shows the logistic and design issues, and the assessment of dose-response, consistency and specificity. The critical assessment follows the scheme set out in chapter 10: describing the study, assessing the non-causal explanations of observation bias, confounding, and chance variation; assessing time relationships, strength, dose-response, consistency and specificity, and applying the results to the eligible, source, and target populations; and then comparing the results with evidence from other studies, considering consistency and specificity, biological mechanisms, and coherence with the distribution of exposures and outcomes. The chapter gives a summary and table of the critical assessment and its conclusions; and comments on the impact of the study and research carried out since.
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Bjørnskov, Christian. Social Trust and Economic Growth. Edited by Eric M. Uslaner. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274801.013.24.
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This chapter provides a selective survey of the literature on the association between social trust and economic growth. The chapter is divided into two main sections. The first section outlines the main theoretical arguments for how social trust could affect the long-run growth rate and economic performance of an economy. These theoretical mechanisms can work both directly or indirectly by affecting institutions, factor accumulation, and the elasticity of substitution. An overview of a set of relevant theoretical mechanisms also reveals that some only affect growth under specific conditions. The second section is devoted to reviewing the evidence of an empirical association. While the literature clearly supports a causal effect of trust on growth, the empirical section as well as the conclusions suggest a number of ways in which the field may move forward.