Journal articles on the topic 'Catholic Church – History – 16th century'

In this paper, Bishop Santer explores the issue of authority, which haunted English and European Church history in the early 16th century. The constant stresses between local, national and international interests frequently informed the rise of conflict, when these various interests were in tension. He goes on to discuss the difficulties that national Churches have experienced in subsequent history. Thomas More’s principles sought to provide an answer to the statement of the Nicene Creed “I believe in the Catholic Church”. Drawing from his experience on the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission, Bishop Santer considers that the questions posed by More are unavoidable in the quest for Church unity.

Abstract. The article presents results of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) investigation carried out in the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Kłodzko, Poland, dating from the 14th to 16th centuries. Due to the 20th century wars, the current state of knowledge about the history of the church is still poor. Under the floor of the Catholic temple, unknown structures might exist. To verify the presence of underground structures such as crypts and tombs, a GPR survey was carried out in chapels and aisles with 500 and 800 MHz GPR shielded antennas. Numerous anomalies were detected. It was concluded that those under the chapels were caused by the presence of crypts beneath the floor.

It has traditionally been assumed that the oral preaching practice of the Orthodox Church in Poland at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries was brought to life by external and mainly Catholic influences. The present article attempts to rethink these influences and offer an explanation not in terms of “mechanical” borrowings and a succumbing of Orthodox theology to Western influences (the concept of “pseudomorphosis” articulated by G. Florovsky), but rather in terms of a creative response to the external confessional challenges of the epoch (the concept of “polymorphism” proposed by G. B. Bercoff). Examples of such a reception are the sample sermons on the church sacraments and funeral sermons included as an annex to Orthodox rituals. Published for the first time in the Vilnius edition in 1621, texts of this kind were legitimized by Metropolitan of Kiev Piotr Mogila in his Euhologion of 1646. Instructive sermons from the Polish version of the Roman Ritual, which go back to the 16th-century teachings on the church sacraments by S. Karnkowski, M. Kromer, and H. Powodowski, were used as models for these Orthodox sample sermons. Although the idea to incorporate such sample sermons in Orthodox rituals was inspired by the Polish tradition, this does not mean that the Orthodox authors also borrowed the instruction texts from the Catholic rituals. As an example of borrowings, the article analyzes the “Kazanie na pogrebe” from the Vilnius Ritual, 1621. Textual analysis of the given sermon shows its compositional and, partially, even its substantial dependence on a sermon written by a Polish Dominican, W. Laudański (1617), and also its familiarity with Augustine’s theological legacy, which was available only in Latin editions.

Abstract Evidence of xiqu (“Chinese opera”) in the Philippines begins in the early 16th century, when the Catholic church sought to suppress it. Despite its longevity, Philippine xiqu has not featured much in the multidisciplinary study of ethnic Chinese in the Philippines, nor as part of the global turn in xiqu research. This article, attending to the history and contemporary practice of xiqu, situates the Philippines and especially Manila firmly in the Hokkien network of Chinese theatre, especially in the period between the late nineteenth century and World War II. The Philippines were, and remain today, an important node in xiqu dissemination, transfer, and transnational evolution, as well as an integral part of the culture of the Chinese in the Philippines. The Philippine case helps break down fundamental linguistic, ethnic, and religious equations surrounding xiqu, given the genre’s syncretism, ethnic ambiguity, and non-Chinese language environment.

The Galician-Russian icons of Praise of the Virgin are interesting both due to their origin from the hymns of akathist worship, the circumstances of their appearance in the Galician-Russian lands (probably related to the Western Russian metropolitan Gregory Tsamblak), and their unprecedented abundance. This type includes the outstanding works of the 15th century belonging to the Przemysl School, the main icon-painting centre in Poland. In the 16th century small trading towns, primarily Sambir, housed icon-painters who created icons in the democratic version of the national icon-painting style, associated with the artistic achievements of the neighboring coreligious Moldova. The Lviv Renaissance affected all aspects of the spiritual life of Galician Rusins around 1600 during the events around the Brest Union (1596). A final episode of the twocentury history of Praise of the Virgin in its Galician version is presented in Fyodor Senkovich’s icon from the Ripnev village near Lviv, dated 1599. The Praise of the Virgin icons of the 15h – 16th centuries demonstrate the iconographic type transformation caused by the changes in the mentality of the Orthodox population in the east of the Polish Catholic state, indicating both involvement in the Balkan-Slavic church and cultural impulses, as well as general patterns of sacred art development.

Summary Accounts of Christian missionary linguists in the 16th and 17th centuries are usually devoted to their achievements in the Americas and the Far East, and it is seldom remarked that, at the time when English Protestant missionaries were attempting to meet the challenge of unknown languages on the Eastern seaboard of North America, their fellow missionary-linguists were confronted with similar problems much nearer home – in Ireland, where the native language was quite as difficult as the Amerindian speech with which John Eliot and Roger Williams were engaged. Outside Ireland, few historians of linguistics have noted the extraordinarily interesting socio-linguistic situation in this period, when English Protestants and native-born Jesuits and Franciscans, revisiting their homeland covertly from abroad, did battle for the hearts and minds of the Irish-speaking population – nominally Catholic, but often so remote from contacts with their Mother Church that they seemed, to contemporary missionaries, to be hardly more Christian than the Amerindians. The linguistic problems of 16th-and 17th-century Ireland have often been discussed by historians dealing with attempts by Henry VIII and his successors to incorporate Ireland into a Protestant English state in respect of language, religion and forms of government, and during the 16th century various official initiatives were taken to convert the Irish to the beliefs of an English-speaking church. But it was in the 17th century that consistent and determined efforts were made by individual Englishmen, holding high ecclesiastical office in Ireland, to convert their nominal parishioners, not by forcing them to seek salvation via the English language, but to bring it to them by means of Irish-speaking ministers preaching the Gospel and reciting the Liturgy in their own vernacular. This paper describes the many parallels between the problems confronting Protestant missionaries in North America and these 17th-century Englishmen in Ireland, and – since the work of the American missions is relatively well-known – discusses in greater detail the achievements of missionary linguists in Ireland.

The Polish version of the article was published in “Roczniki Humanistyczne,” vol. 61 (2013), issue 2. The article addresses the question of the fall of the Latin parish in Chorupnik that belonged to the former diocese of Chełm. The parish church in Chorupnik was taken over by Protestants in the second half of the 16th century. Unsuccessful attempts at recovering its property were made by incorporating it into the neighbouring parish in Gorzków. The actions taken by the Gorzków parish priest and the bishop together with his chapter failed, too. A detailed study of such attempts to recover the property of one of the parishes that ceased to exist during the Reformation falls within the context of the relations between the nobility and the clergy in the period of Counter-Reformation. Studying the social, legal and economic relations in a local dimension is important for understanding the mechanisms of the mass transition of the nobility to reformed denominations, and then of their return to the Catholic Church.

The present paper is based on materials of different genres and different styles of Ukrai- nian written monuments of the 16th and the 17th centuries (acts, court documents, wills, deeds, documents of church and school fraternities, chronicles, works of religious, polemi- cal and fiction, memos of scientific and educational literature, liturgical literature, episto- lary heritage, etc.) which are included in the source database of the Dictionary of Ukrainian language of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and its unique lexical card index, which is stored at the Ukrainian Language Department in the I. Krypiakevych Institute of Ukrainian Studies of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Lviv). The composition and structural organization of Church Slavonic lexemes meaning ‘God; God’s face’ as well as their origin and history are studied.It was found that the register of this vocabulary included more than fifty phonetic and graphic Church Slavonic elements expressing the concept of ‘God; God’s face’ different in word-forming structure. The main attention is paid to the etymological analysis of the studied tokens, which was primarily to clarify their semantic etymon. It is established that the analyzed Church Slavonicisms are mostly semantic loans from the Greek language, which preserved their semantics from ancient times to the Old Ukrainian period.It is observed that some studied tokens often act as core components of various two-, three-, or four-membered lexicalized phrases. The most active multifunctional core com- ponent was the token Lord. It is established that fixed phrases and phraseologisms are of different types in structure, mostly two-component noun + adjective phrases (sporadically, there are other lexical-grammatical models, too: “noun + noun”, “preposition + adjective”). Much less observable are three-component formations (“noun + verb + pronoun“, “verb + pronoun + noun“) and four-component models (“verb + preposition + pronoun + noun”).It was found that the Church Slavonic words attested in the Ukrainian memos of the 16th and the 17th centuries did not undergo significant semantic changes in the process of formation of religious vocabulary. Some Church Slavonicisms have gone through a partial semantic modification, and some have acquired new semantics due to fixed phrases. Some words that point to God’s face are characterized by polysemy and synonymy.The evolution of the analyzed Church Slavonicisms is different. Some of them have survived to our time and are actively used in the Ukrainian literary language or dialects, while others function only in a special area: in the church practice of the Byzantine rite (Orthodox Church of Ukraine, Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church).

This article explores Catholic, transnational Latin American migration to Rome as a gendered and ethnicized Atlantic Return, which is figured as a source of ‘new blood’ that fortifies the Catholic Church but which also profoundly unsettles it. I analyze this Atlantic Return as an angle on the affective force of history in critical relation to two main sources: Diego Von Vacano’s reading of the work of Bartolomeo de las Casas, a 16th-century Spanish Dominican friar; and to Nelson Maldonado-Torres’ notion of the ‘coloniality of being’ which he suggests has operated in Atlantic relations as enduring and present forms of racial de-humanization. In his view this latter can be counterbalanced by embracing an economy of the gift understood as gendered. However, I argue that in the light of a contemporary payback of evangelization related to the original ‘gift of faith’ to the Americas, this economy of the gift is less liberatory than Maldonado- Torres imagines, and instead part of a polyfaceted reproduction of a postsecular neoliberal affective, and gendered labour regime.

AbstractThe article demonstrates the merging of contemporary processes of resacralization, retraditionalization, and local identity construction embodied in one particular example, the island of Selja on the west coast of Norway. In Roman-Catholic times, Selja was a major pilgrimage site, famous for its legend of St. Sunniva, an Irish princess who fled from her country and took refuge on the island where she suffered a martyr death. The national conversion to Lutheranism in the 16th century put an end to the official Sunniva cult. In our time, however, the legend has been revived and is celebrated for various purposes by the local Lutheran state church, the tourist business, and individuals who are attracted to the symbolic complex of Selja-Sunniva for spiritual reasons. The article argues that the revival of the legend converts the old site with its ruins and landscape features into a narrative space, re-establishing a sanctuary with a variety of symbolic references. Selja meets the requirements of modern seekers and pilgrims, while its history and myth are excellently fitted to serve local identity construction.

The birth and rapid growth of new religious movements in Zimbabwe is a marked phenomenon in the history of Christianity in Africa. Ever since the Reformation that split the Western Church in the 16th century, a number of efforts have since been made by various new religious movements to try and foster ecumenism amongst the deeply divided ecclesiastical communities. Whilst great strides have since been made in critical areas such as common witnessing, inter-religious dialogue, common prayers, mixed marriages, ecumenism in faculties of theology, among other areas, one key element of ecumenism, namely, the common celebration of the Eucharist has always remained very remote and a no go area. To a greater extent, the Roman Catholic authorities in particular have been accused of dragging their feet or taking a ‘distant and detached’ approach to the same practice.1 This current article specifically examines the Light of Life Christian Group’s (llcg) vision of ecumenism, particularly its practice of Eucharistic intercommunion that dates back to the early 1970s. The main argument developed in this article is that, whilst llcg may stand in sharp opposition to the traditional Christian (particularly Catholic) view with regard to sharing the Eucharist with non-Catholics and norms governing the formation of public associations, it has made a breakthrough in the realization of the highest goal of ecumenism. To a greater extent, it has also succeeded in uniting the various denominations that for centuries had been separated by doctrine, history and practice. The article also argues that whilst llcg’s breakthrough is of pinnacle importance in the history of Christianity in Zimbabwe in particular, it is also unique in the sense that, instead of starting from above, from popes and bishops as is always expected and canonically constituted, the breakthrough has started from below.

Benedictions (Benedictiones) are liturgic rites in Catholic church, pronounced by a priest on individual occasions. Medieval studies viewed benedictions and sacramentals (sacramentalia) as a “clerical magic” due to multiple superstitions that surrounded these practices. The article uses Yu. M. Lotman’s communicative model of culture, which can be viewed as semiotically unbalanced (“core” and “periphery”, including foreign semiotic elements), to present destructive changes in this segment of the liturgy as temporary, corresponding to a certain phase of dynamic interaction of two separate cultures — the clerical one (written) and traditional (oral) culture of ordinary believers. The zone of their closest contact is the religious life in the parish, which the author correlates with the cultural periphery, where cross-border interaction takes place (dialogue between the “core” and “periphery”) thus producing the universal communication code (“semiotization”). It was at the level of the local parishes that a number of “unofficial” benedictions on different ordinary occasions (benedictions of fields, cattle, houses etc.) emerged in the 10th–11th centuries. Written in Latin, they were quite extended by specification, application of apocryphal sources, so the prayers mixed up with incantations using elements of folk oral tradition. Thus, the Church, represented by parish priests, got involuntarily involved in the process of creating a language understandable to its flock, adopting elements of traditional culture. Benedictiones deviating from strict orthodoxy vanish only in 16th century with the spread of printed literature and unification of liturgic books.

"Șorban/Șerban Family in the 14th-17th centuries. Genealogical sketch This article aims to reconstruct the historical route of a lower nobility family, from the first appearance in history to the beginning of the modern era. It is the Sorban/Serban family, with two branches, in the north-western part of Transylvania (in the broader sense), respectively in the south-west part of it, having a common root, in the world of the Maramures knezes, continued by a common strain, among the petty nobility of Chioar. The objective is to contribute to a better knowledge of the lower nobility in the western provinces of present-day Romania, on the background that the nobility of these parts is not yet sufficiently represented in the Romanian historiography. The oldest members of the family can be identified in the first half of the 14th century, as knezes Stan Albu and Locovoy of Cosău. At the beginning of the next century, the knezial family individualized in several branches, including the Sorba of Călineşti. In the 16th century, a member of this family crossed into Chioar District, and his three sons received a diploma of ennoblement in 1609, for services to Prince Gabriel Báthory. During the 17th century, the Sorba(n) family appears in several conscriptions of the Chioar, divided into two branches. At the beginning of the 18th century, a Şorban emigrated to the Mureş Plain, near Arad. There will emerge a strong branch of the family, which changes its name to Şerban and sticks to the Greek Orthodox Church, while the other one keeps its name, but shifts to the Greek Catholic Church. Both branches contribute in the 19th and 20th centuries to the intellectual and political elite of Romanians. Descendants of both branches are now well-known people in the cultural field. Keywords: Romanian-nobility, genealogy, Șorban, Șerban, Locovoy "

В статье публикуются основные сведения об открытых при работах в Новодевичьем монастыре в 2017-2020 гг. укрепляющих конструкциях, поддерживавших стены субструкций первого яруса главного храма во имя Смоленской иконы Богородицы. Они были построены из кирпича и белого камня еще в ходе сооружения здания, хотя изначально в планы строителей не входили. Эти дополнительные усиления состояли из ленточных фундаментов, соединявших стены (кроме западной) с двумя столбами подклета. В то же время снаружи (возможно, позднее, чем изнутри) были построены подземные опоры для северо-западного угла и части западного фасада галереи. Анализ этих конструкций вместе с погребальными памятниками (надгробия и саркофаги) позволяет определить время возведения подклета, это конец 1530-х - 1550-1551 гг. До сих пор его дата вызывала горячие споры, также как и вся история строительства собора. The article provides an overview of reinforcing constructions which support the walls of the substructures of tier one of the Catholicon of Our Lady of Smolensk. Discovered in 2017-2020, the reinforcing elements were built of brick and limestone at the same time as the rest of the church. However, they had not been part of the church's original design. These constructions consist of strip footing joining the walls (except the west one) with two pillars of the basement. At the same time outside the church building (probably later than on the inside) several underground supporters were built to reinforce the north-western corner and part of the western facade of the gallery. A study of these constructions together with a number of funerary monuments (tombstones and sarcophagi) has helped to date the basement back to period between late 1530s and 1550-1551. Until now, the foundation date of the Catholicon has been hotly debated, and the whole history of the church's construction a moot point.

AbstractThis article offers an interpretation of the actions of the Franciscan Juan de Albuquerque as bishop of the first Catholic diocese in Asia. The analysis considers the local impacts of the episcopal government and the connectivities of its action, particularly through comparison with similar processes adopted in Spanish America. Based on a wide range of historical sources and cross-referencing them, it investigates how Albuquerque governed in three stages: first, describing the enormous challenges he faced; second, outlining his profile; and third, proposing a reconstruction of his government and the implications it had on the dissemination of Catholicism. The hypothesis raised at the outset is that, in Asia, the Bishop of Goa built a structure that was inspired by the matrix and dynamics of the Portuguese dioceses, which were then adapted to the specificities of the local situation. Accordingly, it is necessary to review the thesis of Charles Boxer, for whom the dynamics of evangelization in the spaces overseen by the Iberian empires from the 16th century onwards were generated essentially by the missionaries from the regular clergy and by the monarchies. By shifting the focus to the actions of a single bishop, the article demonstrates that Albuquerque, the diocesan church he created from scratch, and the secular clergy should not be underestimated.

AbstractBoth political and economic institutions matter for economic growth and development, and are indissolubly connected: sustained economic growth requires far-reaching opening up of the economy and polity to wide participation. This review essay draws on three books which share this view of institutions, to develop an argument on which institutions matter most, and how and why they change. Like them, it uses history as laboratory. Northet al.(2009) inViolence and Social Ordersfocus on Britain, France and the United States, in which change was generally progressive, to study such change from the medieval to the modern period. Jan van Zanden inThe Long Road to the Industrial Revolutionlooks at Europe, 1000–1800, in particular the Netherlands and England, finding regressive as well as progressive change. Acemoglu and Robinson also examine both directions of change, inWhy Nations Fail:they range widely in space, but little before the 16th century. All three offer powerful tools of analysis. All have implications for policy-makers in advanced societies who wish to promote the development of ‘inclusive’ institutions elsewhere. Two striking surprises emerge, and oneprime mover– an institution with particular power to change others – the medieval Catholic church.

Although the Reformation in both Europe and Slovenia was primarily of a religious nature, its long-term impact on Slovenes is much more visible in their collective ethnic than religious identity. While the sovereign Counter-Reformation abolished Protestantism in the Inner Austrian lands between 1598 and 1628, the Catholic Revival used certain achievements of the movement in its own pursuits. For the further development of Slovenes as an ethnic community, especially four Reformation creations are important: 1) the linguistic norm, 2) the concept of the Slovene church, 3) the myth of the chosen ethnicity and 4) a topos about the great extent of the “Slavic”/Slovene language. In accordance with the ethnosymbolist paradigm, the discussion therefore estimates that in the second half of the 16th century Slovenes developed from an ethnic category into an ethnic network. The Slovene language, which was sporadically written from the end of the first millennium onwards, was finally consolidated as a literary language in 1550 with the first two books published by Primož Trubar. The Protestant literary work reached its peak in 1584, when a translation of the Bible by Jurij Dalmatin and a grammar by Adam Bohorič were published. The concept of the “Slovene church”, which is supposed to unite the entire Slovene-speaking Christian community, was also conceived by Trubar. He presented his idea for the first time in 1555 and completed it in his Cerkovna ordninga (“the Church Order”) from 1564. Although the conceptual programme was not established in the church administration, it significantly influenced the mindset of both Protestant and later Catholic writers in the 17th and 18th centuries. The emergence of the Slovene myth of the chosen ethnicity, which is based on a sentence from the Letter of Paul to the Romans: “and every tongue will praise God” (Romans 14:11), also dates back to the Reformation and as a maxim connects the key literary creations of this period. In addition, Protestant writers relied on the humanistic tradition of emphasizing the great extent of the “Slavic” language, which in fact served to increase the importance of Slovene. This topos was first introduced to Slovene grammars by Bohorič and represents a somewhat later entry of Slovenes into the “(inter)national competition for national honor”, which emerged in Europe during the humanism.

The monastery is located at the SE end of the settlement of the Island and became widely known in modern history, as Ali Pasha was assassinated in its cells in 1822. The catholicon today is a three-aisled basilica with a quadruple roof and in its present size was probably built at late 17th or early 18th century. The aisles are separated by wooden colonnades. The W and N walls, probably most of the E, were rebuilt after their destruction in the early 19th century by falling rocks. In the E there is a semicircular arch. The original church was supposed to be a small one-aisled with a semicircular arch, traces of which were discovered on the SE side of the modern church.The monastery is located at the SE end of the settlement of the Island and became widely known in modern history, as Ali Pasha was assassinated in its cells in 1822. The catholicon today is a three-aisled basilica with a quadruple roof and in its present size was probably built at late 17th or early 18th century. The aisles are separated by wooden colonnades. The W and N walls, probably most of the E, were rebuilt after their destruction in the early 19th century by falling rocks. In the E there is a semicircular arch. The original church was supposed to be a small one-aisled with a semicircular arch, traces of which were discovered on the SE side of the modern church.From the early building phase the modern church has incorporated part of the S wall, which dates to the early 15th century. On the W side was added a late 19th-century loggia, which is roofed with a sloping roof lower than that of the church and possibly replaced an older one. The column of the loggia comes from an earlier building phase of the church. On the W side is raised a rectangular narthex, possibly of the same date as the loggia, which is roofed with a quadruple roof. The present entrance door to the main church is located at the W end of the S wall, while the original door was opened in the middle of the same wall and has been walled today. There is a small conch above the walled door.The church is built of stone with irregularly placed stones. More elaborate construction on the arch with carved stones in the pseudo-isodomic system. On the S wall between the stones are inserted bricks. Brick arched frame is formed above the walled gate. The fresco decoration of the catholicon is confined to the outer front of the S wall and the lower parts of the main church. It is of particular importance, as we distinguish five post-Byzantine phases, the first of which at the end of the 15th century. The first is located in the E part of the outer front of the S wall. The rest continue to the W on the outer front of the same wall and on the lower parts inside the main church.In the initial phase of the frescoes belong the Deisis with the Christ and the Virgin, as well as the frontal St. Nicholas, behind the Virgin. The upper parts of the scene have been repainted. The next phase, which can be dated to the 16th century, involves the half-bodied Christ above the conch of the S wall, who blesses with open arms and two full-length archangels on either side of the conch, who have also been repainted. In the third phase of the painting belongs the enthroned Virgin holding the Child amid two angels, pictured behind her massive wooden throne. The composition is to the right of the entrance door to the church. This layer is precisely dated by a dedicatory inscription bearing the date ZΡKϚ (= 1617/18). The penultimate phase is found only in the interior of the catholicon, in the lower parts of the sanctuary, and on the N and S walls of the main church, where a decorative zone is distinguished. The feet of at least two saints are visible on the N wall, another figure of saint next to the iconostasis on the S wall and to the right of the doorway to the church the lower part of the body of a frontal archangel, who steps on a cloud. Above the door there should have been the inscription, mentioned by Aravantinos, but not preserved today, and bearing the date ΑΨΖ (= 1707). During the late 19th century, the outer conch of the S wall was painted with St. Panteleimon, who is depicted half-bodied and holding a vessel and a scalpel.The building phases of the catholicon and the multiple layers of its decoration make it one of the most important monuments of the Ioannina area, as it locates the oldest known frescoes on the Island and throughout the Ioannina basin. At the same time, after reading of one of the dedicatory inscriptions, it was possible to distinguish more clearly the painting layers and to make more effective use of the older reading, by Aravantinos, of the inscription in the interior of the catholicon.

Spanish conquest in the New World has two sides, evangelization, and colonization. The former was carried by the missionaries who were heavily influenced by Bartolome de Las Casa and Vitoria, while the latter by conquistadores, the defenders of the conquest. Early missionaries fought for the dignity of the Indios where they clashed with the motives of the conquistadores to exploit human resources. The problematic part was they have to work under the Spanish crown where their point of contact was also their area for friction. When they arrived in the Philippines, that social solidarity and dynamics of social relation continued where it became complex due to the involvement of various groups including the natives and their leaders, the religious orders, and most of all the Spanish Royal Court that had the history of having a heart for the Indians. King Philip II created a space for debates within his agenda of social conscience. 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Síntese: Uma das figuras mais controvertidas da História da Igreja católica e situada no contexto político-religioso que desembocou na Reforma protestante do século XVI é a do frade servita veneziano Paulo Sarpi. É de sua autoria a História do Concílio de Trento publicada em Londres, em 1619, sob o pseudônimo de Pietro Soave Polano, para burlar a Inquisição. Embora reconhecida como a obra da historiografia eclesiástica mais importante dos inícios do século XVII, só foi retirada do Índice dos Livros Proibidos, juntamente com as demais obras ali citadas, após a conclusão do Concílio Vaticano II, pelo papa Paulo VI. Embora de grande atualidade ao aproximar-se o quarto centenário da publicação de seus escritos, a contribuição de Sarpi ao pensamento político, teológico e econômico continua insuficientemente reconhecida. Recentes e inovadores estudos, contudo, prometem contribuir para reparar o multissecular e quase intencional silêncio ou esquecimento.Palavras-chave: Paulo Sarpi. Concílio de Trento. Reforma protestante. Inquisição romana. Concílio Vaticano II.Abstract: One of the most controversial figures in the history of the Catholic Church since the political-religious movement that led to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, Servite Friar Paolo Sarpi, the Venetian, authored of a History of the Tridentine Council published in London in 1619 under the pseudonym of Pietro Soave Polano to circumvent the Roman Inquisition. Recognized as the most important piece of the early 17th century ecclesiastical historiography, it was removed by Pope Paul VI from the Index of Forbidden Books, together with all his other writings, only after the Second Vatican Council in the middle of the 20th century. Despite approaching the fourth centennial anniversary of the release of his writings, Sarpi’s contribution to the political, theological, and economic thought of his time continues to be insufficiently recognized. Recent and innovative studies, however, promise to repair a multi-secular and quasi-intentional silence or obliviousness.Keywords: Paul Sarpi. Tridentine Council. Protestant Reformation. Roman Inquisition. Second Vatican Council.

<p>W czasach Rusi Halicko-Włodzimierskiej osadnictwo ruskie na terenie dzisiejszej Lubelszczyzny posuwało się systematycznie na zachód. W XV i XVI w. dotarło do doliny Wieprza. W jego środkowym biegu powstało wówczas kilka parafii prawosławnych – Łęczna, Puchaczów, a także Milejów. Parafie te po przystąpieniu diecezji chełmskiej do unii brzeskiej stały się unickimi. Usytuowanie ich na terenie ze wzrastającą przewagą osadnictwa polskiego spowodowało przechodzenie wiernych na rzymsko katolicyzm. Proces ten szczególnie widoczny jest w 2 połowie XVIII w. i 1 połowie XIX w. Parafia w Milejowie należąca do najstarszych na tym terenie, pod koniec XVIII w. liczyła zaledwie kilku parafian, a na początku XIX w. rezydował tu jedynie proboszcz unicki, ks. Bazyli Hrabanowicz. W 2 dekadzie XIX w. ówczesny właściciel dóbr milejowskich – Adam Suffczyński – rozpoczął starania o przekształcenie parafii unickiej w parafię rzymskokatolicką, a cerkwi unickiej w kościół. Okazało się to dosyć skomplikowane. Najpierw parafię unicką należało zamknąć, a dopiero potem utworzyć parafię rzymskokatolicką. Proces ten kontynuowała siostra Adama – Helena Chrapowicka, która wkrótce przekazała to zadanie kuzynowi Antoniemu Melitonowi Rostworowskiemu, a po jego śmierci założeniem parafii i budową kościoła zajęła wdowa po nim – Maria z Jansenów, a następnie ich syn Antoni Rostworowski. Parafia unicka została zamknięta w 1852 r., cerkiew rozebrana, a murowany kościół został wzniesiony w latach 1855-1856. Po śmierci wspomnianego proboszcza unickiego w 1832 r. (ostatniego tutejszego parocha), cerkwią opiekował się proboszcz Dratowa. Część wyposażenia cerkwi milejowskiej została przeniesiona do świątyni dratowskiej, gdzie spłonęło ono w roku 1886 r., w pożarze tamtejszej świątyni. Część wyposażenia zabezpieczona została we dworze milejowskim i po wybudowaniu kościoła przeniesiona do niego. Wśród tego wyposażenia wyróżnia się pochodząca z 2 połowy XVII w. ikona Matki Boskiej z Dzieciątkiem (w typie Eleusy), odnowiona w latach 2012-2013 staraniem ówczesnego proboszcza – ks. Andrzeja Juźko. Po akcji rozbiórkowej cerkwi w 1938 r. to jedna z wyjątkowo nielicznych, ocalałych ikon dawnej diecezji Kościoła wschodniego na Lubelszczyźnie.</p><p><strong>On the Religious Borderland. A Defunct Uniate Church under the Invocation of St. Praxedes the Martyr in Milejów and its Equipment</strong></p>SUMMARY<p>The parish in Milejów was one of the early Orthodox parishes in the Wieprz valley, recorded in the 1470s. The presence of the Orthodox priest in Milejów is documented in tax registers in the 16th century. More information on the Uniate parish and its Orthodox church can be found in the documents of the 18th-19th centuries. The author presents the history of the Milejów Uniate church and the parish with particular reference to the equipment of the church. First, the old Uniate church is described (the last quarter of the 17th and the fi rst half of the 18th century). The church had the high altar and three side altars; in addition, there were inter alia, liturgical vessels, altar bells, the bells on the belfry, liturgical books, an perhaps an iconostasis. The new Uniate church (the second half of the 18th and the fi rst half of the 19th century) – erected in the second half of the 18th century in place of the old one (which burnt down in ca. 1760) contained the high altar with the picture of Our Lady (painted on canvas) and two side altars. The equipment also included, inter alia, a silver and gilded pro Venerabili vessel, a chalice with a paten and a spoon, a can “for sick people”, an altar tin cross, a brass thurible, a metal swag lamp, three altar bells, a bell at the sacristy, four reliquaries, two small brass candlesticks, a processional cross, pictures, liturgical books. The next described stage is the end of the Uniate parish and the beginnings of the creation of the Roman-Catholic parish in the 19th century, founded in 1858. The new church – erected a few hundred meters from the place of the Uniate church – was consecrated in 1859. The equipment of the Uniate church before its demolition (the second quarter of the 19th century) included in 1828, inter alia, the above mentioned three altars, a new choir, a crucifi x, a confessional, a pulpit, candlesticks, pictures, and a new umbraculum. The inventory of 1847 also mentioned, inter alia, four icons situated near the high altar, a stoup, four benches, twenty candlesticks, and a porcelain chandelier. In the next part of the text the author describes the icons preserved in the Milejów church: „Matka Boska z dzieciątkiem” [Madonna and Child] and „Przemienienie Pańskie” [the Transfi guration of the Lord]. In the next parts of the article the author describes the history of the owners of Milejów, patrons and parish priests. At the end of the article he synthetically presents the history of the Milejów parish.</p>

Introduction. The article deals with the issue of Christian communities of different denominations to have resided in the city of Majar, the latter localized around Majar hillfort on the Kuma riverside. Christian cult objects have been discovered in the commercial and crafts quarter of the hillfort. Archaeological and written sources make it possible to identify certain groups of Christians — Orthodox, Catholic, and Gregorian (Armenian) ones — within the city’s population. Goals. The study aims to summarize data on Christians in Majar. Nowadays, there is archaeological evidence confirming Majar had been also inhabited by ethnic Russians and Armenians. Materials and methods. The work analyzes the First Sophia Chronicle, sources on Latin missionary activity in the Golden Horde published by Ph. Bruun, A. Malyshev, and R. Hautala, a 1774 map of the Caucasus compiled by Georg Treitel, and archaeological materials. The study employs a number of research methods, such as the historical/systemic, historical/comparative, and cartographic ones. Results. The year 1245 had witnessed earliest contacts between the papacy and the Mongol Empire. In 1260, relations between the Golden Horde and the Byzantine Empire were set up. And in 1267, Metropolitan Kirill II of Kiev received a jarlig from Khan Mengu-Timur. Rulers of the Golden Horde were seeking to achieve various domestic and foreign policy goals through the agenda of religious tolerance. Franciscan missions, parishes of the Alan Metropolitanate, Diocese of Sarai, and the Armenian Church were functioning across the early 14th-century North Caucasus. Some 16th–18th century written sources attest to the presence of a Christian temple within the hillfort of Majar. Materials published by Ph. Bruun, A. Malyshev, and R. Hautala provide evidence Majar and its neighborhood used to host several Franciscan missions throughout the 14th century. Christian cult objects (encolpion cross, copper icon) discovered in the territory of Majar’s trade and crafts quarter testify to that Orthodox Christians had also lived there and had a temple of their own. The Armenian cross-stone (khachkar) which had been part of a church and found at the ancient site suggests there may have been an Armenian community and an Armenian temple too. Conclusions. The available evidence of the presence of different Christian denominations in Majar insufficiently reveals their role in the city’s life. And it gets urgent to localize the Christian quarter at the ancient site of Majar. So, the search for archival materials and archaeological explorations of the site should be continued.

The Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler was one of the organizations in the second half of 19th – the first half of 20th century which researched the culture of Ukraine. Members of the society published their studies in various periodicals. Beginning from the year 1888 their annual journal "Chteniya v Istoricheskom obshchestve Nestora Letopistsa" appeared regularly. The purpose of this article are to identify topics from the cultural history of the 10th -16th century which were of interest for the members of the society, as well as studies published by them on the journal pages. The other purpose is to systematize interpretations of problems of cultural history raised by the members, and to define the role which was given to the medieval culture in the development of this region by the above- mentioned researchers. It was found, as a result of the study, that beginning from the second half of the 19th century the scholars increasingly turned to the topics predeceasing the Cossack period for emphasising the cultural originality of lands of Southern Ruthenia (Rus'). Researchers turned to the study of monuments of literature to discover local traditions and possible foreign influences. The identified borrowings were often interpreted that they had reflected the existing diversity of the language and culture. Yet there were also some attempts to prove a close connection with the culture of Northern Ruthenia (so called: "Great Russian" culture) on the basis of the established facts. On occasion of the 900th anniversary of the baptism of Ruthenia the researcher intensified their studies on the history of religions. The most attention was paid to the adoption of the Eastern Christianity by Eastern Slavs and the development of Orthodoxy in the area they inhabited. However, researchers were also interested in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, Judaism, Protestantism and their influence on the culture of the region. The members of the society discovered and analysed landmarks from the Middle Ages and from the beginning of Early Modern times. Artworks from this period survived worst of all. The researchers studied sacral buildings, the interior decoration of temples, icons, as well as what were left from the secular architecture, including castles and fortifications. They also tried to identify distinctive elements of artistic development and possible foreign influences. In addition, cultural relations of Ruthenia with other countries were studied. The special attention was paid to the marriage unions, to the connection between economic and cultural interactions and to the religious factor of the relations between various states. The image of the culture of Middle Edges as an important period of Ukraine's cultural history was being created by publishing research results on the pages of the journal.

Purification of the Church is frequently invoked to narrate Protestant justifications for the break from Rome during the Reformation. It also functions to link the Reformation to a process of modern disenchantment. However, little attention has been paid to the rhetoric of pollution and precisely how the reformers articulated the dangers of polluted ritual. The historical location of the sources examined here is the middle decades of the 16th century when Protestants were dealing with political setbacks to the Reformation cause in the Holy Roman Empire, particularly the imposition of the Augsburg Interim by Charles V. This law was designed to find some middle ground between Catholics and Protestants until the schism would be settled at the Council of Trent. However, the debates about whether certain ceremonies, supposedly non-binding with respect to doctrinal commitments, could be used for politically expedient purposes, pushed Protestant thinkers to reassess the power and dangers of liturgical practices and paraphernalia. This article interprets the discourse of pollution in Protestant controversies about compromise in ritual matters by treating the responses of two theologians writing against the Interim from different parts of Germany: Joachim Westphal and Wolfgang Musculus. By laying out the causes of ritual pollution and its negative effects upon body and soul according to individuals who worked for reform in both their intellectual activity as well as their pastoral service, this article demonstrates the importance of ritual matters for Protestant moral thought.

Polish language in the Mohylew region – the past and present (the report on field research)The research in the Mohylew region is a continuation of research concerning the language of Catholics in former North-Eastern Borderland. The work contains an outline of the history of the Mohylew region including the history of the Catholic Church, education and functioning of Polish in this land. Besides Mohylew the following places were visited: Czausy, Faszczówka and Bezczynne where parishes are being revived. Evangelisation is in Belorussian and only in Mohylew one Holy Mass is in Polish every day. Conclusions: The Polish language in the Mohylew region has been functioning since 16th century what is confirmed in Mohylew town chronicles grave inscriptions in local Polish Cemetary. It has also been, excluding Jesuit parishes (Jesuits evangelised in the language of a given nationality, wrote catechisms and grammars) the language of prayers and lithurgy. The result of the progress of russification was that the range of its use narrowed down. The next stage (20’s and 30’s of 20th century) of the fight with the Church and religion led to interrupting passing the Polish language even in those families where it survived throughout former stages. In this way the Polish tradition was interrupted. At present it is very difficult to meet people using the old local Polish language. The Polish with regional features can be heard with those people who came to Mohylew after the World War II. There is also another quality: the language learned at school or courses. The Polish language is generally idiolectally diverse, its shape depends on the degree of fluency in Polish. On the basis of reviving catholicism and the Polish language with numerous young people who discovered their roots there is a process of reconstructing the Polish identity. Польский язык на Могилёвщине – прошлое и современность (отчёт по полевым исследованиям)Полевые исследования на Могилёвщине являются продолжением проводимых авторами исследований языка католиков на бывших северо-восточных рубежах Польши. В статье представлен краткий очерк истории Могилёвщины, католической церквы, просвещения на польском языке и функционирования польского языка на исследуемой территории. Кроме Могилёва авторы статьи посетили Чаусы, Фащевку и Бесчине. В этих местностях возрождаются католические приходы. Евангелизация и богослужения ведутся на белорусском языке. Только в Могилёве ежедневно одна месса происходит на польском языке. Выводы: Польским языком на Могилёвщине пользовались с XVI века, что подтверждают городские хроники и надписи на местном Польском кладбище. Кроме того он был (за исключением приходов, которые вели иезуиты, которые вели римскокатолическое вероучение на национальных языках) языком молитвы и литургии. По мере усиливания руссификации во время разделов Польши, использование польского языка уменьшалось. Очередной период (20-е и 30-е годы ХХ века) борьбы с католической церковью и религией стали причиной прекращения передачи польского языка даже в тех семьях, в которых он сохранился в предыдущий период. Одновременно прекратилась польская традиция. В настоящее время трудно найти людей, говорящих на давнем местном польском языке. Польский язык, насыщенный региональными диалектными чертами, встречается ещё у лиц, которые прибыли на Могилёвщину после второй мировой войны. Мы обнаружили ещё одну разновидность польского языка – это язык выученный в школе и на языковых курсах. В общем польский язык на Могилёвщине сильно дифференцирован в зависимости от индивида, а его качество от степени присвоения данного кода. Опираясь на возрождающийся католицизм и польский язык у многих молодых людей, которые обнаружили свои польские корни, наступает процесс реконструкции польского самосознания.

The article presents the results of a historical and architectural research, which aimed to reveal the main features of the architecture of Spanish monasteries in the sixteenth century, in particular to highlight elements of the ideology of the Spanish crown and the Catholic Church, promoted through architectural structures. The authors established the components of the architectural program and styles of the New Spanish monasteries of the 16th century, highlighted how the process of creative thinking of the future building and its construction took place, what materials were used.

The paper is subjected to thorough analysis of the phenomenon of Ukrainian church space in the second half of the 16th century. We show how the church crisis has started in the Ukrainian lands and reveals socio-political and socio-cultural factors which triggered this crisis. In addition, we try to show how the international factor deepened it. We begin with analysis of how the political forces of the Rzeczpospolita tried to take a full control over the spiritual sphere of life of the Ukrainian people. Then we continue by showcase how Russian politicians together with the administration of the Russian Orthodox Church tried to do the very same thing. Caught in political and military machinery of these two different states priests and bishops of the Ukrainian church tried to build a model on their own of preserving their identity. In 1596 it resulted in the Union of Brest, which, on the one hand split Ukrainian society into two poles – the Orthodox and Uniates, and the other gave rise to serious reform Ukrainian church space. In general, we can conclude that the Union of Brest, despite the expectations and hopes of its organizers laid the beginning of a deep ideological confrontation among Ukrainian people. Union also resulted in serious cultural and political crisis. Supporters of the union have not received from Pope and Polish king protection of their rights and liberties. Religious conflicts became very difficult for the population. The polish politicians, the Catholic Church of Poland and Russians wanted to use Ukrainian crisis to implement his plans.

An integral inculturated faith is anchored to the Filipino cultural heritage and identity. Primal cosmic beliefs and practices carried the holistic customs of stewardships towards God’s creation where it embodied the union and mutuality of the natives to nature rather than control and subordination. The research utilized primary materials written by Spanish ethnographers in the 16th-17th century. Although their observations were from the colonizers’ perspectives, it still revealed beliefs and practices at that time common among early Filipinos. One needs to filter and decipher those accounts to unearth early Filipinos experiences of oikenomous. Although the study was limited to the Tagalogs, still the dynamics of power-relations between the inhabitants and nature were demonstrated using the lenses of Foucault’s discourse on power. 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RÉSUMÉLe principal objectif de cet article est d’encourager une approche plus large, supraconfessionnelle, du mariage et de la famille à l’époque moderne. La conjugalité a été “désacralisée” par les réformateurs protestants du 16e siècle. Martin Luther, parmi d’autres, a refusé le statut de sacrement au mariage, tout en valorisant celui-ci comme une arme contre le péché. En réaction, le concile de Trente a réaffirmé avec force que le mariage est bien un des sept sacrements chrétiens. Mais, promouvant la supériorité du célibat, l’Église catholique n’a jamais beaucoup insisté sur les vertus de la vie et de la piété familiales avant le 19e siècle. En parallèle, les historiens décèlent des signes de “sacralisation” de la famille protestante à partir du 16e siècle. Leurs conclusions doivent être relativisées à la lumière de recherches plus récentes et plus critiques, centrées sur les rapports et les représentations de genre. Elles peuvent néanmoins inspirer une étude élargie et comparative, inexistante dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, des réalités et des perceptions de la famille chrétienne au-delà des frontières confessionnelles.MOTS-CLÉ: Époque Moderne, mariage, famille, protestantisme, Concile de TrenteABSTRACTThe main purpose of this paper is to encourage a broader supra-confessional approach to the history of marriage and the family in the Early Modern era. Wedlock was “desacralized” by the Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Martin Luther, among others, denied the sacramental status of marriage but valued it as a weapon against sin. In reaction, the Council of Trent reinforced marriage as one of the seven sacraments. But the Catholic Church, which promoted the superiority of celibacy, did little to defend the virtues of family life and piety before the 19th century. In parallel, historians have identified signs of a “sacralization” of the Protestant family since the 16th century. These findings must be relativized in the light of newer and more critical studies on gender relations and representations. But they can still inspire a broader comparative study, non-existent in traditional confessional historiography, of the realities and perceptions of the Christian family beyond denominational borders.KEY WORDS: Early Modern Christianity, marriage, family, Protestantism, Council of Trent BIBLIOGRAPHIEAdair, R., Courtship, Illegitimacy and Marriage in Early Modern England, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996.Beaulande-Barraud, V., “Sexualité, mariage et procréation. Discours et pratiques dans l’Église médiévale (XIIIe-XVe siècles)”, dans Vanderpelen-Diagre, C., & Sägesser, C., (coords.), La Sainte Famille. Sexualité, filiation et parentalité dans l’Église catholique, Problèmes d’Histoire des Religions, 24, Bruxelles, Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, 2017, pp. 19-29.Bels, P., Le mariage des protestants français jusqu’en 1685. 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During the period in which these papers were given, there were great achievements on the ecumenical scene, as the quest to restore the Church’s unity was pursued enthusiastically by all the major Christiandenominations. The Papal visit of John Paul II to England in 1982 witnessed a warmth in relationships between the Church of England and the Catholic Church that had not been experienced since the early 16th century Reformation in England to which More fell victim. The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission was achieving considerable doctrinal consensus and revisionist scholarship was encouraging an historical review by which the faithful Catholic and the confessing Protestant could look upon each other respectfully and appreciatively. It is to this ecumenical theme that James McConica turns in his contribution.

In the 16th century, Protestants rejected the possibility of mystical encounters between humans and God. Catholics responded in various ways, but perhaps most forcefully by continuing to claim mystical experiences and by emphasizing extreme forms of mysticism. This paper analyzes how that rejection affected the development of Catholic mysticism at that time, especially in the case of Saint Teresa of Avila (1515–82), whose ecstasies were closely examined by the Spanish Inquisition, but were subsequently approved and promoted as exemplary of the truths professed by the Catholic Church.

Until the 1980s the history of the Roman Catholic Church and Catholicism in modern Europe was mostly the preserve of the theologically and confessionally defined field of ‘church history’ or ‘ecclesiastic history’. Catholic historiography was sealed off from mainstream (North American and British) historiography, with nineteenth- and twentieth-century Catholicism seemingly little more than a backward-looking footnote in the dominant narrative of secular modernity and progress. In a 1991 review article David Blackbourn pointed out that ‘historians in the mainstream have commonly considered Catholicism, if they considered it at all, as a hopelessly obscurantist force at odds with the more serious isms that have shaped the modern age’. Within the same review, however, Blackbourn signaled the emergence of timid but nevertheless clear ‘signs of a change’ in the historiographical direction and a new interest in Catholic history.

This article looks at a largely neglected aspect of nineteenth- and twentieth-century religio-political activism and public doctrine, the conservative politics of premillennialist Protestantism. It approaches this subject through a case study of the doctrines and activities of the Catholic Apostolic Church, a relatively small premillennialist and Pentecostal faith-community extant from the 1830s through to the mid-twentieth century. The translation of these doctrines into Conservative party politics by Henry Drummond MP and by the seventh and eighth dukes of Northumberland is given especial attention.

From early contact with the Portuguese and conversion to Christianity in the late 15th century and continuing through the Counter Reformation, the Kingdom of Kongo resisted Portuguese colonialism while remaining steadfastly loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. Against the turbulent backdrop of the growing Atlantic slave trade, internal conflict and power struggles, and Portuguese presence in Luanda, Kongo repeatedly resisted the temptation to break from Rome and establish its own Church, in spite of Portuguese control of the Episcopate. In the late 16th century King Álvaro clashed with the Portuguese Bishop, but remained faithful to the church in Rome. In the early 17th century, Kongo armies repelled Portuguese invasions from the south while kings continued to lobby for more Jesuit and later Italian Capuchin missionaries, whom they needed, above all, to perform sacraments vital to Kongolese Catholics. Another opportunity to split from Rome came when Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita created the Antonian movement in 1704 and denounced the Catholic Church. Instead, she was captured and burned at the stake while King Pedro IV remained faithful to the Capuchin missionaries. In contrast to Portuguese Angola, where Jesuits were deeply implicated in slave trading, the Capuchins in Kongo did not own slaves and, for the most part, both resisted and criticized the slave trade.

The article examines the Franciscan missions in China in modern times, with a specific focus on the members of the Bohemian Franciscan Province. The 16th and 17th centuries were periods of significant success for Roman Catholic missions, including the Franciscans. These two centuries differ from the preceding period, as evidenced in the radical changes that took place in relation to the organization of missions and their relationship with their European bases. The world was divided into areas under the Portuguese padroado and areas under the Spanish patronato. The system was later completed by the establishment of the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, under the auspices of the Roman Curia. The beginning of the Catholic missions to China dates to the second half of the 16th century, but the real flowering of the missions began with the participation of the new missionaries coming to China after the 1680s. The Chinese Rites controversy in the 17th and 18th centuries was one of the factors which led to the prohibition of Christianity and the expulsion of Catholic missionaries from China. Nevertheless, some missionaries were illegally active in China from 1724 onwards. Among the Franciscan missionaries to China there were four friars from the Czech Crown lands, who were working in China during the time of the illegal missions. They were among the most important representatives of the Franciscan missions in China, along with their Italian confreres.

The relationship between the Roman Catholic church and the state in nineteenth-century German history appears to have been plagued by discord and mistrust. From the secularization of church lands and the dissolution of sovereign ecclesiastical territories at the beginning of the century to the Kulturkampf of the 1870s, church and state found themselves repeatedly at loggerheads. One thinks of the negotiations between Prussia and Rome on a concordat after 1815, the Cologne mixed marriage controversy of 1837, the Frankfurt Parliament's debates on Article III of the Reich Constitution in 1848, and the hostility aroused by the Raumer decrees of 1852. In a recent article on the Catholic church in Westphalia during the 1850s and his book on popular Catholicism in nineteenth-century Germany, Jonathan Sperber has challenged the validity of this picture of conflict between church and state.

Abstract This article discusses the religious soundscape of the Maronites in the 16th and the 17th century as reflected in Western travel accounts that report the use of church bells at Qannūbīn Monastery in Lebanon, the residence of the Maronite patriarch. Bell ringing for religious purposes was actually forbidden in the Ottoman Empire. The Christian communities of the Levant employed a wooden instrument, the semantron, to call the faithful to service. Qannūbīn was an exception. Information provided by pilgrims and travelers sheds light on some of the reasons behind the use of bell ringing in this remote religious foundation. Moreover, I argue that the use of bells at Qannūbīn was related to the close contacts between the Maronite clergy and the Pope of Rome. The former wanted to be in communion with the Roman Church. The use of bell ringing at the patriarchal residence assisted to project a Catholic image by means of sound.

The Catholic church during the era of the Catholic Reformation experienced great vitality and vigor. Missionary activity was one of the clearest indications of this renewed spiritual energy. Simultaneously with Catholic revitalization there occurred the expansion of European commerce and colonization. In the wake of the Age of Discovery portions of Africa, Asia, and the New World became more accessible to Europeans. The Catholic church, by means of its religious orders, carried Christianity to the inhabitants of these regions. The drive and dedication which led to reform of the church within Europe also fueled an intense missionary commitment towards the people of other continents. The dedication and zeal of the regular clergy reflected the apostolic tradition within the church, but this older ideal was enhanced by a new spirit of expansionism. The Catholic religious orders shared the urge of many of their secular contemporaries to take advantage of new opportunities for growth overseas.

AbstractThis article explores sources in the Christian tradition that can be helpful for re-shaping present Roman Catholic ecclesial polity. The underlying theme is that the Catholic Church, in order to enhance efforts at church reform, needs to re-structure itself from a monarchical polity to a democratic one. A theological subtheme argues that the monarchical polity is not mandated by the gospel, but is rather a creature of history. Furthermore, the monarchical polity is a root cause obstructing reform in specific areas. By selecting loci from early church history to the present time, democratic movements and ideas are highlighted as constituting an important part of Catholic history. Certain of these loci have not yet been examined for their democratic potential. This democratic tradition can be a springboard for moving toward a democratic church in the twenty-first century.

One hundred years ago, the discipline of church history was well established within institutions of higher learning in Western societies. The heirs of Leopold von Ranke and Philip Schaff were well versed in the range of topics that church history comprised. Church history was an integral part of the study of theology. Church historians published handbooks and had their own journals. All church historians—those with a Catholic and those with a Protestant affiliation, the members of state churches, and those belonging to church bodies, built on the principle of voluntarism—seemed to have a common agenda. This was the story of Christian churches throughout the centuries.

Under The Influence of Enlightenment ideals of rational administration and cameralist notions of increasing the productivity and welfare of the populace, Joseph II and his ministers embarked on an aggressive program of reform for the Habsburg monarchy in the late eighteenth century. Their view as to what needed change was wide-ranging, but among their chief concerns was the desire to restructure the relationship between the Catholic church and Austrian society. As the largest and most powerful religious denomination in the Habsburg monarchy, the Catholic church possessed immense human and material resources, which could possibly be exploited to benefit the Austrian people and state. For Joseph II, the process whereby Catholicism could best be put to use in Austrian society necessarily involved seizing partial administrative control over the Catholic church. The Catholic church, he believed, did not distribute material and moral benefit to the Austrian people evenly, and changing this situation required the active intervention of the Austrian government.

In his famous essay on von Ranke‘s history of the Popes, Thomas Babington Macaulay remarked that the ‘ignorant enthusiast whom the Anglican Church makes an enemy… the Catholic Church makes a champion’. ‘Place Ignatius Loyola at Oxford. He is certain to become the head of a formidable secession. Place John Wesley at Rome. He is certain to be the first General of a new Society devoted to the interests and honour of the Church.’ Macaulay’s general argument that Roman Catholicism ‘unites in herself all the strength of establishment, and all the strength of dissent’, depends for its force on his comparison of the Catholic Regular Orders with the popular preachers of Nonconformity. As the son of a leader of the Clapham Sect, his witness in the matter has its interest for scholars of the Evangelical Revival, and has been echoed by Ronald Knox in his parallel between Wesley and the seventeenth-century Jesuit, Paolo Segneri, who walked barefoot 800 miles a year to preach missions in the dioceses of northern Italy. More recently the comparison has been drawn again by Owen Chadwick, with the judgement that the ‘heirs of the Counter-Reformation sometimes astound by likeness of behaviour to that found in the heirs of the Reformation’, and Chadwick’s volume on the eighteenth-century Popes contains some fascinating material on the resemblances between the religion of the peoples of England and of Italy. An historian of Spanish Catholicism has compared the Moravians and the mission preachers of eighteenth-century Spain, not least in their rejection of modern commercialism, while an American scholar has traced some of the parallels between nineteenth-century Protestant and Catholic revivalism in the United States. Not that Wesleyan historians have been attracted to study the great movements of revival religion in the Catholic countries in Wesley’s lifetime—a neglect which is hardly surprising. One point of origin of the Evangelical revival was among refugees from Roman Catholic persecution, and for all the popular confusion, encouraged by men like Bishop Lavington, between Methodists and Papists, and for all Wesley’s belief in religious toleration and tenderness for certain Catholic saints and devotional classics, he was deeply hostile to the Roman Catholic Church, as David Hempton has recently shown. Yet there are many points of likeness as well as difference between the enthusiasts of Protestant and Catholic Europe, and both these need to be declared if Catholics and Protestants are ever to attempt to write an ecumenical history.

Elizabeth A. Clark's immensely learned new book, The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America, which follows directly on her examination of the nineteenth century in Founding the Fathers: Early Church History and Protestant Professors in Nineteenth-Century America, is a joy to read and from which to learn about the histories of our discipline, the history of Christianity. Chiefly, the book documents, through in-depth study of three fascinating figures, the severance of the field of “church history” from “theology” and, in particular, its pivotal moments within Protestant and Catholic “modernism.”

There is a marked difference between the history of the Church of Ireland in the sixteenth century and in the early seventeenth century. The historian of the early Reformation in Ireland has to deal with shifting religious divides and, in the Church of Ireland, with a complex and ambiguous religious entity, established but not necessarily Protestant, culturally unsure, politically weak, and theologically unselfconscious. By contrast, the first part of the seventeenth century is marked by the creation of a distinct Protestant church, clearly distinguished in structural, racial, theological and political terms from its Roman Catholic counterpart. The history of the Church of Ireland in the first four decades of the seventeenth century is therefore primarily about the creation of this church and the way in which its new structures and exclusive identity were shaped.

Kontrowersje dotyczące proklamacji i skutków unii brzeskiej (1596) znalazły odbicie w bogatej literaturze historycznej, polemicznej i religijnej, jaka powstała na terenie Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów na przestrzeni kilkunastu dziesięcioleci (2. poł. XVI-XVII w.). Gorący spór toczył się pomiędzy przedstawicielami Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego, greckokatolickiego oraz prawosławnego. W artykule zwrócono uwagę na posługiwanie się przez każdą ze stron tego religijno-politycznego konfliktu podobnymi argumentami, którym jednakże podstawiano różne znaczenia w zależności od odmiennych perspektyw eklezjologicznych i historyczno-kulturowych autorów wypowiedzi. W ten sposób polemika religijna stała się w praktyce dyskusją skierowaną w stronę utrwalania stanowiska przedstawicieli własnego obozu, a nie pozyskiwania zwolenników ze strony przeciwnej. The Concept of Church Union or Church Unity? On the Polysemantic Nature of Discourse in the Polish-Ruthenian Religious Polemics in the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth (2nd half of the 16th-17th Century) Controversies regarding the proclamation and the consequences of the Union of Brest (1596) were reflected in extensive historical, polemical and religious literature that was created in the Commonwealth of Both Nations over several decades (2nd half of the 16th-17th century). There was a heated dispute between the representatives of the Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches. The article highlights the use of similar arguments by each of the parties to this religious-political conflict which, however, were given different meanings depending on various ecclesiological, historical and cultural perspectives of the authors of a statement. Thus, in practice, religious polemics became a discussion aimed at strengthening the position of representatives of one’s own party, instead gaining supporters among opponents.

Abstract This article aims to show the evolution of the conceptualisation of Africa according to the Catholic Church, using as its key references Daniele Comboni and Adalberto da Postioma, two Italian missionaries who lived in the 19th century and 20th century respectively. Through them, the article attempts to interpret how the Catholic Church has conceived and implemented its relationships with the African continent in the last two centuries. The article uses history to analyse the thought of the two authors using a qualitative and comparative methodology.

Abstract The Administration of Ecclesiastical Goods between State and Church: Fabricae Ecclesiae in Wuerttemberg in the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the Middle Ages, fabricae ­ecclesiae served to finance the erection and the maintenance of churches. The Church claimed to freely administer these goods, even if lay men often served as administrators. In the 19th century, the Kingdom of Wuerttemberg took over control of these goods and ordered the state municipality, assisted by local clerics, to govern them. In 1887, the king of Wuerttemberg started a process to separate ecclesiastical from secular goods. After WWI, the fabricae ecclesiae in Wuerttemberg were administered entirely by the Catholic Church. This contribution analyses this evolution from three perspectives, namely universal canon law, state law in Wuerttemberg, and particular canon law. It thereby highlights the tension between self-administration and state control of ecclesiastical goods, especially in the 19th century, and points to the fact that even the Catholic Church was part of the secular ruler’s authority over the church.