Books: 'Cardiovascular Disease Mortality'

1

Cardiovascular disease. New York, N.Y: Facts on File, 1987.

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2

Waters, Anne-Marie. Mortality from cardiovascular disease in Australia. Canberra: Australian Institue of Health and Welfare, 1995.

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3

Armitage, Jeff. Cardiovascular disease mortality and risk factors by Nebraska's local public health department regions. Lincoln, NE: Nebraska Health and Human Services System, 2005.

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4

Cardiovascular disease in racial and ethnic minorities. Totowa, N.J: Humana, 2009.

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5

Illinois. Dept. of Public Health. Heart disease and stroke in Illinois: Now is the time for public health action : 2007-2012 state plan. Springfield, IL: Illinois Dept. of Public Health, 2007.

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6

D'Espaignet, E. Tursan. Trends in Australian mortality: Diseases of the circulatory system, 1950-1991. Canberra: Australian Govt. Pub. Service, 1993.

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7

1934-, Bruhn John G., ed. The power of clan: The influence of human relationships on heart disease. New Brunswick, N.J. U.S.A: Transaction Publishers, 1993.

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8

Migliónico, Américo. 118 años de mortalidad por enfermedades cardiovasculares en el Uruguay, 1882 a 1999. Montevideo: Comisión Honoraria para la Salud Cardiovascular, 2001.

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9

Ronellenfitsch, Ulrich. Cardiovascular mortality among ethnic German immigrants from the former Soviet Union. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2007.

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10

Hanke, Wojciech. Przyczyny wysokiej umieralności mężczyzn w wieku produkcyjnym w Polsce: Badania ankietowe 1987-1989. Warszawa: Szkoła Główna Handlowa, Instytut Statystyki i Demografii, 1992.

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11

Honoré, Bo E. Bounds in competing risks models and the war on cancer. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004.

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12

Honoré, Bo E. Bounds in competing risks models and the war on cancer. Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004.

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13

Kenkyūjo, Kokuritsu Kankyō. Taikichū ryūshijō busshitsu tō ga junkanki shikkan hasshō shibō ni oyobosu eikyō ni kansuru ekigaku kenkyū: Kankyōshō kankyō kenkyū gijutsu kaihatsu suishinhi shūryō kenkyū seika hōkokusho : Heisei 20-nendo--Heisei 21-nendo = Epidemiological studies examining the effects of ambient particulate matter on cardiovascular mortality and morbidity : environment research and technology development fund. [Tokyo]: Kankyōshō Sōgō Kankyō Seisakukyoku Kankyō Hokenbu Kankyō Anzenka Kankyō Risuku Hyōkashitsu, 2010.

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14

Kenkyūjo, Kokuritsu Kankyō. Taikichū ryūshijō busshitsu tō ga junkanki shikkan hasshō shibō ni oyobosu eikyō ni kansuru ekigaku kenkyū: Kankyōshō kankyō kenkyū gijutsu kaihatsu suishinhi shūryō kenkyū seika hōkokusho : Heisei 20-nendo--Heisei 21-nendo = Epidemiological studies examining the effects of ambient particulate matter on cardiovascular mortality and morbidity : environment research and technology development fund. [Tokyo]: Kankyōshō Sōgō Kankyō Seisakukyoku Kankyō Hokenbu Kankyō Anzenka Kankyō Risuku Hyōkashitsu, 2010.

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15

Caroline, Mara, Ryan Bradley, and Mimi Guarneri. Cardiovascular Disease. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190466268.003.0013.

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The older population is challenging to treat for numerous reasons, including comorbid conditions and increased susceptibility to adverse drug reactions, limiting medical therapy. They are at increased risk for loneliness and depression, which strongly impacts their cardiovascular outcomes, and they also have different values, usually prioritizing quality of life over mortality objectives. Finally, the elderly are underrepresented in cardiovascular clinical trials, thus limiting the applicability of guideline recommendations. This chapter emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive assessment of individual circumstances when assessing cardiovascular health in the elderly population. The chapter focuses on the role of nutrition, resiliency, and exercise for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Nutrient deficiencies commonly seen with cardiovascular drugs are also discussed, as well as specific integrative strategies for optimizing dyslipidemia, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure in this population.

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16

Banerjee, Amitava, and Kaleab Asrress. Prevention of cardiovascular disease. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0343.

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The global scale of the cardiovascular disease epidemic is unquestionable, with cardiovascular disease causing a greater burden of mortality and morbidity than any other disease, regardless of country or population. With demographic change and ageing populations, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors is set to increase. The commonest cardiovascular diseases are atherosclerotic, affecting all arterial territories. The ‘burden of disease’ approach has highlighted the fact that cardiovascular disease and non-communicable diseases are not simply diseases of affluence but affect people of all countries, with enormous costs in terms of public health, healthcare, and overall economies. Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of mortality in all regions of the world apart from sub-Saharan Africa, followed by cerebrovascular disease. It should be noted, however, that there has been a major decline in cardiovascular disease mortality in Western Europe, the US, and Japan over the past 40 years. There are multiple factors underlying these favourable trends but understanding the epidemiology and characterizing individual risk factors for cardiovascular disease has been central in formulating preventive and treatment strategies. The INTERHEART study showed that 90% of cardiovascular risk can be explained by nine easily identifiable risk factors; an awareness of these, and the discovery of novel factors, will continue to serve in the fight to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease. Geoffrey Rose first championed population-wide approaches versus strategies which target only high-risk individuals. Prevention aims to ‘catch the disease’ upstream, therefore delaying, reducing, or eliminating the risk of coronary artery disease. Surrogate markers for coronary artery disease have emerged in efforts to detect disease at earlier stages, and in order to better understand the pathophysiology. For example, coronary artery calcium scoring is emerging as a marker of future risk of coronary artery disease. Risk stratification scores are increasingly used as tools to individualize a person’s future risk of coronary artery disease in order to better target treatment and prevention strategies.

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17

J, Hellinger Fred, and National Center for Health Services Research and Health Care Technology Assessment (U.S.), eds. Heart disease and hospital deaths: An empirical study. [Rockville, MD]: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Center for Health Services Research and Health Care Technology Assessment, 1987.

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18

Section, Colorado Health Statistics, and Colorado Chronic Disease Section, eds. Cardiovascular disease risk factors, morbidity, and mortality in Colorado residents, 1989-1993. Denver, CO: Health Statistics Section, 1995.

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19

Betteridge, D. John, ed. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease: the scale of the problem. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199543502.003.0001.

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• The epidemic of cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been and still is very dynamic and heterogeneous when comparing time trends and mortality rates in different places of the world.• Age-standardized CVD mortality rates have declined in some countries, mainly due to a better management of the essential risk factors.• Unfavourable trends in CVD incidence are found and foreseen in developing countries due to demographic and to adverse lifestyle changes.• Comprehensive CVD prevention strategies are needed to promote primary prevention and better implementation of effective preventive actions in patients with established CVD.

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20

Vlachopoulos, Charalambos, and Nikolaos Ioakeimidis. Erectile dysfunction as a marker and predictor of cardiovascular disease. Edited by Charalambos Vlachopoulos. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198784906.003.0245.

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Erectile dysfunction (ED) is defined as the inability to obtain or maintain a penile erection to support satisfactory sexual performance. It is considered an early manifestation of generalized vascular disease and recognized as a marker of increased cardiovascular risk both acutely and chronically by predicting all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, coronary events, stroke, and peripheral artery disease in men with and without known coronary artery disease. The link between ED and cardiovascular disease might reside in the interaction between androgen level, chronic inflammation, and cardiovascular risk factors that determine endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis both in the penile and coronary circulation. Because penile artery size is smaller compared with coronary arteries, the same degree of endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerotic burden causes a more significant reduction of blood flow in erectile tissues compared with that in coronary circulation. From a clinical standpoint, because ED may precede cardiovascular disease, it can be used as an early marker to identify men at higher risk of cardiovascular events. The average 3-year time period between the onset of ED symptoms and a cardiovascular event offers the opportunity for detailed cardiological assessment and intensive treatment of risk factors.

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21

P, Barker D. J., ed. Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. 1989.

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22

Pereira, Luis F., Harold W. Goforth, Esteban Martínez, Joseph Z. Lux, Maria Ferrara, and Michael P. Mullen. Cardiovascular Disease, Metabolic Complications and Lipodystrophy in Persons with HIV. Edited by Mary Ann Cohen, Jack M. Gorman, Jeffrey M. Jacobson, Paul Volberding, and Scott Letendre. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199392742.003.0046.

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The introduction of effective antiretroviral therapy has contributed to a dramatic reduction in HIV-related mortality. As patients live longer, evidence suggests an increased incidence of cardiovascular disease in persons with HIV over that among individuals who do not have HIV, thus early detection and treatment of multimorbidities and modifiable cardiovascular disease risk factors particularly in persons with HIV are needed. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the increased risk of cardiovascular disease, including the virus itself, antiretroviral therapy, and traditional risks factors. This chapter discusses detection and treatment of cardiovascular disease in persons with HIV, as well as metabolic complications involved, including dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and lactic acidosis. The pathogenesis and management of HIV-associated lipodystrophy as well as its psychosocial impact are also addressed.

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23

Illinois. Division of Chronic Disease Prevention and Control., ed. Burden of heart disease and stroke in Illinois: Mortality, morbidity and risk factors. [Springfield, Ill.]: Illinois Department of Public Health, Illinois Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention Program, Division of Chronic Disease Prevention and Control, 2007.

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24

Drake, Sarah, and Jonathan Sandoe. Fungal cardiovascular infections. Edited by Christopher C. Kibbler, Richard Barton, Neil A. R. Gow, Susan Howell, Donna M. MacCallum, and Rohini J. Manuel. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198755388.003.0021.

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Fungal cardiovascular disease can broadly be divided into four groups: infective endocarditis (including implantable cardiac electronic devices), mycotic aneurysms, vascular graft infections, and intravascular catheter-related infections. These conditions are rare but are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, which may be in excess of 80% in certain groups of patients. Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp. account for the majority of these infections, but rare fungi may also be involved, particularly in infective endocarditis, where they are responsible for approximately 25% of cases. This chapter will cover the epidemiology, causative fungi, clinical features, diagnosis, management, and prevention of these four fungal cardiovascular conditions.

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25

Hardacker, Doris M. Cushing’s Disease. Edited by Matthew D. McEvoy and Cory M. Furse. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0029.

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Cushing’s syndrome is caused by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting or cortisol-secreting tumors. In most cases, the hypercortisolism is caused by an ACTH-secreting tumor of the pituitary. An excess of circulating cortisol adversely affects all major organ systems, including the cardiovascular system and therefore produces a wide range of clinical features. Perioperative morbidity and mortality will largely be determined by the magnitude of cardiac dysfunction encountered. Successful perioperative management depends on a thorough preoperative assessment of affected organs, comprehensive intraoperative monitoring, and an understanding of potential interactions with anesthetic drugs. Surgical reselection is most often the definitive treatment for this syndrome, however there are pharmacologic interventions that can be undertaken when necessary.

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26

Perveen, Ghazala. The role of candidate markers in prediction of all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality in coronary angiography patients. [s.n.], 2002.

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27

Ulrich, Keil, and Monica-Augsburg (Project :. Germany), eds. Monica-Augsburg: Manual of operations : survey. München: Gesellschaft für Strahlen- und Umweltforschung, 1985.

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28

Chandrasekhar, Shobana, and C. LaToya Mason. Valvular Disease. Edited by Matthew D. McEvoy and Cory M. Furse. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0050.

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Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Complex valvular heart disease accounts for approximately 30% to 50% of all cardiac diseases of pregnancy and presents significant challenges to the management of the parturient affected by it. Determination of disease severity and maternal risk assessment are especially important to development of appropriate plans of care for the labor, delivery, and immediate postpartum periods, when adverse events for both mother and fetus may occur. An understanding of the pathophysiology of the causative lesions and hemodynamic goals, thorough evaluation, and a multidisciplinary approach are key components to the successful management of these patients, allowing for appropriate selection of an anesthetic technique that balances the benefits and consequences to both mother and infant, thereby leading to optimal patient outcomes.

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29

Baldwin, Matthew, and Hannah Wunsch. Mortality after Critical Illness. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199653461.003.0003.

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Many critically ill patients now survive what were previously fatal illnesses, but long-term mortality after critical illness remains high. While study populations vary by country, age, intervention, or specific diagnosis, investigations demonstrate that the majority of additional deaths occur in the first 6 to 12 months after hospital discharge. Patients with diagnoses of cancer, respiratory failure, and neurological disorders leading to the need for intensive care have the highest long-term mortality, while those with trauma and cardiovascular diseases have much lower long-term mortality. Use of mechanical ventilation, older age, and a need for care in a facility after the acute hospitalization are associated with particularly high 1-year mortality among survivors of critical illnesses. Due to challenges of follow-up, less is known about causes of delayed mortality following critical illness. Longitudinal studies of survivors of pneumonia, stroke, and patients who require prolonged mechanical ventilation suggest that most debilitated survivors die from recurrent infections and sepsis. Potential biologic mechanisms for increased risk of death after a critical illness include sepsis-induced immunoparalysis, intensive care unit-acquired weakness, neuroendocrine changes, poor nutrition, and genetic variance. Studies are needed to fully understand how the severity of the acute critical illness interacts with comorbid disease, pre-illness disability, and pre-existing and acquired frailty to affect long-term mortality. Such studies will be fundamental to improve targeting of rehabilitative, therapeutic, and palliative interventions to improve both survival and quality of life after critical illness.

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30

Hert, Stefan De, and Patrick Wouters. Heart disease and anaesthesia. Edited by Philip M. Hopkins. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0083.

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Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of mortality. Hypertension is one of the major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Classically, hypertension is subdivided according to the aetiology into primary and secondary hypertension. Ischaemic heart disease constitutes a major concern for perioperative morbidity and mortality. Therefore important efforts are directed towards the identification of the patient at risk for perioperative cardiac complications and towards optimization of the cardiac status before intervention. Cardiac rhythm disturbances fall into two general classes: bradyarrhythmias and tachyarrhythmias. While single isolated extra or skipped heart beats are usually harmless, serious heart rhythm disturbances are caused by an underlying heart disease. Valvular heart disease refers to any disease process involving any valve of the heart. Valvular heart disease may be as a result of a stenosis or an insufficiency of the valve, or both. It is characterized by pressure or volume overload to the atria and the ventricles (or both). It is this overload that will be responsible for the symptomatology of the disease. As a result of significant advances in prenatal diagnosis, cardiac surgery, interventional cardiology, and perioperative medicine, about 90% of infants with congenital heart disease are currently expected to reach adulthood. Management of these patients requires insight into (1) the primary cardiac lesion, (2) the type of cardiac surgical or interventional procedure(s) performed, (3) the presence of residual defects or sequelae, (4) the current physical status (i.e. balanced vs unbalanced), (5) the effects of surgery or pregnancy on their pathophysiological condition, and (6) the presence of comorbidity.

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31

Weller, Iris M. R. The effects of measurement error on the relation between physical activity and cardiovascular disease mortality in the Canada fitness survey cohort. 1999.

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32

Illinois. Dept. of Public Health., ed. Heart disease and stroke in Illinois: Now is the time for public health action : 2007-2012 state plan. Springfield, IL: Illinois Dept. of Public Health, 2007.

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33

Garbarino, Sergio. Morbidity, mortality, societal impact, and accident in sleep disorders. Edited by Sudhansu Chokroverty, Luigi Ferini-Strambi, and Christopher Kennard. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199682003.003.0053.

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Sleep disorders are associated with several morbidities, most strongly with psychiatric disorders, cognitive impairment, and impaired quality of life, as well as with increased mortality. Sleep problems are common across the lifespan from childhood to adolescence and adulthood. Physiological sleep continuity with respect to circadian rhythms is considered to be important for the maintenance of cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune function, physiological homeostasis, and psychological balance. Nowadays, it is reasonable to include sleep disturbances among the top 10 potentially modifiable cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. The links between sleep disorders and morbidity as CVD show bidirectional associations. Because these disorders are chronic, they may also have a deleterious societal impact on a patient’s employment status, ability to work, risk of accident, and health. The relationship between work performance and sleep quality is reciprocal and potentially complex. This chapter illustrates the principal sleep disorders and their relevance as indicators of health status.

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34

Sprague, Stuart M., and Menaka Sarav. Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0115_update_001.

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The kidneys play a critical role in maintaining normal serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations, under the regulation of three main hormones: parathyroid hormone, calcitriol, and fibroblast growth factor 23. With the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), most patients develop CKD–mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD), which is a systemic disorder involving derangement in mineral metabolism, renal osteodystrophy, and extraskeletal calcification. Disturbances in mineral metabolism develop early in CKD and include phosphate retention, hypocalcaemia, vitamin D deficiency, and hyperparathyroidism. Renal osteodystrophy involves pathologic changes of bone morphology related to progressive CKD and is quantifiable by histomorphometry, based on bone biopsy. CKD-MBD is associated with significant morbidity, including bone loss, fractures, cardiovascular disease, immune suppression, as well as increased mortality. As the disorder begins early in the course of CKD, a proactive approach with intervention is important. Therapeutic strategies could then be employed to prevent and correct these disturbances, aiming to improve cardiovascular outcomes and survival. Current practice guidelines for CKD-MBD are based on insufficient data and high-quality studies are required before specific treatment can be advocated strongly.

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35

Ferro, Charles J., and Khai Ping Ng. Recommendations for management of high renal risk chronic kidney disease. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0099.

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Poorer renal function is associated with increasing morbidity and mortality. In the wider population this is mainly as a consequence of cardiovascular disease. Renal patients are more likely to progress to end-stage renal disease, but also have high cardiovascular risk. Aiming to reduce both progression of renal impairment and cardiovascular disease are not contradictory. Focusing on the management of high-risk patients with proteinuria and reduced glomerular filtration rates, it is recommended that blood pressure should be kept below 140/90, or 130/80 if proteinuria is > 1 g/24 h (protein:creatinine ratio (PCR) >100 mg/mmol or 0.9 g/g). These targets may be modified according to age and other factors. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor antagonists should form part of the therapy for patients with proteinuria > 0.5 g/24 h (PCR > 50 mg/mmol or 0.45 g/g). Use of ACEIs or angiotensin receptor blockers in patients with lower levels of proteinuria may be indicated in some patient groups even in the absence of hypertension, notably in diabetic nephropathy. Evidence that other agents that reduce proteinuria bring additional benefits is weak at present. The best studies of ‘dual-blockade’ with various combinations of ACEIs, ARBs, and renin inhibitors have shown additional hazard with little evidence of additional benefit. Hyperlipidaemia—regardless of lipid levels, statin therapy is indicated in secondary cardiovascular prevention, and in primary prevention where cardiovascular risk is high, noting that current risk estimation tools do not adequately account for the increased risk of patients with CKD. There is not substantial evidence that lipid lowering therapy impacts on average rates of loss of GFR in progressive CKD. Non-drug lifestyle interventions to reduce cardiovascular risk, including stopping smoking, are important for all. Acidosis—in more advanced CKD it is justified to treat acidosis with oral sodium bicarbonate. Diet—sodium restriction to < 100 mmol/day (6 g/day) and avoidance of excessive dietary protein are justified in early to moderate CKD. Recommendations to limit levels of protein to 0.8 g/kg body weight are suggested by some, but additional protective effects of this are likely to be slight in patients who are otherwise well managed. Low-protein diets may carry some risk. Lower-protein diets may however be used to prevent symptoms in advanced CKD not treated by dialysis.

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36

Zhang, Luxia, and Haiyan Wang. Chronic kidney disease in developing countries. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0096_update_001.

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The spread of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is a barrier to the development of goals including reduction of poverty, health equity, economic stability, and human security. NCDs accounted for 61% of the estimated 58 million deaths and 46% of the global burden of diseases worldwide in 2005. Among NCDs, chronic kidney disease (CKD) is of particular significance. It is recognized that the burden of CKD is not only limited to its impact on demands for renal replacement therapy but has equally major impacts on the health of the overall population. For example, it is now well established that among the general population as well as in the diabetic or hypertensive population, the prognosis, especially the mortality and acceleration of cardiovascular events, depends on kidney involvement. Also, CKD is associated with other major serious consequences including increased risk of acute kidney injury, increased risk of mineral and bone disease, adverse metabolic and nutritional consequences, infections, and reduced cognitive function. As a consequence of these amplifying effects, the financial expenditure and medical resources consumed for the management of CKD patients is much higher than expected. The burden of CKD is likely to have profound socioeconomic and public health consequences in developing countries.

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37

The Case for Investment in Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases in Jamaica: Evaluating the return on investment of selected tobacco, alcohol, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease interventions. Organización Panamericana de la Salud, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.37774/9789275120545.

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Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are a major driver of morbidity and mortality in Jamaica. Beyond the toll on health, NCDs also impose a significant burden on the national economy since individuals with NCDs are more likely to exit the labor force, miss days of work, and/or work at reduced capacity. In addition, high expenditures to treat NCDs impose a direct economic burden to the health system, the society and to the nation of Jamaica, which can lead to reduced investments in areas like education and physical capital, which increase gross domestic product (GDP) in the long run. Unless urgently and adequately addressed, the health and economic burden of NCDs will continue to rise. To help strengthen Member States’ capacity to generate and use economic evidence on NCDs, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) partnered with the Ministry of Health of Jamaica, the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and RTI International to develop an Investment Case for NCDs in Jamaica […] It should be noted that the focused nature of the case underestimates the true costs associated with NCDs in Jamaica: only 17 out of the 88 interventions cited in the updated Appendix 3 of the WHO Global NCD Action Plan 2013-2020 are modeled; cancer and chronic respiratory disease interventions are not considered; not all the health benefits of the interventions (for example, the impact of tobacco control policies on lung cancer or chronic respiratory diseases) are accounted for; and for alcohol policies, only the economic impact of adverted mortality is included (the benefits of reducing absenteeism and presenteeism are not) due to methodological limitations. Acknowledgments: We would like to express our appreciation to the following institutions for their contributions to the successful implementation of NCD Investment Case in Jamaica and to the preparation of this Report: Ministry of Health of Jamaica, RTI International, Pan American Health Organization, United Nations Development Programme, and the United Nations Interagency Task Force on Noncommunicable Diseases.

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38

Reinecke, Holger. Epidemiology and global burden of peripheral arterial disease and aortic aneurysms. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198784906.003.0068.

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Peripheral artery disease (PAD) and aortic aneurysms are common diseases which show an increasing prevalence and incidence. From community-based trials assessing ankle–brachial indices, 2–4% of the general population have been shown to be affected by PAD, which increases up to 15% in those above 70 years of age. About 30–40% of the in-hospital cases with PAD have critical limb ischaemia and suffer from a 1-year mortality of 20–40%. Abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) also show a relatively high prevalence of about 1–2% in the general population as found by large-scale, systematic duplex screening. Of these, about 5% come to hospital admittance with a ruptured AAA which is still associated with an in-hospital mortality of up to 50%. The prevalence of thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAAs) was reported to be at about 0.16–0.34% in selected subgroups of the general population. The incident cases of TAAs have risen from 10/100,000 cases in the late 1980s up to about 17/100,000 cases in the first decade of this millennium. It is noteworthy that PAD and aortic aneurysms as well as their associated co-morbidities remain in many cases underdiagnosed and undertreated. This leads to a high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality which could not be obviously markedly reduced in the recent decades. Since nearly all vascular disorders are systemic diseases, not only the specific vessel bed which leads to a presentation should be assessed but also all other possible vascular manifestations should be thoroughly examined to reduce adverse events.

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39

Biggar, Patrick, Hansjörg Rothe, and Markus Ketteler. Epidemiology of calcium, phosphate, and parathyroid hormone disturbances in chronic kidney disease. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0109_update_001.

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Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders (CKD-MBD), calcium, phosphate, and parathyroid hormone are biomarkers of mortality and cardiovascular risk. Hyperphosphataemia is a prominent and pathophysiologically most plausible risk indicator. Calcium balance and load appear to be more important than serum concentrations. Parathyroid hormone is a less reliable marker with a relatively wide range extending above that applicable for a normal population especially when used as a singular laboratory parameter without additional assessment of bone metabolism, for example, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase and bone biopsy. There is not a single prospective controlled hard-outcome study that provides us with unequivocal evidence that such an isolated laboratory parameter-based treatment approach will lead to significant clinical improvements. As CKD-MBD is complex, clinical decisions would be made easier by informative prospective trials.

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40

Wingo, Charles S., and I. David Weiner. Approach to the patient with hypo-/hyperkalaemia. Edited by Robert Unwin. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0034_update_001.

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The differential diagnosis and approach to patients with high or low serum potassium are described. Patients with either abnormality have an increased mortality in large population-based studies. Most have significant renal, cardiovascular, endocrine, liver, or gastrointestinal disease. They are frequently taking prescription or other drugs and the evaluation of their electrolyte disorder should not be conducted in isolation, but within the context of their disease or diseases. The presence of isolated hypokalaemia or hyperkalaemia in the absence of these other diseases or any apparent drug administration should prompt the clinician to re-consider the clinical history and the reported laboratory values.

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41

Popova, Svetlana, and Jürgen Rehm. Substance Involvement and Physical Health. Edited by Kenneth J. Sher. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381708.013.13.

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Substance use, mainly defined as the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drugs, is a major risk factor for disease, disability, and mortality. Alcohol consumption can cause a number of chronic diseases, including several types of cancer, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, various cardiovascular diseases, alcohol use disorders and infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis and pneumonia. Certain patterns of light moderate drinking, without heavy drinking occasions, may incur a protective effect on ischemic disease categories and diabetes. Finally, alcohol has been established as a causal factor for unintentional and intentional injury. Illegal drug use has been mainly linked to four health outcomes: overdose and other injury, noncommunicable diseases, certain mental disorders, and infectious diseases. In the final section, a comprehensive list of diseases attributable to tobacco smoking is provided, and the most important selected medical conditions are described. These include lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and ischemic heart disease.

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42

Bardin, Thomas. Asymptomatic hyperuricaemia: to treat or not to treat? Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199668847.003.0047.

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Asymptomatic hyperuricaemia is a frequent finding and evidence is growing that it could be an independent cardiovascular risk marker. Recent studies challenge the dogma not to treat asymptomatic hyperuricaemia. However, no urate-lowering drug has been approved for the management of asymptomatic hyperuricaemia in Western countries, because the lack of large randomized control trials precludes assessment of benefits. Asymptomatic hyperuricaemia should lead to lifestyle changes and promote the search for cardiovascular risk factors amenable to therapy, in order to lower the hazards of cardiovascular disease and mortality.

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Giuseffi, Jennifer, John McPherson, Chad Wagner, and E. Wesley Ely. Acute cognitive disorders: recognition and management of delirium in the cardiovascular intensive care unit. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0074.

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Delirium is the most common acute cognitive disorder seen in critically ill patients in the cardiovascular intensive care unit. It is defined as a disturbance of consciousness and cognition that develops suddenly and fluctuates over time. Delirious patients can become hyperactive, hypoactive, or both. The occurrence of delirium during hospitalization is associated with increased in-hospital and long-term morbidity and mortality. The cause of delirium is multifactorial and may include imbalances in neurotransmitters, inflammatory mediators, metabolic disturbances, impaired sleep, and the use of sedatives and analgesics. Patients with advanced age, dementia, chronic illness, extensive vascular disease, and low cardiac output are at particular risk of developing delirium. Specialized bedside assessment tools are now available to rapidly diagnose delirium, even in mechanically ventilated patients. Increased awareness of delirium risk factors, in addition to non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments for delirium, can be effective in reducing the incidence of delirium in cardiac patients and in minimizing adverse outcomes, once delirium occurs.

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McPherson, John, Jennifer Giuseffi, Chad Wagner, and E. Wesley Ely. Acute cognitive disorders: recognition and management of delirium in the cardiovascular intensive care unit. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0074_update_001.

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Delirium is the most common acute cognitive disorder seen in critically ill patients in the cardiovascular intensive care unit. It is defined as a disturbance of consciousness and cognition that develops suddenly and fluctuates over time. Delirious patients can become hyperactive, hypoactive, or both. The occurrence of delirium during hospitalization is associated with increased in-hospital and long-term morbidity and mortality. The cause of delirium is multifactorial and may include imbalances in neurotransmitters, inflammatory mediators, metabolic disturbances, impaired sleep, and the use of sedatives and analgesics. Patients with advanced age, dementia, chronic illness, extensive vascular disease, and low cardiac output are at particular risk of developing delirium. Specialized bedside assessment tools are now available to rapidly diagnose delirium, even in mechanically ventilated patients. Increased awareness of delirium risk factors, in addition to non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments for delirium, can be effective in reducing the incidence of delirium in cardiac patients and in minimizing adverse outcomes, once delirium occurs.

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Ajmal, Saira, and Zelalem Temesgen. Initiation of Antiretroviral Therapy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190493097.003.0020.

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The primary goal of therapy is to prevent HIV-associated morbidity and mortality. In addition to the dramatic decline in HIV-related illness and death that has been observed as a result of the introduction and expansion of combination antiretroviral therapy, evidence is emerging that uncontrolled HIV replication also has a deleterious impact on conditions that are not conventionally associated with immune deficiency. These conditions include cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, liver disease, neurologic complications, and malignancy. Studies have found an independent association between cumulative exposure to replicating virus over time and mortality. Emerging data also increasingly support the earlier use of ART.

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Voinescu, Alexandra, Nadia Wasi Iqbal, and Kevin J. Martin. Management of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder. Edited by David J. Goldsmith. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0118_update_001.

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In all patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) stages 3–5, regular monitoring of serum markers of CKD-mineral and bone disorder, including calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), parathyroid hormone (PTH), 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and alkaline phosphatase, is recommended. Target ranges for these markers are endorsed by guidelines. The principles of therapy for secondary hyperparathyroidism include control of hyperphosphataemia, correction of hypocalcaemia, use of vitamin D sterols, use of calcimimetics, and parathyroidectomy. of hyperphosphataemia is crucial and may be achieved by means of dietary P restriction, use of P binders, and P removal by dialysis. Dietary P restriction requires caution, as it may be associated with protein malnutrition. Aluminium salts are effective P binders, but they are not recommended for long-term use, as Aluminium toxicity (though from contaminated dialysis water rather than oral intake) may cause cognitive impairment, osteomalacia, refractory microcytic anaemia, and myopathy. Ca-based P binders are also quite effective, but should be avoided in patients with hypercalcaemia, vascular calcifications, or persistently low PTH levels. Non-aluminium, non-Ca binders, like sevelamer and lanthanum carbonate, may be more adequate for such patients; however, they are expensive and may have several side effects. Furthermore, comparative trials have failed so far to provide conclusive evidence on the superiority of these newer P binders over Ca-based binders in terms of preventing vascular calcifications, bone abnormalities, and mortality. P removal is about 1800–2700 mg per week with conventional thrice-weekly haemodialysis, but may be increased by using haemodiafiltration or intensified regimens, such as short daily, extended daily or three times weekly nocturnal haemodialysis. Several vitamin D derivatives are currently used for the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism. In comparison with the natural form calcitriol, the vitamin D analogue paricalcitol seems to be more fast-acting and less prone to induce hypercalcaemia and hyperphosphataemia, but whether these advantages translate into better clinical outcomes is unknown. Calcimimetics such as cinacalcet can significantly reduce PTH, Ca, and P levels, but they have failed to definitively prove any benefits in terms of mortality and cardiovascular events in dialysis patients. Parathyroidectomy is often indicated in CKD patients with severe persistent hyperparathyroidism, refractory to aggressive medical treatment with vitamin D analogues and/or calcimimetics. This procedure usually leads to rapid improvements in biochemical markers (i.e. significant lowering of serum Ca, P, and PTH) and clinical manifestations (such as pruritus and bone pain); however, the long-term benefits are still unclear.

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Klingenberg, Roland, and Ulf Müller-Ladner. Mechanisms of inflammation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198784906.003.0270.

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This chapter provides a brief summary of the immune pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, highlighting shared features with inflammatory pathways in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) described in detail in Chapter 25.4. RA constitutes a prototype autoimmune disease primarily affecting the joints but also the heart and vessels associated with increased cardiovascular mortality. Recent years have produced a wealth of novel insights into the diversity of immune cell types which either propagate or dampen inflammation in atherogenesis. Expansion of this inherent anti-inflammatory component carried by regulatory T cells may constitute a new therapeutic target to harness the progression of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Among the various inflammatory mediators involved in RA pathology, cytokines (tumour necrosis factor-α‎ and interleukin-6) have gained major interest as therapeutic targets with approved therapies available. In light of the many common features in the pathogenesis of RA and atherosclerosis, these biologics are currently being evaluated in cardiovascular patients. The recently published CANTOS trial showed that IL-1 inhibition reduced adverse cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease demonstrating that inflammation is a genuine therapeutic target. The near future will provide more information whether inflammation is a bona fide cardiovascular risk factor based on completion of several clinical trials using anti-inflammatory approaches in patients with both cardiovascular disease and rheumatoid arthritis.

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Kaufman, Jay S., Dinela Rushani, and Richard S. Cooper. Nature versus Nurture in the Explanations for Racial/Ethnic Health Disparities. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190465285.003.0007.

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This chapter points out that some researchers explain the higher mortality rates among blacks in the United States as “nature”, blaming such rates primarily on blacks' genetic makeup. Others explain the phenomenon as “nurture”, blaming social status differences stemming from systemic discrimination. For a genetic difference to be used to explain an observed health disparity, the identified causal variant would have to have a large effect on the disease phenotype risk and would have to have a substantially different prevalence in the two racial populations, and the disease would have to be a significant contributor to mortality in the racial population. Genetic studies were done on cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, homicide, and more. In evaluating results from these studies and previous knowledge, 3% of the entire racial disparity in mortality can be accounted for, which leaves 97% of disparities to social origin.

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Farmakis, Dimitrios, John Parissis, George Papingiotis, and Gerasimos Filippatos. Acute heart failure. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0051_update_001.

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Acute heart failure is defined as the rapid development or change of symptoms and signs of heart failure that requires urgent medical attention and usually hospitalization. Acute heart failure is the first reason for hospital admission in individuals aged 65 or more and accounts for nearly 70% of the total health care expenditure for heart failure. It is characterized by an adverse prognosis, with an in-hospital mortality rate of 4–7%, a 2–3-month post-discharge mortality of 7–11%, and a 2–3-month readmission rate of 25–30%. The majority of patients have a previous history of heart failure and present with normal or increased blood pressure, while about half of them have preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. A high prevalence of cardiovascular or non-cardiovascular comordid conditions is further observed, including coronary artery disease, arterial hypertension, atrial fibrillation, diabetes mellitus, renal dysfunction, chronic lung disease, and anaemia.

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Haroon, Muhammad. Co-morbidities. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198737582.003.0015.

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Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is a chronic, multisystem inflammatory condition where patients are at a higher risk for a number of major systemic comorbidities including cardiovascular disease, obesity, depression, uveitis, and cancer. These comorbidities which are frequently unrecognized or undertreated contribute significantly to the morbidity and mortality associated with PsA. There is emerging data further supporting the link between inflammation and cardiovascular disease. The detection and management of PsA patients with comorbidities requires a coordinated approach which is not yet clearly defined. Meanwhile, it is important to conduct periodic comprehensive assessments in our PsA patients in order to identify and monitor comorbidities. The importance of multispecialty cooperation and multidisciplinary assessment cannot be over-stated.

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Books on the topic 'Cardiovascular Disease Mortality'

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