Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'By-products and wastes'

The research pursued relates to the establishment of interrelationship between various factors affecting chitin extraction, and combination of optimum levels of factors required to maximize the yield of chitin extraction. Optimization of chitin extraction was carried out using crab, lobster, and shrimp solid wastes. The study was divided into two stages: (a) optimization of chitin extractability with respect to particle size; (b) optimization of demineralization and deproteinization stages in lobster chitin extraction using Response Surface Methodology. Particle size had a significant effect on crab and lobster chitin extractability; a particle size of 2.0mm gave the highest yield in chitin extraction. The mean yield of chitin from crab and lobster at particle size of 2.0mm were 28.8% and 23.2%, respectively. Shrimp chitin extractability was not affected by particle size with the mean yield being 25.2%. Response Surface Methodology was used to determine simultaneous effects of (a) concentration of extractant; (b) shell:extractant ratio; (c) temperature of extraction; and (d) time of extraction on deproteinization and demineralization stages of chitin extraction and hence yield of chitin. All variables had an effect on demineralization and deproteinization yields. Maximum demineralization was predictable by a multi-factor model consisting of a combination of concentration of HCl, shell:extractant ratio, temperature and time of extraction. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Thesis (Masters of Environmental Health)--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018.
In the Western Cape, South Africa and other regions globally, grape pomace (GP) is one of the abundant agro-waste from the winery industry. This study reports on the hyper-extraction of fermentable sugars from GP treated with white rot fungi (WRF) Phanerochaete chrysosporium BKMF 1767 to facilitate improved biovalorisation for total reducing sugars (TRS) extraction in conjunction with Nepenthes mirabilis digestive fluids. TRS were quantified using the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) reagent method. The free readily dissolvable sugars from the GP recorded for the bio-treated (BT) samples was 206.39 ± 0.06 mg/L and for the untreated (UT) samples was 271.05 ± 0.02 mg/L. Overall, the TRS yield for the Bio-treated (BT) and untreated (UT) samples was recorded as 205.68 ± 0.09 and 380.93 ± 0.14 mg/L, respectively, using hot water pretreatment (HWP) with 2266.00 ± 0.73 (BT) and 2850.68 ± 0.31 mg/L (UT), respectively, for dilute acid pretreatment (DAP); with 2068.49 ± 6.02 (BT) and 2969.61 ± 8.054 mg/L (UT) respectively, using the cellulase pretreatment (CP) method. Using the HWP as a reference, the relative increases imparted by the biotreatment was higher (51%) for DAP and low (33%) for CP. The combination of conventional used pre-treatment methods (hot water pretreatment, dilute acid pre-treatment, and cellulase pre-treatment) in a single pot system was also done while monitoring the total residual phenolics (TRPCs) in the samples. Furthermore, powder X-ray diffraction (pXRD) were used to measure the crystallinity index (CrI) and functional groups of pre- and post-pretreated GP to ascertain the efficiency of the pre-treatment methods, with quantification of lignin, holocellulose, and ash. Overall, the TRS yield for N. mirabilis pre-treated agro-waste was 951 mg/L ± 4.666 mg/L, with biomass having a lower CrI of 33%, and 62% residual lignin content. Furthermore, reduced TRPCs were observed in hydrolysate, suggesting limited inhibitory by-product formation during N. mirabilis pre-treatment

2017 - 2018
The agro-industrial processing produces large volumes of wastes and by-products. In recent years, wastes and by-products have attracted attention as an excellent renewable source of active compounds with beneficial effects for the human health. However, in that respect a substantial amount of research and complex processes of extraction, characterization and technological transformation are necessary for an efficient use of by-products with the purpose to develop stable and bioactive ingredients for pharmaceutical, food, and nutraceutical products. The main problems for an efficient use are that plant by-products and wastes may be sticky materials, have penetrating smell and unpleasant taste, show critical water solubility and dramatic stability behaviour over time. The present project was aimed to contribute to the zero waste society and country designing and developing new bioactive polymeric particle systems and edible films containing extracts obtained from agro-food wastes and by-products. In particular, the PhD program involved:  Selection of wastes/by-products from Campania agro-industries;  Production, chemical and biological characterization of the extracts from selected wastes/by-products: I) hazelnut shells (HSE), II) hazelnut skins (RHS-H) and III) chestnut spiny burs (CSB-H) polar extracts.  Design, development, technological and biological characterization of new polymeric microparticle systems loaded with HSE.  Design, development and characterization of active edible films loaded with RHS-H and CSB-H and evaluation of their functional efficacy. Polyphenol-rich extracts (HSE, CSB-H, and RHS-H) were produced by exhaustive maceration and Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) from the wastes. The quali/quantitative analysis of the extracts was carried out by chromatographic (Sephadex LH-20, RP-HPLC-DAD, HPLC-HRMS) and spectroscopic techniques (NMR). With the aim to overcome stability and bioavailability problems, new microparticulate powders loaded with the antioxidant and chemopreventive raw HSE extract were produced by spray drying. Pre-formulation studies allowed to select the appropriate multipolymeric matrix composed of coating polymers and loading carriers (proline, medium viscosity hydroxyethyl cellulose, and pectin). The influence of instrumental and operating (temperature, air and fluid flow, pressure, nozzle diameter liquid feed viscosity and pH) process conditions on yield and encapsulation efficiency was evaluated. The produced engineered particles were characterized in terms of active HSE loading (HPLC-DAD), particles dimension (Laser Light Scattering), morphology (SEM and FM), thermal behavior (DSC), water dissolution release (USP II), preservation of bioactivity (DPPH test, MTT assay) and stability under harsh storage conditions (ICH-Guide Lines). The developed HSE particle system is water-soluble, easy handling and functional powder that can be used in topical or oral dosage forms, as adjuvant in the treatment or prevention of melanoma and cervical cancers. CSB-H and RHS-H with antioxidant and antimicrobial activity were used to design an edible pullulan-based films by Casting technique. The effect of extracts on the film mechanical properties, thickness, infrared spectroscopy characteristics (FTIR-ATR), optical properties (UV-Vis transmittance), and biological activity was studied. The developed CSB-H and RHS-H films are shown to be an interesting tool to extend foodstuffs shelf life, being able to protect from the influence of external environmental and biotic factors (oxidative processes and microorganism spoilage). [edited by Author]
XXXI ciclo

In response to water quality deterioration caused by clam processing effluent, the Virginia State Water Control Board is imposing much greater effluent discharge limitations on the industry. Meeting these limits will require increased wastewater treatment and decreasing the water volume of water used and the loading of organic material and suspended solids. Disposal of sludges and solid wastes also present problems to the industry. Three processing plants were studied to characterize the nature, sources and variations in waste generation and to evaluate potential solutions. Wastewater is generated throughout the processing plants from washing operations, from splashing and overflow of tanks and flumes and from cleanup operations. Wastewater generation varied from plant to plant and at each plant over time, ranging from 80,000 gallons to almost 350,000 gallons per day and as high as 40,000 gallons per hour. The organic loading in wastewater ranged as high as 15,000 mg/L COD and averaged 3000-7000 mg/L. Total suspended solids loading ranged as high as 29,000, and were usually between 1,000 and 10,000 mg/L. Anaerobic digestion and composting of solid wastes were evaluated by bench scale experiments. Anaerobic digestion can provide reduction in COD of 75% and generate usable biogas. Composting can be used to stabilize sludges and solid wastes with destruction of the organic fraction in seven days. The proposed 90 mg/L BOD and 90 mg/L TSS limitations are not significantly stricter than the limitations imposed on similar plants in other areas.
Master of Science

The sugar refinery process used by Lantic Sugar Ltd generates three by-products having characteristics that give them potential as soil amendments or fertilizers, particularly as a phosphorous and calcium source. Laboratory and a field trials were conducted in order to examine the changes in agronomic properties of soil produced by the application of these residues.
During the laboratory experiment, the by-products examined were spend bone char (SBC), filter-press mud (FPM), clarification scum (SCU) and a compost (COM) produced using FPM and SCU, where as in a field experiment, COM, SBC and a mixture (MIX) made of FPM and SCU, were compared to a commercial fertilizer (TSP) and non-treated soils.
The orthic humic gleysol of clay texture and low pH soil conditions in which the field experiment was conducted resulted in high P fixation of all the applied residues. Contrasts analysis showed that TSP behaved as the soils unamended P for all nutrient concentrations in tissues over two cropping seasons (1993 and 1994), on two crops, namely wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) and corn (Zea mays, L.). Treatments (residues at different rates of application) did not significantly increase the Ca levels in COM plots nor did they increase the wet aggregate stability of soil under either crop. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is a developing country that relies on its agricultural sector as a main source of overall economic welfare. Development does not only give rise to new technology and new products but also results in increased amounts of liquid and solid waste. Generally, the production of wine is considered an environmentally friendly process, but significant amounts of natural resources and organic amendments are necessary, while generating large amounts of liquid and solid wastes. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive and proven treatment option for both liquid and solid wastes as valuable products and depollution can be obtained. AD of liquid waste results in an effluent and biogas, while anaerobic composting of solid waste results in an organic amendment, leachate and biogas. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the operational feasibility of the cotreatment of leachate produced during the anaerobic composting (AnC) of grape skins in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor while treating winery wastewater. This first aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of the anaerobic composting of grape skins. Laboratoryscaled digesters (1L) were utilised as anaerobic composting units. The most important operational parameters were identified (pH, moisture content and inoculum (size, ratio, composition)) in order to produce a pH stable, odour free compost in 21 days. Experimental studies highlighted the importance of shredding waste as well as the addition of calcium oxide and green waste to increase the initial pH of the composting mixture. After optimising a 50% (m.m-1) cow manure inoculum, lower inoculum concentrations (10, 15 and 25% (m.m-1)) were investigated to make the process more economically viable. A 10% (m.m-1) anaerobic compost (AC) inoculum was found to produce the most favourable results in terms of pH stabilisation and leachate generation. A 50% (m.m-1) moisture level performed the best by attaining a pH > 6.5 on day 6 and having the highest end pH (7.65) on day 21, while white and red grape skins in an equal ratio were found to generate a higher end pH. With all these optimum parameters in place (shredded waste, green waste, CaO, inoculum, moisture, grape skins), a compost with a final pH (7.09), moisture (58%), nitrogen (2.25%), phosphorous (0.22%) and potassium content (1.7%) was obtained. The optimised parameters were scaled-up (1:10) by using polyvinyl chloride anaerobic digesters (20 L) to suit the operational requirements of the AnC process and also produced a stable compost within 21 days. The second aim of this study was to investigate the combined anaerobic digestion of winery wastewater (WWW) and leachate obtained from the anaerobic composting of grape skins in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB). This involved the operation of a 2.3 L laboratory-scale UASB reactor for 205 days. The reactor successfully co-treated WWW and leachate at ca. 8.5 kgCOD.m-3d-1 with a final chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction of over 90%, a stable reactor effluent pH (7.61) and alkalinity (3 281 CaCO3 mg.L-1). This study showed the feasibility for the combined treatment of liquid and solid waste from the winemaking process. Although the legal limits for reactor effluent disposal onto land was not met, significant reduction in COD concentrations were achieved, whilst producing a soil amendment that could potentially result in cost savings for chemical fertilisers. The benefits related to using anaerobic bioconversion as a treatment option for liquid and solid waste could possibly be advantageous to the wine industry as an environmental control technology, by converting liquid and solid waste into valuable resources.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika is 'n ontwikkelende land wat staatmaak op sy landbousektor as 'n hoofbron van algehele ekonomiese welstand. Ontwikkeling gee nie net aanleiding tot nuwe tegnologie en nuwe produkte nie, maar lei ook tot die verhoogde bydrae van vloeistof sowel as vaste afval. Oor die algemeen, word die produksie van wyn beskou as 'n omgewingsvriendelike proses, maar aansienlike hoeveelhede natuurlike hulpbronne en organiese kunsbemesting word benodig, terwyl groot hoeveelhede vloeistof en vaste afval gegenereer word. Anaërobiese vertering (AV) is 'n aantreklike en bewese behandelingsopsie vir beide vloeistof en vaste afval aangesien waardevolle produkte en suiwering verkry kan word. AV van vloeistowwe lewer uitvloeisel sowel as biogas, terwyl anaërobiese kompostering van vaste afval 'n organiese kunsbemesting, loog en biogas lewer. Die oorhoofse doel van hierdie studie was om die operasionele doeltreffendheid van die mede-behandeling van loog wat gegenereer word tydens die anaërobiese kompostering (AnK) van druiwe doppe in 'n opvloei-anaërobiese-slykkombers (OAS) reaktor terwyl kelderafvalwater behandel word, te ondersoek. Die eerste mikpunt van hierdie studie was om die doeltreffendheid van die anaërobiese komposteringsproses van druiwe doppe te ondersoek. Laboratorium-skaal verteerders (1L) is gebruik as anaërobiese komposteringseenhede. Die belangrikste operasionele parameters is geïdentifiseer (pH, voginhoud en inokulum (grootte, verhouding, samestelling)) om ‘n 'n pH-stabiele, reukvrye kompos te produseer in 21 dae. Die belangrikheid van gesnipperde afval asook die byvoeging van kalsiumoksied en groen afval om die aanvanklike pH van die komposmengsel te verhoog, is deur eksperimentele studies beklemtoom. Na die optimering van 'n 50% (m.m-1) koeimis inokulum, is laer inokulum konsentrasies (10, 15 en 25% (m.m-1)) geondersoek om die proses meer ekonomies uitvoerbaar te maak. Daar is gevind dat ‘n 10% (m.m-1) anaërobiese kompos (AK) inokulum die mees gunstige resultate lewer in terme van pH stabilisering en loog generering. ‘n 50% (m.m-1) vloeistof vlak het die beste presteer deur 'n pH> 6.5 te bereik teen Dag 6 asook die hoogste eind pH (7.65) teen Dag 21, terwyl wit en rooi druiwe doppe in dieselfde verhouding gevind is om ‘n hoër eind pH te genereer. Met al hierdie optimum parameters in plek (gesnipperde afval, groen afval, kalsiumoksied, inokulum, vog, druiwe doppe) is 'n kompos met 'n finale pH (7.09), vog (58%), stikstof (2.25%), fosfor (0.22%) en kalium inhoud (1.7%) verkry. Die optimale parameters is opgeskaal (1:10) deur gebruik te maak van polivinielchloried anaërobiese verteerders (20 L) om aan die operasionele vereistes van die AnK proses te voldoen en ook om 'n stabiele kompos binne 21 dae te produseer. Die tweede mikpunt van hierdie studie was om die gekombineerde anaërobiese vertering van kelderafvalwater en loog, verkry vanaf die anaërobiese kompos van druiwe doppe in 'n OAS reaktor, te ondersoek. Dit het die bedryf van 'n 2.3 L laboratorium-skaal OAS reaktor vir 205 dae ingesluit. Die reaktor het kelderafwater en loog suksesvol behandel by ongeveer 8.5 kgCSV.m-3d-1 met 'n finale chemiese suurstof vereiste (CSV) vermindering van meer as 90%, 'n stabiele reaktor uitvloeisel pH (7.61) en alkaliniteit (3 281 CaCO3mg.L-1). Hierdie studie het die uitvoerbaarheid van die gekombineerde behandeling van vloeistof en vaste afval van die wynmaakproses getoon. Alhoewel die wetlike vereistes van die reaktor uitvloeisel vir storting op grond nie bereik is nie, is ‘n beduidende vermindering in CSV konsentrasies bereik, asook die vervaardiging van kunsbemesting wat die potensiële aankoopkoste van chemiese kunsmis kan verminder. Die voordele verbonde aan die gebruik van anaërobiese bio-omskakeling as 'n behandelingsopsie vir vloeistof en vaste afval kan moontlik voordelig wees vir die wynbedryf as 'n omgewingsbeheerende tegnologie deur om vloeistof en vaste afval om te skakel na waardevolle bronne.

Protein upgrading of orange peel waste was carried out by Solid Substrate Fermentation using an Aspergillus sp. inoculum in a waste peel mixture containing peel waste, potassium dihydrogen orthophosphate (KH2 PO4), ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4] and molasses. Fermentation lasted 72 hours at 30C. after which crude protein level in the substrate increased from 5% to 13%. Factors found to be important in determing the efficiency of the fermentation process included fermentable sugar content of the medium, nitrogen and mineral levels, initial temperature, PH, moisture, agitation of the medium, and size of particles constituting the substrate. Protein quality of the fermented peel was evaluated by PEP assay and a PER value of 0.78 was recorded. It is suggested that a low level of total amino acids is the major contributory factor to this low PEP value. Total amino acid level measured 5.75g per 100g fermented peel waste.
Master of Science (Hons)

Durante il mio dottorato di ricerca ho lavorato su diversi progetti sotto la supervisione della Prof.ssa Paola Zunin e della Prof.ssa Raffaella Boggia. Il principale obiettivo del mio lavoro è stata la valorizzazione di alcuni alimenti e scarti agro-alimentari nell’ottica della formulazione di nuovi prodotti arricchiti e o funzionali, sia in ambito alimentare che cosmetico. In particolare, le linee di ricerca che ho seguito hanno avuto come oggetto diverse matrici alimentari, tra cui: • Le olive come substrato per la realizzazione di un alimento arricchito; • Il melograno ed in particolare la valorizzazione ed il recupero dei sottoprodotti derivanti dalla produzione del succo, come potenziali fonti di composti bioattivi polifenolici; • Il riso ‘Violet Nori’, una varietà autoctona piemontese di riso colorato ad elevato contenuto in antocianine preziose che lo rende un prodotto ad importante valore aggiunto oltre ad un lavoro di valorizzazione delle foglie di tale pianta. Presupposto comune per questi studi è stato lo sviluppo e l’utilizzo di tecniche estrattive innovative, a basso impatto ed eco – compatibili sia in accordo con i principi della green chemistry (EPA) sia di un’economia sostenibile e circolare. Le olive, che rappresentano un prodotto tipico della Regione Liguria, sono state utilizzate come substrato per la realizzazione di un alimento arricchito con Ferro mediante l’utilizzo dell’impregnazione sottovuoto (Vacuum impregnation, VI). Lo spunto per intraprendere questo lavoro è stata la crescente necessità di avere a disposizione alimenti fortificati con ferro a causa del costante ed importante aumento delle diete vegetariane e vegane in Italia e nel mondo. Tramite la VI è stato possibile ottenere un prodotto arricchito che consente di introdurre una quantità di ferro pari al fabbisogno giornaliero mediante l’assunzione di pochi frutti. Il lavoro ha dimostrato come una tecnica innovativa e rapida, quale la VI, possa apportare un reale contributo all’arricchimento degli alimenti con sostanze fisiologicamente utili e alla realizzazione di alimenti funzionali destinati ad una specifica fetta di consumatori.La seconda linea di ricerca si è focalizzata sul frutto del melograno di cui sono già note numerose proprietà funzionali e salutistiche. I sottoprodotti derivanti dalla lavorazione del succo di melograno rappresentano sia un importante ed oneroso problema di smaltimento legato alle ingenti quantità prodotte sia una promettente fonte di potenziali nutraceutici. In particolare, sia le bucce (esocarpo) che lo scarto interno ottenuto dopo la spremitura del succo, ossia i residui di mesocarpo, endocarpo e arilli, solitamente scartati, hanno dimostrato di essere ancora una buona fonte di polifenoli. A fini estrattivi sono state impiegate alcune tecnologie green, come l'estrazione assistita con ultrasuoni (UAE) e l'estrazione assistita con microonde (MAE), utilizzando solventi eco-compatibili, per convertire tali residui organici in prodotti ad alto valore aggiunto e, conseguentemente, per la messa a punto di un processo di riciclo agronomico applicabile a livello industriale. Gli estratti liquidi ottenuti sono stati essiccati e formulati mediante la tecnologia Spray-drying e successivamente, utilizzati quali ingredienti funzionali in un alimento modello mediante la VI. Il colore viola intenso delle cariossidi e delle foglie della varietà ‘Violet Nori’ hanno invece stimolato l’inizio di uno studio volto al recupero dei composti ad attività antiossidante da tali prodotti. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è stato quello di sviluppare un metodo economico ed eco-compatibile per l’estrazione delle antocianine e di altri composti antiossidanti idrofili dalle cariossidi, dalle farine e dalle foglie del riso ‘Violet Nori’ ed effettuare un confronto oltre che tra i prodotti della varietà ‘Violet Nori’ anche con estratti di cariossidi di altre tipologie di risi colorati reperibili sul mercato locale. Lo studio effettuato sulle cariossidi ha confermato il loro interesse come fonti di antocianine e di altri composti antiossidante, apparsi spesso maggiori che in altre varietà di riso colorato. Lo studio effettuato sulle foglie, un sottoprodotto della produzione del riso, ha dimostrato il loro interesse in vista di un loro potenziale impiego come materia prima a basso costo per l’estrazione di antocianine preziose per uso alimentare, nutraceutico e cosmeceutico. La mia attività di ricerca ha più marginalmente riguardato anche lo studio di altri prodotti alimentari come: • I gemmo derivati, una categoria di prodotti naturali classificati nella Comunità europea come integratori alimentari a base erboristica, ottenuti per macerazione dei tessuti meristematici freschi di alberi e piante erbacee i quali differentemente dalle corrispondenti parti adulte vantano elevati contenuti in composti nutritivi che conferiscono ai prodotti derivati un elevato valore aggiunto; • Alcune tipologie di latti in polvere destinati ai neonati al fine di individuarne la composizione di acidi grassi (totali e "liberi" ossia incapsulati) e valutarne il grado di ossidazione a seguito dell'apertura della confezione; • Il tè verde utilizzando la spettroscopia a fluorescenza, una tecnica veloce, non distruttiva ed economica, abbinata alla chemiometria per l'autenticazione e la discriminazione della tipologia di tè in base alla sua origine geografica.

CAPES
O okara é uma biomassa gerada no processamento do extrato hidrossolúvel de soja e do tofu. Tal biomassa tem elevada qualidade nutricional em função do conteúdo de proteínas, fibras e compostos bioativos como as isoflavonas. É gerado em grandes quantidades pela indústria processadora de soja como um subproduto e embora se trate de um material de baixo valor comercial possui em sua composição moléculas com potencial nutricional e funcional. As isoflavonas estão presentes na soja principalmente nas formas conjugadas (β-glicosídicas, acetil e malonil) e, em menor proporção, nas formas livres (agliconas). Diversos estudos comprovam a eficiência das isoflavonas agliconas na prevenção de doenças crônicas. Algumas tecnologias têm sido empregadas para a bioconversão das isoflavonas β-glicosídicas em agliconas baseadas na ação de enzimas β-glicosidases sintetizadas por micro-organismos. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho objetivou a bioconversão de isoflavonas presentes no okara através de fermentação semissólida por Saccharomyces cerevisiae r. f. bayanus, buscando melhorar a qualidade nutricional e propriedades biológicas do okara para uso como ingrediente em produtos alimentícios. A fermentação semissólida foi conduzida a 28 °C durante 72 horas. O processo contribuiu para o aumento dos teores de proteínas e redução do conteúdo de fibra bruta o que pode contribuir para melhorar a digestibilidade do produto. A fermentação proporcionou a biotransformação de isoflavonas conjugadas em agliconas, o que levou ao aumento da quantidade de compostos fenólicos, capacidade antioxidante da biomassa e consequente melhoria da qualidade nutricional. A biotransformação das isoflavonas do okara por processo fermentativo mostrou ser uma estratégia promissora para agregação de valor e melhor aproveitamento da biomassa.
Okara is a biomass generated by the soybean and tofu water soluble extract process. Such biomass has a very important nutritional quality because of the protein content, fibres and bioactive compounds as the isoflavons. It is produced in great amounts by the soybean processing industry as a by-product, although it is a product of low commercial value, it possess on its composition molecules with nutritional and functional potential. The isoflavons are present in the soybean mainly in the combined forms (B-glycosidics, acetyl and molonic) and, in a minor proportion, in the free forms (aglycons). Several studies prove the efficiency of aglycons isoflavons preventing cronicle diseases. Some technologies have been employed for the bioconversion of β-glycosidic isoflavon in aglycons based in the action of enzymes β-glycoside hydrolase synthesized by microorganisms. In this context, the current work has aimed the bioconversion by Saccharomyces cerevisiae r. f. bayanus, trying to improve the okara nutritional quality and biological properties in order to use it as an ingredient in food. The semisolid fermentation has been lead under 28° C per 72 hours. The process was conduction at increase protein and reduction of crude fiber content improving the product digestibility. The fermentation provided a biotransformation of isoflavonscombining aglycons, what has taken to the raise of amount of phenolic compounds, biomasa antioxidant capacity and consequently improving of nutritional quality. The biotransformation of okara isoflavons by fermentation process has should to be a promising strategy for adding value and better use of biomass.

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Doutor em Engenharia Química e Bioquímica
Biomass can be converted into biofuels by two different ways: thermochemical or biochemical. Both processes produce waste streams that can be valorised in order to increase the sustainability of the biofuels production process. Recent research on polyhydroxyalkanoates(PHA) production has focused on developing cost-effective processes using low cost substrates combined with mixed microbial cultures (MMC). The intent of this thesis was to study and characterise MMC able to produce PHA using the by-products resulting from the biofuels production. Bio-oil resulting from the fast-pyrolysis of chicken beds was used as substrate to select cultures under feast/famine conditions with a good PHA storage response. Several operational conditions were investigated and optimized. A copolymer composed by hydroxybutyrate and hydroxyvalerate monomers (70%:30%) was obtained. The impact of the bio-oil matrix on PHA production was also investigated suggesting that some compound may inhibit or interfere with the ability of the enriched culture to accumulate PHA. For further maximization of polymer accumulation two strategies for bio-oil upgrade were performed, anaerobic fermentation and vacuum distillation. The increased of volatile fatty acids on the fermented bio-oil led to an increase on the production yield compared to the ones obtain with pure bio-oil (0.63 and 0.31Cmmol HA/Cmmol S, respectively). In another system, MMC selected with crude glycerol from biodiesel production as feedstock had the ability to simultaneously store PHA and glycogen. Although the methanol fraction present in the crude was also consumed, glycerol was the only carbon source that contributed for the biopolymers production. During PHA accumulating assay a content of 47% cell dry weight was achieved. The dynamics of the microbial community of both PHA production systems was assessed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, fluorescent in situ hybridization and sequencing. Both systems had a high microbial diversity with a predominance of Betaproteobacteria class and Amaricoccus genus in the bio-oil and crude glycerol system, respectively

In processing lobster, approximately 70% of the body weight is discarded as waste. The solid waste consists of shell, viscera and a small amount of meat. Lobster waste is an excellent source of protein (26.6%) crude fat (2.7%) and pigment (98 $ mu$g/g) on a dry weight basis which could be processed into a stable complex known as carotenoprotein.
Procedures for extraction of carotenoprotein from lobster waste have been developed, along with investigation of its distinctive physicochemical properties. The main factors were: demineralization agents (EDTA, HCl or heat) and precipitation agents ((NH$ sb4$)$ sb2$SO$ sb4$ or HCl). Lobster carotenoprotein recovered under different extraction procedures showed significant differences in terms of quantity and quality of the product recovered. However the procedures did not appear to affect the physical properties and amino acid profiles of carotenoprotein.
Optimal recovery involved treatment with EDTA as demineralization agent and precipitation with (NH$ sb4$)$ sb2$SO$ sb4$. Proximate and amino acid analyses indicated the potential of the recovered lyophilized protein as feed ingredient for cultured salmonids.

Lobster waste (including the head and hard carapace, viscera, mandibles and gills) contains approximately 98 $ mu$g/g total astaxanthin, 23% protein, 20% chitin, 34% ash, and 2.2% crude fat on dry weight basis. Carotenoprotein, amounting to 16% of the dry matter was effectively recovered from lobster waste by a trypsin aided process. Air-dried carotenoproteins were enriched in protein by about 108-115%, in crude fat by 540-594% and in carotenoid pigment by about 147-329% as compared with the waste material. Furthermore, the ash and chitin levels in the products were considerably lower than those of the raw material.
Drying characteristics of carotenoprotein was evaluated in a modified air-drier using air temperature (45$ sp circ$C, 55$ sp circ$C or 65$ sp circ$C) and relative humidity (5% and 15%) as main factors. The study indicated that higher temperatures achieved faster drying rates of the product but adversely affected its nutritional composition and/or quality. The proximate compositions of carotenoprotein dried at 45$ sp circ$C and relative humidity of 5% or 15% were comparable with that obtained by freeze drying.
Thus, the process achieved a substantial reduction in the levels of anti-nutrients associated with lobster waste (i.e., ash and chitin) while elevating the levels of carotenoid pigments and essential nutrients such as protein and fat in the recovered product. These characteristics of the tray-dried carotenoprotein suggest that it could be used as an inexpensive source of pigment and protein in diets of cultured salmonid species.

Chitin is a polysaccharide found in abundance in the shell of crustaceans. In this study, chitin was first extracted from shrimp waste material previously demineralized, using proteolytic enzymes, i.e., chymotrypsin and papain. The conditions used for the deproteinization were optimized with respect to 3 factors, viz., pH, temperature, and enzyme to waste (E/W) ratio, using response surface methodology (RSM).
In a second part of the study, chitosan was prepared from chitin by partial deacetylation and its capacity to preserve whole and headless fresh shrimps was evaluated. The shrimps (Pandalus borealis) were dipped in chitosan (1 and 2% w:v), and stored on ice. Chemical indicators such as pH, drip loss, total volatile bases (TVB), nucleotide degradation, and sensory indicators of appearance (including melanosis) and odor, as well as total microbial counts were monitored during 20 days.
As a third and final part, the antimicrobial properties of chitosan were evaluated using several microorganisms implicated in food spoilage and/or food poisoning outbreaks, especially those associated with fish and seafood products. Chitosan prepared from crab offal and used in the previous study on shrimp preservation was compared with commercially available chitosan from Sigma Chemical Co. (St-Louis, MO). (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Published Article
The waste management practices used at red-meat abattoirs in the Free State province for disposal of condemned products generated in abattoirs and the problems associated with the different waste disposal methods were investigated. Problems caused by various products generated at abattoirs. such as abattoir waste water, blood, stomach contents, manure, whole carcasses, fetuses and all products unsuitable for human consumption requiring disposal were identified. Recommended solutions took into account the most effective handling manner, causing minimum environmental pollution, reducing any health risks to communities, and converting condemned products into value-added by-products by changing certain waste management processes / strategies. The handling of waste, specifically of condemned products, at 78 red meat abattoirs was analysed.

Four experiments were conducted with crab processing waste. Addition of 1.5% propionic/formic acid prevented degradation up to 14 d. Desirable fermentation was achieved when 32% of the treated crab waste was ensiled with 32% straw, 16% molasses, and 20% water with or without .1% microbial inoculant. The pH of the silage was lowered and high concentration of lactic acid was observed. Use of .2% NaOCl or .4% H₂O₂ retarded spoilage of crab processing waste up to 7 d. Ensiling of the treated waste (32%), straw (32%), molasses (16%), and H₂0 (20%) indicated that the chemical used in preservation enhanced fermentation. Addition of .4% NaOCl and 1.5% acetic acid to the crab processing waste retarded degradation up to d 4. The trimethylamine (TMA) concentration and NH₃ evolution were highest for the untreated waste while the lowest concentration for TMA and NH₃ evolution were observed for the NaOH-treated waste. Addition of 1% NaNO₂ or combination of .4% NaOCl/CaOCl (1:1, w/w) preserved the waste for up to 10 d. The evolution of NH₃ and H2₂S, and TMA concentration were lowest for the waste treated with 1% NaNO₂. Apparent digestibility of DM, organic matter, CP, energy, NDF, ADF, cellulose and hemicellulose decreased linearly (P<.01) with level of crab waste-straw silage in diets containing 0, 50, and 100% crab waste-straw silage. Nitrogen retention increased linearly (P<.05) with level of crab waste-straw silage. The apparent absorption was higher (P<.01) and retention was positive (P<.05) for Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cu and Fe with sheep fed the highest level of crab waste-straw silage. Daily gain, feed efficiency and carcass characteristics tended to be higher for steers fed 30% crab waste-straw silage, dry basis. The flavor and overall desirability of cooked meat were not adversely affected by feeding up to 30% crab waste-straw silage, dry basis. Modifying the existing methods of quantifying chitin showed that initial decalcification or deprotinization of the samples with chemicals are not necessary. Similar values were obtained for chitin when ADF/ashing method was compared to the ADF/deacetylation method. These methods prevented loss of chitin during preparation. Digestibility of chitin was higher (58%) for sheep fed 100% crab waste-straw silage compared to the value of 37% in sheep fed 50% crab waste-straw silage. When ADF/ashing method was used in quantifying chitin, higher disappearances were obtained for samples containing 100% crab meal kept in the rumen or incubated in vitro for 72 h.
Ph. D.

The objective of this thesis is to advance our understanding of how consumers use date labels and the implications of date-label use for household dairy product waste. It does this by investigating the effect of psychological, social, and contextual factors on date-label use and willingness to consume dairy products in relation to the expiry date. These effects are tested using structural equation models and survey data gathered from 548 Scottish consumers. The results of this study make two contributions to the literature on date-labelling and food waste. The first contribution is primarily theoretical. By improving our understanding of how consumers use date labels and the implications of date-label use for household dairy product waste, it supports the contention that food waste is best understood, not as a behaviour, but as the outcome of multiple behaviours. It argues that in order to understand why food waste is created, it is important to identify the factors that affect the individual behaviours that lead to it, such as date-label use, and how these behaviours relate to one another. These results also have implications for communications and campaigning around food waste reduction. The second contribution has policy relevance. It provides evidence of the likely limited effect of increasing the number of dairy products labelled with a best-before date rather than a use-by date on food waste. This is an approach recently proposed to reduce household food waste. It finds that better knowledge of the best-before date is associated with a higher willingness to consume products after the best-before date has passed. However, perceived risks about consuming products beyond their best-before date, including not just safety but quality, freshness, and social acceptability, appear to interact with date-label knowledge and dampen its influence. It argues that to be effective, any changes in date-labelling should be accompanied by communication that goes beyond improving date-label knowledge, and addresses the multifaceted nature of related risk perceptions and conceptions of date-label trust.

This thesis examined the economics of producing high value bio-ingredients such as chitin and carotenoprotein from shrimp processing waste in Newfoundland. The shrimp waste in the province was estimated to be at least 37000 tons annually. A survey of shrimp processing plants in the province revealed that the waste generated was relatively pure with little or no foreign material. The economic engineering approach was employed to estimate the production cost of chitin and carotenoprotein at the laboratory and pilot scale levels. At the laboratory scale where 480 kg/year of raw material (shrimp waste) was processed, the cost of chitin and carotenoprotein was found to be $159/kg and $315/kg, respectively. At the pilot scale level, the cost of chitin and carotenoprotem was estimated to be $125/kg and $244/kg, respectively based on volume of 4800 kg/year. Sensitivity analysis was carried out to establish the cost variations due to changes in the quantity of starting raw material, labor cost and cost of laboratory supplies (chemicals and enzymes). The cost of chitin and caroteinoprotein showed a decreasing trend with increasing scale of production. An expert opinion survey was conducted with a selected panel of 9 experts from the shrimp processing industry, chitin related industry, and the academic/research community to determine the potential market of the high-grade chitin/chitosan in Canada. The results showed that the health and nutraceutical industry is the most promising niche for high-grade chit in/chitosan. The survey also indicated that potential market would be high in Ontario and Quebec due to the presence of large health and nutraceutical companies in the big metropolitan areas of these regions.

Thesis (MScIng)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The fine ash produced at the Sasol Secunda Petrochemical Plant is disposed of through a wet ash disposal system. Other process waste streams with high salt concentrations are co-disposed of in the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system. This has led to a steady rise in the salt concentrations of the recycled clear ash effluent (CAE) over the past 17 years. To combat this increase in salt concentrations, the capability of the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system to act as a salt sink, needs to be enhanced. This investigation focussed on ways to enhance the salt removal/retention capabilities of the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system and consisted of the following: • A literature survey of relevant information. • The mixing of different combinations of fine ash, brine and CAE. • Adding CO2 to the fine ash and CAE mixtures. • Investigation to enhance salt precipitation in the CAE and Evaporation dams. • Salt balances and a residence time calculation over the CAE and Evaporation dams. From these investigations it were concluded that the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system could be used as a salt sink for SO4 ions. Up to 43% of the SO4 is removed from the brines after the initial ash/water contact. It was also found that the tubular reverse osmosis (TRO) brine could be used as a carrier medium for the ash. The large amounts of Ca that is leached into the ash water during the mixing of the CAE and fine ash can be prevented by the addition of CO2 to the mixing point. There is usually an increase of 240% in the Ca concentration and this is reduced to only an 8% increase with the CO2 addition. The most feasible precipitation enhancement for the CAE and Evaporation dams is an increase in evaporation. This enhances CaCO3 precipitation, which is the main mechanism for salt removal in the CAE and Evaporation dams. Ca, Na and Cl are retained in the evaporation and CAE dams. SO4 is leached from solid phases in the dams. There is however an overall decrease in the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the ash water. The salt removal of the CAE and Evaporation dams is approximately 57 tons per day. The capability of the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system to act as a salt sink can be enhanced by the addition of CO2 at the mixing point and by increasing the evaporation rate in the CAE and Evaporation dams. Using the TRO brine as carrier medium may also increase the SO4 precipitation capabilities of the Sasol Secunda ash disposal system.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fynas wat by die Sasol Secunda Petrochemiese Aanleg geproduseer word, word verwyder deur ‘n geslote nat asstelsel. Ander afvalstrome wat hoë konsentrasies soute bevat word ook in die Sasol Secunda asstelsel gestort. Dit het tot gevolg dat daar oor die afgelope 17 jaar ‘n volgehoue styging in die sout konsentrasies van die hergebruikte aswater (genoem CAE – “clear ash effluent”) was. ‘n Manier om hierdie styging in die sout konsentrasies teen te werk, is om die sout verwyderingsvermoë van die Sasol Secunda asstelsel te verbeter. Hierdie ondersoek het gefokus op maniere om die sout verwyderings- /terughoudingsvermoë van die Sasol Secunda asstelsel te verbeter en het die volgende ingesluit: • ‘n Literatuur oorsig van toepaslike inligting. • Die meng van verskillende kombinasies van fynas, soutstrome en CAE. • Toediening van CO2 by die fynas en CAE mengsels. • ‘n Ondersoek na metodes om die soutverwydering in die CAE en Verdampingsdamme te verbeter. • Soutbalanse en ‘n residensie tyd berekening vir die CAE en Verdampingsdamme. Na hierdie ondersoeke kon die gevolgtrekking gemaak word dat die Sasol Secunda asstelsel ‘n sout sink vir SO4 ione is. Tot 43% van die SO4 word verwyder na die aanvanklike as/water kontak. Daar is ook gevind dat die TRO (“tubular reverse osmosis”) soutstroom gebruik kan word as ‘n draer vir die fynas. Die groot hoeveelhede Ca wat in die aswater in loog, kan voorkom word deur die toediening van CO2 by die mengpunt van die fynas en aswater. Daar is normaalweg ‘n verhoging van 240% in die Ca konsentrasie van die aswater en dit word verminder na ‘n skrale 8% met die toediening van CO2. Die mees praktiese metode om die soutverwydering in die CAE en Verdampingsdamme te verbeter, is met die verhoging van die verdamping. Dit sal die neerslag van CaCO3, wat die meeste soutverwydering tot gevolg het, verhoog. Ca, Na en Cl word teruggehou in die Verdampings en CAE damme. SO4 loog uit soliede fases in die damme. Daar is wel ‘n afname in die algehele opgeloste spesies (“TDS”) van die aswater. Die soutverwydering van die Verdampings en CAE damme is ongeveer 57 ton per dag. Die vermoë van die Sasol Secunda asstelsel om as ‘n sout sink gebruik te word, kan verbeter word deur CO2 by die mengpunt by te voeg en die verdampingstempo in die Verdampings en CAE damme te verhoog. Die gebruik van die TRO pekelstroom as draer van die as kan die SO4 neerslag in die Sasol Secunda asstelsel ook verhoog.

As part of CSIR Biosciences’ interest in aroma chemicals, the processing of crude sulphated turpentine (CST) into high value aroma products was investigated. The primary target product, linalool, was obtained from a mixture of α- and β-pinene in four steps. It can be transformed into a wide range of high value added aroma chemicals. Isomerisation of linalool in the presence of a transition metal catalyst furnishes geraniol and nerol. The scientific work described in this report was part of a bigger project aimed at developing innovative processes to manufacture aroma, flavour & fragrance chemicals through beneficiation of industrial waste streams and other raw materials, available locally from the Forestry, Paper & Pulp industries. The evaluation of a process for the preparation of precursor aroma, flavour & fragrance compounds, in particular geraniol and nerol, from locally available raw materials and industrial waste streams, was investigated. Preparation of geraniol and nerol from linalool (ex α-pinene stream) was investigated using acids or organometallic complexes as catalysts for the corresponding isomerisation reaction. The investigation was conducted in an effort to find a less costly process utilising milder conditions than via the conventional cleavage of β-pinene to myrcene under extreme pyrolysis conditions (>650°C). The transformation of linalool to geraniol/nerol using mineral acids was found to be dominated by secondary reactions such as dehydration and cyclisation, resulting in poor product selectivities and yields. On the other hand, organometallic complexes, in particular vanadium-based complexes (e.g. (OV(OBu)3) produced satisfactory results in the preliminary assessment (conversion of 79.8 percent and selectivity of 98.3 percent). A set of statistically designed experiments was carried out on the (VO(BuO)3 + [(Bu)4N+]OH¯) catalyst system where three variables were tested, i.e. substrate concentration, temperature, and catalyst loading. The selected model for conversion was significant with the “Probability > F” being < 0.0001. The most important contributing variable to the model for conversion was temperature i.e. 83.9 percent. Temperature was still the most important variable for the selectivity response at 65.0 percent contribution level. The response surface generated for the selectivity response was flat indicating a robust method within the parameter range selected.

Mestrado em Engenharia do Ambiente - Instituto Superior de Agronomia
The wine sector annually produces about seven million tons of residues and by-products such as grape marc, lees, seeds and the stalk. If these materials are mismanaged they can have a strong environmental impact. Moreover, some of these materials may have great potential through their physical and chemical characteristics, which may be used for others purposes. A strategy plan was presented, containing management alternatives, for each residue produced during one year campaign of wine production. To reach these goals we performed a survey for identification and characterization of all residues produced from the winery activity and a life cycle analysis of the product using software SimaPro to assist in choosing the best solutions to adopt. Through such strategies, implementation of specific legislation and voluntary attitudes as ISO's, it is possible to reduce the impact of human activity and lead enterprises to a more sustainable attitude towards the market at environmental, social and economic levels. This strategy may also allow reducing environmental impacts, by-products recovery, reduce landfill costs, optimize processes and to get some economic return

Alkaline by-products were used in a leaching test to study their effect on highly weathered, sulphide-rich mine waste from Ljusnarsberg for the attempt to neutralize the leachate and immobilize trace metals through precipitation of secondary minerals. Leaching was performed at liquid/solid ratio of 0.5-20 with 10 % alkaline material. It was found that immobilization of trace elements (Cd, Pb, Zn and Cu) were successful in systems able to neutralize the mine waste. The systems with a lower pH increase (4-5) leached an increased amount of both Zn and Cd compared to the reference. Fly ashes are found to be the most effective material regarding pH and metal immobilization but are also found to have the highest increase of molybdenum and antimony, trace metals originating from the ashes. High chloride content is another concern regarding fly ashes, as high levels in the leachate would cause a concern for the nearby fresh water.

The detection of the aromatic profile of a food is relevant for the comprehension and the definition of the volatile fraction of product. Additionally, the identification of the molecules responsible for the sensory, specifically olfactory (direct and indirect), food perception is relevant to define its acceptability and, in some cases (e.g. olive oil), its quality. Combining data obtained from sensory evaluation and volatile compounds analysis is relevant for the definition of a product fingerprint, useful to describe the product itself but also to highlight its strengths and to emphasize many characteristics like a certain level of typicality (e.g. products defined by a strong connection with a geographical area) or novelty (products containing food waste or by-products). To this aim, a combined sensory and instrumental approach, in which the aromatic profile of different products was studied (olive oil, olive oil enriched in lycopene from tomato by-product, fresh cheese, salami, cooked ham, faba bean, chocolate and pear juice models), is applied. The sensory evaluation of different food samples was paired with the volatile compounds analysis, to define if any correlation exists among what human being can perceive and detectable volatile molecules of a product. Additionally, this approach was supported by the application of other instrumental techniques, like texture measurement or electronic eye evaluation. Even if characterization was done using several methodologies, sensory studies were always included as the most important means to evaluate the products, and other methods were to support and/or relate to them. Finally, this thesis put on evidence how relevant the development of quality indicators using modern research methods could be. The new knowledge could be used to promote these products to Italian and/or European consumers, as well as to better understand the characters of food matrices, which helps in developing new products and creating innovations.

La indústria càrnia genera enormes quantitats de deixalles, que s'han de tractar i gestionar adequadament per evitar problemes ambientals i de salut. El reciclatge de residus i subproductes animals en productes de valor afegit podria ajudar a revertir aquest problema. Per tant, diversos enfocaments han estat adaptats per la ciència i la tecnologia, acoblant-los amb els coneixements del mercat, la legislació i els consumidors per a la valorització amb èxit d'aquests residus en el marc de l'Economia Circular. Aquesta Tesi Doctoral s'enfoca en un residu subestimat i sense explotar produït durant el procés de tractament de subproductes carnis, anomenat fins. Donat el seu alt contingut en lípids i proteïnes, aproximadament del 37 i 46% respectivament, la investigació es va centrar en la recuperació d'aquests components per a futures aplicacions. Es van establir tres etapes principals: 1.a recuperació de la fracció lipídica, 2.a recuperació de proteïnes en forma de hidrolitzats de proteïnes i 3.a aplicacions potencials dels hidrolitzats de proteïnes. En primer lloc, els fins es van sotmetre a cinc mètodes diferents per extreure la fracció lipídica: mètode de Soxhlet, mètode de Folch, extracció amb ciclopentil metil èter, extracció aquosa i extracció enzimàtica aquosa. Després de l'avaluació de les metodologies emprades en termes de rendiment i l'assignació de punts de penalització en base a l'Eco-Scale, es va triar l'extracció aquosa com el mètode més ecològic. Aquest mètode permet superar els principals inconvenients dels mètodes clàssics, com la generació de gran quantitat de residus i les emissions de vapors orgànics. Atès que l'aigua no és un solvent perillós, el greix es va extreure amb èxit i alhora es van obtenir fins parcialment desgreixats (PDF) per a la següent fase. Finalment, la consistència del greix extret es va optimitzar, obtenint un producte semi-sòlid, a punt per a la seva aplicació com a ingredient en l'alimentació animal. En segon lloc, es van utilitzar dues proteases disponibles comercialment, Alcalasa 2.4L i Neutrasa 0.8L, per recuperar la fracció proteica present en els PDF. Es van optimitzar les condicions d'hidròlisi amb l'objectiu de maximitzar el grau d'hidròlisi (DH) i el procés es va monitoritzar mitjançant el reactiu o-ftalaldehid (OPA). El DH màxim assolit amb l'enzim Alcalasa 2.4L va ser 21,4 % en les següents condicions òptimes: ràtio E/S 5%, pH 8, temperatura 55 °C y temps 24 h. L'enzim Neutrasa 0.8L va exhibir una menor eficiència en la hidròlisi de les proteïnes presents en els PDF i, per tant, una menor recuperació de proteïna. Després de l'optimització de quatre variables (ràtio E/S, pH inicial, temperatura i temps) a través de la metodologia de superfície de resposta (RSM), el DH màxim aconseguit va ser 7,2% en les següent condicions: ràtio E/S 15%, pH inicial 8, temperatura 40 °C i temps 10,5 h. Els perfils peptídics de les hidròlisi es van determinar mitjançant electroforesi (SDS-PAGE) i cromatografia d'exclusió molecular (SEC), mostrant el predomini dels pèptids < 5 kDa en els hidrolitzats obtinguts. La hidròlisi enzimàtica va tenir un gran impacte en el perfil dels compostos volàtils i els grups funcionals. No obstant això, es van observar similituds entre els perfils aminoacídics dels hidrolitzats i els PDF. A més, es van determinar els factors de conversió de nitrogen a proteïna (NPCF) per a les diferents fraccions obtingudes. Finalment, el procés es va escalar (10 vegades), realitzant el pas de matràs a reactor amb èxit, demostrant la viabilitat de l'escalat. Finalment, es va avaluar la utilitat dels hidrolitzats de proteïnes produïts com a font de nitrogen de baix cost. Els hidrolitzats de proteïnes es van incorporar com a font de proteïna en medis de cultius per a microbiologia com a substituts de les peptones, o com a bioestimulants per a plantes. La capacitat dels hidrolitzats de proteïna per sustentar el creixement bacterià va ser excel·lent, fins i tot van superar la capacitat de les fonts de nitrogen comercials en alguns casos. En el cas dels llevats, els efectes van ser dependents de la soca: una de les soques va mostrar un bon rendiment mentre que l'altra va exhibir menor creixement i capacitat de fermentació en presència dels hidrolitzats de proteïna de baix cost. La suplementació amb els hidrolitzats de proteïna obtinguts va tenir un efecte positiu per diverses soques de fongs, millorant la seva capacitat per transformar el 5-hidroximetilfurfural quan aquests microorganismes es van emprar com a biocatalitzadors. Finalment, els hidrolitzats de proteïna no van millorar el creixement de les plantes de tomàquet i rave. En conclusió, la present Tesi Doctoral proporciona una visió de les oportunitats per extreure compostos de valor afegit dels fins a través de pràctiques sostenibles.
La industria cárnica genera enormes cantidades de desechos, que deben tratarse y gestionarse adecuadamente para evitar problemas ambientales y de salud. El reciclaje de residuos y subproductos animales en productos de valor añadido podría ayudar a revertir este problema. Por lo tanto, diversos enfoques han sido adaptados por la ciencia y la tecnología, acoplándolos con los conocimientos del mercado, la legislación y los consumidores para la valorización exitosa de estos residuos en el marco de la Economía Circular. Esta Tesis Doctoral se centra en un residuo subestimado y sin explotar que se produce durante el proceso de tratamiento de subproductos cárnicos, llamado finos. Dado su alto contenido en lípidos y proteínas, aproximadamente del 37 y 46% respectivamente, la investigación se focalizó en la recuperación de estos componentes para futuras aplicaciones. Se establecieron tres etapas principales: 1.a recuperación de la fracción lipídica, 2.a recuperación de proteínas en forma de hidrolizados de proteínas y 3.a aplicaciones potenciales de los hidrolizados de proteínas. En primer lugar, los finos se sometieron a cinco métodos diferentes para extraer la fracción lipídica: método de Soxhlet, método de Folch, extracción con ciclopentil metil éter, extracción acuosa y extracción enzimática acuosa. Después de la evaluación de las metodologías empleadas en términos de rendimiento y la asignación de puntos de penalización en base al Eco-Scale, se eligió la extracción acuosa como el método más ecológico. Este método permite superar los principales inconvenientes de los métodos clásicos, como la generación de gran cantidad de residuos y las emisiones de vapores orgánicos. Dado que el agua no es un solvente peligroso, la grasa se extrajo con éxito mientras se obtuvieron finos parcialmente desgrasados (PDF) para la siguiente fase. Por último, la consistencia de la grasa extraída se optimizó, obteniendo un producto semisólido, listo para su aplicación como ingrediente en la alimentación animal. En segundo lugar, se utilizaron dos proteasas disponibles comercialmente, Alcalasa 2.4L y Neutrasa 0.8L, para recuperar la proteína presente en los PDF. Se optimizaron las condiciones de hidrólisis con el objetivo de maximizar el grado de hidrólisis (DH) y el proceso se monitorizó mediante el reactivo o-ftalaldehído (OPA). El DH máximo alcanzado con la enzima Alcalasa 2.4L fue 21,4 % en las siguientes condiciones óptimas: ratio E/S 5%, pH 8, temperatura 55 °C y tiempo 24 h. La enzima Neutrasa 0.8L exhibió una menor eficiencia en la hidrólisis de las proteínas presentes en los PDF y, por consiguiente, una menor recuperación de proteína. Después de la optimización de cuatro variables (ratio E/S, pH inicial, temperatura y tiempo) a través de la metodología de superficie de respuesta (RSM), el DH máximo alcanzado fue 7,2% en las siguientes condiciones: ratio E/S 15%, pH inicial 8, temperatura 40 °C y tiempo 10,5 h. Los perfiles peptídicos de las hidrólisis se determinaron mediante electroforesis (SDS-PAGE) y cromatografía de exclusión molecular (SEC), mostrando el predominio de los péptidos < 5 kDa en los hidrolizados obtenidos. La hidrólisis enzimática tuvo un gran impacto en el perfil de los compuestos volátiles y los grupos funcionales. Sin embargo, se observaron similitudes entre los perfiles aminoacídicos de los hidrolizados y los PDF. Además, se determinaron los factores de conversión de nitrógeno a proteína (NPCF) para las diferentes fracciones obtenidas. Por último, el proceso se escaló (10 veces), realizando el paso de matraz a reactor exitosamente, demostrando la viabilidad del escalado. Finalmente, se evaluó la utilidad de los hidrolizados de proteínas producidos como fuente de nitrógeno de bajo coste. Los hidrolizados de proteínas se incorporaron como fuente de proteína en medios de cultivos para microbiología como substitutos de las peptonas, o como bioestimulantes para plantas. La capacidad de los hidrolizados de proteína para sustentar el crecimiento bacteriano fue excelente, incluso superaron la capacidad de las fuentes de nitrógeno comerciales en algunos casos. En el caso de la levadura, los efectos fueron dependientes de la cepa: una de las cepas probadas mostró un buen rendimiento mientras que la otra exhibió menor crecimiento y capacidad de fermentación en presencia de los hidrolizados de proteína de bajo coste. La suplementación con los hidrolizados de proteína obtenidos tuvo un efecto positivo para varias cepas de hongos, mejorando su capacidad para transformar el 5-hidroximetilfurfural cuando estos microorganismos se emplearon como biocatalizadores. Finalmente, los hidrolizados de proteína no mejoraron el crecimiento de las plantas de tomate y rábano. En conclusión, la presente Tesis Doctoral proporciona una visión de las oportunidades para extraer compuestos de valor añadido de los finos a través de prácticas sostenibles.
Meat industry generates vast amounts of waste, which must be properly treated and managed to avoid environmental and health concerns. The recycling of animal co- and by-products into added-value products could help turn this problem around. Hence, diverse science and technology-driven approaches have been coupled with market, legislative, and consumer knowledge for the successful valorization of these residues in the frame of Circular Economy. This Ph.D. thesis addresses an underestimated and therefore unexploited waste produced during the rendering process, called fines. Given its high content in lipids and protein, of around 37 and 46%, respectively, the focus was placed on the recovery of these components for further applications. Thus, three main phases were established: 1st fat recovery, 2nd protein recovery as protein hydrolysates, and 3rd potential applications of protein hydrolysates. Firstly, fines were submitted to five different methods to extract the lipidic fraction: Soxhlet method, Folch method, extraction with cyclopentyl methyl ether, aqueous extraction, and aqueous enzymatic extraction. After evaluating the employed methodologies in terms of yield and assigning penalty points based on the Eco-Scale approach, the aqueous extraction was chosen as the greenest method. It allows overcoming the main drawbacks of classical methods, such as the generation of a high amount of waste and organic vapor emissions. Since water is a non-hazardous solvent, the fat was successfully extracted while preparing partially defatted fines (PDF) for the next phase. The consistency of the extracted fat was optimized, obtaining a semi-solid product ready for application as an ingredient in animal feed. Secondly, two commercially available proteases, Alcalase 2.4L and Neutrase 0.8L were used to recover the protein from PDF. Hydrolysis conditions were optimized aiming to maximize the degree of hydrolysis (DH), monitored using the o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) assay. The maximum DH achieved with Alcalase 2.4L was 21.4% under optimal conditions: E/S ratio 5%, pH 8, temperature 55 °C, and time 24 h. Neutrase 0.8L exhibited lower efficiency in hydrolyzing the protein present in PDF and therefore, lower protein recovery. After optimizing four variables (E/S ratio, initial pH, temperature, and time) through Response Surface Methodology (RSM), the maximum DH achieved was 7.2% with the variables set at: E/S ratio 15%, initial pH 8, temperature 40 °C, and time 10.5 h. Peptides profiles were displayed using electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), indicating that most of the peptides in the hydrolysates were < 5 kDa. Enzymatic hydrolysis had a significant impact on the volatiles profile and functional groups. However, the amino acid profiles of the hydrolysates and PDF were very similar. In addition, nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors (NPCF) were determined for the different fractions obtained. Lastly, the process was scaled-up (10-fold) from shake-flask to a reactor successfully, demonstrating the feasibility for future scale-up. Finally, the usefulness of the obtained protein hydrolysates as a low-cost nitrogen source was assessed. The protein hydrolysates were incorporated as protein ingredients in microbiological growth media replacing peptones or as biostimulants for plants. The capacity of protein hydrolysates to support bacterial growth was excellent, even outperforming commercial ones in some cases. In the case of yeast, the effects were strain-dependent: one of the tested strains displayed good performance while the other one exhibited lower growth and fermenting capacity in the presence of the low-cost protein hydrolysates. Several fungi strains took advantage of the low-cost protein hydrolysates, improving their capability to transform 5-hydroxymethylfurfural when used as whole-cell biocatalysts. Finally, the protein hydrolysates did not improve tomato and radish plants growth. In conclusion, the present Doctoral Thesis provides an insight into the opportunities for extracting compounds with added-value from fines through sustainable practices.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cape hake (Merluccius capensis and M. paradoxus) is commercially the most important trawl-caught fish off the South African, coastline and due to current intensive fish processing procedures Cape hake contributes the most to the total fishwaste production. Besides its commercial importance fish is also regarded as one of the single most important consumable natural resources, either in the raw or frozen form. Most of South Africa's commercially trawled demersal fish has already been partially cleaned (i.e. headed and gutted) before landing with non-marketable bycatch and hake-waste normally disposed of as discards, resulting in a waste of a potential protein source. This study was thus aimed at fulfilling several objectives namely: observing the current large-scale commercial Cape hake harvesting procedure; constructing prediction models for several morphological parameters (whole hake mass, headed & gutted hake mass, hake head mass, hake head length, hake head breadth and hake head height) of Cape hake (Merluccius ssp.), using whole hake length as the independent variable; and determining the chemical composition (moisture, protein, fat, ash, macro and trace elements) of several hake head sections (clean head, neck flesh, tongue, tongue cartilage, jaw, gills, heart, intestines, gut, kidney, kidney & kidney bone and gut & gall); determining the effect that storage has on the fatty acid profile of both the clean head and neck flesh sections. The results obtained would supply necessary data required for techno-economic investigations in the use of hake heads. For each of the six prediction models constructed, there was an increase in the variance of the data points of categories 3 (64-80 cm) and 4 (>80 cm) as opposed to categories 1 (30-46 cm) and 2 (47-63 cm). This could be attributed to a smaller sample set for both categories 3 and 4 or due to an expected increase in the variance when investigating larger biological samples. There was also a clustering of data in the three areas for each prediction model namely, within category 1 and across categories 2 and 3 and 3 and 4. This emphasised the latitudinal stratification of the Cape hake population by age, hence their stratification by size. The prediction models constructed for both boat trips 2 and 3 differed significantly (p<0.01) from that of boat trip 1, with the exception of the hake head length (cm) prediction model. The constructed prediction models, for each of the three respective boat trips, showed good predictive abilities as was indicated by the low Mean Square Error (MSE) values for the test sets, and high Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) values. These prediction models can be used in the fishing industry with confidence for Cape hake within the time frame each respective boat trip was carried out. The neck flesh could be regarded as the most important concerning chemical composition whereas the jaw could be seen as the most important when one considers mineral content. This therefore means that the jaw section, once appropriately processed is a potential Ca, Na and Fe source for supplementing diets of people suffering from a Ca, Na or Fe deficient diet. With regard to chemical status the neck flesh section is seen as a good potential source of both protein and fat, which could be attributed to the fact that hake muscle constitutes a major portion of this section. This section could thus be used to supplement the protein and fat of an existing food product, which is protein and fat deficient for people suffering from a protein and fat deficient diet. Similarly, a market could be created for the production of an economical food product with the neck flesh section being the main ingredient. Once this have been accomplished, fishing vessels may be persuaded to retain their Cape hake fish-waste for further processing due to the value of the prepared food products and thereby maintain profitability while abiding to governmental law. In conclusion non-government scientists should have more input in the decision-making process concerning matters affecting South Africa's marine biodiversity in order for future key policy and legislation drafts to be effective. Improvement of current fish preservation techniques and the known chemical composition of currently discarded material will result in informed decisions of future matters concerning its disposal.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kaapse stokvis (Merluccius capensis en M. paradoxus) is kommersieel Suid-Afrika se belangrikste vis spesie. Aangesien die Suid-Afrikaanse visprosesseringsbedryf baie intensief is, dra die Kaapse stokvis verwerkingsindustrie die grootste gedeelte by tot die totale visafval produksie. Die meeste van Suid-Afrika se visvangste word gedeeltelik skoongemaak voor landing terwyl nie-kommersiële byvangste en visafval gewoonlik oorboord gegooi word tydens die vangproses. Dit lei tot die vermorsing van 'n potensïele proteïen bron. Hierdie studie was dus gemik om: die huidige grootskaalse kommersiële Kaapse stokvis visvangsproses waar te neem; voorspellingsmodelle vir verskeie morfologiese parameters (heel vis massa, vis massa sonder kop en binnedele, stokvis kop massa, stokvis kop lengte, stokvis kop breedte en stokvis kop hoogte) vir Kaapse stokvis (Merluccius ssp.) te ontwikkel deur die hele lengte van die vis te gebruik as die onafhanklike veranderlike; die chemiese samestelling (vog, proteïen, vet, as, makro en spoor elemente) van verskillende dele van die viskop (skoonkop, nekweefsel, tong, tong kraakbeen, kaak, kiewe, hart, ingewand, derm, nier, nier & nierbeen en derm & gal); sowel as die effek van opberging op die vetsuurprofiel van beide die skoonkop en nekweefsel dele van die Kaapse stokvis kop. Hierdie resultate sal dan gebruik word vir die tegnies-ekonomies ondersoek in die gebruik van Kaapse stokvis koppe. Vir elk van die ses voorspellingsmodelle ontwikkel, was daar 'n vermeerdering in die variansie van die datapunte vir kategorieë 3 (64-80 cm) en 4 (>80 cm) teenoor kategorieë 1 (30-46 cm) en 2 (47-63 cm). Dit kan moontlik wees as gevolg van die kleiner monster trekking vir beide kategorieë 3 en 4 of as gevolg van verwagte toename in variansie wanneer groter biologiese monsters ondersoek word. Daar was ook 'n groepering van data in drie plekke vir elke voorspellingsmodel naamlik; binne in kategorieë 1 en oor kategorieë 2 en 3 en 3 en 4. Dit beklemtoon die geografiese breedte van die Kaapse stokvis populasie op grond van ouderdom, en dus die geografiese breedte op grond van grootte. Die voorspellingsmodelle ontwikkel vir beide die tweede en derde bootvangs het betekenisvol verskil (p<0.01) van die eerste bootvangs, behalwe die vir die stokvis kop lengte (cm) voorspellingsmodel. Die voorspellingsmodelle vir elk van die bootvangste het goeie voorspellingsvermoë getoon wat bewys is deur die lae Gemiddelde Kwadraat Fout waardes vir toetsgroepe en hoë Pearson's korrelasie koeffisiënt (r) waardes. Hierdie voorspellingsmodelle wat ontwikkel is, kan dus met vertroue in die Kaapse stokvis visvangsbedryf gebruik word mits dit ooreenstem met die periode waarin elke bootvangs uitgevoer was. Die nekweefsel gedeelte is die mees belangrikste met betrekking tot chemiese samestelling en die kaak die belangrikste in terme van minerale samestelling van die verskeie viskop dele. Die kaak is dus, as dit voldoende geprosesseer word, 'n goeie potensïele bron van Ca, Na en Fe en kan dus gebruik word om die dieet van mense wat 'n gebrek het aan hierdie minerale aan te vul. Met betrekking tot die chemiese samestelling van die nekweefsel gedeelte kan dit beskou word as 'n goeie potensiële bron van beide proteïen en vet, wat toegeskryf kan word aan die feit dat spierweefsel 'n groot deel uitmaak van hierdie viskop gedeelte. Hierdie viskop gedeelte sal dus uitstekend wees om die proteïen- en vetinhoud van 'n voedselproduk wat van nature 'n lae proteïen- en vetinhoud het te verhoog en hierdie produk sou dan geteiken word op daardie gedeelte van die gemeenskap wat 'n proteïen en vet tekort in hul dieet het. As dit eers alles in plek is, dan sal die visvangs bedryf hul Kaapse stokvis afval behou vir verdere prosessering deurdat dit gebruik word om die voedingsinhoud van bestaande voedsel soorte sal verbeter en terselfdertyd sal hulle aan wetgewing voldoen. Gevolglik sal nie-regerings navorsers meer betrokke moet wees by die besluitnemingsproses met betrekking tot sake wat die Suid-Afrikaanse mariene lewe affekteer en wat toekomstige wetgewing meer effektief sal maak. Die verbetering van huidige vis preserveringstegnieke gepaardgaande met die kennis van die chemiese samestelling van die Kaapse stokvis koppe sal lei na beter toekomstige besluite oor die afset daarvan.

In recent decades, advances in low NOₓ coal combustion and increasingly strict CO₂ reduction mandates have changed power plant boiler operations quite significantly. As a result of these necessary efforts, the characteristics of fly ash generated at many power plants have also changed. In particular, increases in unburned carbon content have been observed with detrimental implications on the utility of these fly ashes in concrete applications. Over the same time period, the combustion of biomass for energy generation has received increased attention due to the potential benefits of reducing CO₂ emissions and improved sustainability when compared to fossil fuel combustion. Biomass is directly burned, gasified, or co-fired with coal to achieve this goal. Currently, close to 120 million metric tons of coal combustion by products are produced in the U.S. annually. As with coal combustion, production of energy from biomass combustion/gasification results in significant by-product generation that must either be productively reused or geologically disposed. While much research effort has been devoted to understanding the properties and potential productive reuse alternatives for coal combustion residuals, relatively little work has been done on the by-products of biomass combustion. This study investigated the properties and engineering behavior of sixteen ash samples that were produced in eleven different power plants. Specifically, three high carbon content Class F fly ashes, eight coal and biomass co-fired ashes, three pure biomass ash samples, and two high quality, low carbon content ash samples, one of which is commercially marketed (for reference) were chosen. The various ash samples were characterized by means of: electron microscopy; laser diffraction and dry sieve particle size analysis; loss on ignition and total organic carbon analysis; specific surface area analysis; as well as x-ray fluorescence and x-ray diffraction. The ash samples were also investigated for their potential engineering application in the fired clay brick industry, as low-cost adsorptive agents, and in alkali activated geopolymer synthesis for geotechnical and geoenvironmental applications. Results from physical and chemical characterization of the ash samples show no significant differences between pure coal ash and coal co-fired with biomass ash samples from the same power plant. However, there are significant morphological, chemical, and mineralogical differences between coal ash and pure biomass ash. Unlike pure coal ash, biomass ash is not composed primarily of aluminosilicate glass cenospheres but rather consists mainly of charred, fibrous woody remnants with elevated calcite content as compared to coal ash. Bench scale fired bricks produced by partial replacement of clay material with high carbon coal ash, co-fired ash, and pure biomass ash, respectively, was successful. Physical properties of a number of the mix designs exceeded the highest ASTM weathering grade requirements. As sorptive agents, high carbon concentrates from coal and co-fired ash samples, along with all the biomass ash samples, showed significant uptake of lead. The unaltered as- received ash samples (i.e. no acid or steam activation) showed only moderate arsenic (V) and selenium (VI) sorption capacity. Finally, solidification/stabilization by geopolymerization of high carbon content, co-fired ash with as little as 3 molar NaOH in the activator solution was successful, possibly paving the way for various geotechnical and geoenvironmental applications in ground improvement and soil/ash-pond stabilization.

The metabolism and physiology of Pseudomonas putida strain LS46 was investigated using biodiesel-derived waste streams as potential low cost substrates for production of medium chain length polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA). Proteomic and trranscriptomic analyses were used to correlate specific gene and gene product expression patterns with differences in phenotypes of mcl-PHA biosynthesis by P. putida LS46. Growth and mcl-PHA content of P. putida LS46 were similar in cultures containing biodiesel-derived waste glycerol versus pure glycerol, and mcl-PHA synthesis occurred during stationary phase after nitrogen concentrations in the medium were exhausted. Waste glycerol cultures contained elevated concentrations of heavy metal ions, such as copper, which induced significant changes in gene expression levels related to heavy metal resistance. Several membrane-bound proteins, such as CusABC efflux and CopAB were identified and putatively play a role in regulating cellular copper concentrations. Cultures containing waste free fatty acids synthesized mcl-PHA throughout the exponential growth phase. Protein expression levels of two mcl-PHA synthases were suppressed during exponential phase growth in waste glycerol cultures, putatively via post-transcriptional regulation. Culture specific expression of monomer supplying proteins (PhaJ1 and PhaG), and sets of fatty acid oxidation enzymes were observed, and may have contributed to differences in the composition of polymers synthesized by P. putida LS46 cultured on the two substrates. Expression levels of the majority of mcl-PHA biosynthesis pathway genes were stable during active polymer synthesis in waste glycerol cultures. However, variations in protein expression levels, and in some cases their corresponding mRNAs, were observed in a number of other metabolic patheays, such as glycerol transportation, partial glycolysis, pyruvate metabolism, the TCA cycle, and fatty acid biosynthesis. These data suggest potential regulatory points that may determine carbon flux during mcl-PHA biosynthesis. Evaluation of identified genetic targets in P. putida LS46 that putatively influence mcl-PHA biosynthesis and monomer composition merit further studies.
February 2016

Thesis (MTech (Horticulture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.
Waste management in winery and distillery industries faces numerous disposal challenges as large volumes of both liquid and solid waste by-products are generated yearly during cellar practices. Composting has been suggested a feasible option to beneficiate solid organic waste. This incentivized the quest for efficient composting protocols to be put in place. The objective of this study was to experiment with different composting strategies for spent winery solid waste. Compost materials consisting of chopped pruning grape stalks, skins, seed and spent wine filter material consisting of a mixture of organic and inorganic expend ingredients were mixed in compost heaps. The filter material component varied (in percentage) among five treatments: T1 (40%) lined, T2 (20%) lined, T3 (0%) lined, T4 (40%) grinded material, lined and T5 (40%) unlined. Composting was allowed to proceed in open air over 12 months, from autumn to summer. Indicators such as temperature, moisture, enzyme activities, microbial counts, pH, and C/N ratio, were recorded. Generally, season (df =3, 16, P < 0.05) had significant effects (df =1, 3, P < 0.05) on heap temperature and moisture in all treatments. Similarly, microorganisms (actinobacteria and heterotrophs) varied significantly in all treatments in response to seasonal change (df = 3, 16; P < 0.05). Enzyme activities fluctuated in accordance with seasonal factors and compost maturity stages, with phosphatases, esterases, amino-peptidases, proteases and glycosyl-hydrolases being most prominent. Compared to treatments T2 and T3, compost treatments with higher percentage waste filter materials (T1, T4 and T5) had higher N (16100-21300 mg/kg), P (1500-2300 mg/kg), K (19800-28200 mg/kg), neutral pH, and lower C/N ratios (13:1-10:1), which were also comparable with commercially produced composts. Filter materials therefore, appears to be a vital ingredient for composting of winery solid waste.

La fermentation sombre est un procédé utilisant des déchets organiques dont le passage à l'échelle pilote est limité par les rendements de production d'hydrogène trop faibles ainsi que par l'utilisation des sous-produits. Cette étude a pour premier objectif d'étudier l'effet du pH, de la combinaison du pH et de la concentration en substrat, du prétraitement du substrat et de l'adaptation de l'inoculum sur la fermentation sombre de trois types de déchet différents. Il a notamment été montré que la biodégradabilité des substrats joue un rôle majeur dans le choix des paramètres opérationnels utilisés pour optimiser la production d'hydrogène. De plus, la faisabilité et la stabilité à long terme de la production d'hydrogène par le procédé de fermentation sombre ont été mises en évidence en utilisant des déchets agroalimentaires et du petit lait dans deux réacteurs thermophiliques fonctionnant en mode semi-continu. En particulier, il a été discuté l'influence de la charge organique (OLR), du temps de rétention hydraulique (HRT) et de l'addition de co-substrats (fumier de buffle) comme source d'alcalinité. Cette étude a montré que la combinaison de ces trois paramètres peut jouer un rôle important sur le pH et la stabilité de la production d'hydrogène. De plus, les sous-produits de la fermentation sombre ont été utilisés pour produire de l'hydrogène via la photo-fermentation, alors que les déchets générés par le couplage de la fermentation sombre et de la photo-fermentation ont été valorisés pour la production de méthane par digestion anaérobie. Ce concept de bioraffinerie basé sur la conversion en trois étapes des déchets agroalimentaires augmente le rendement énergétique global du procédé. Par ailleurs, il a été montré le potentiel important du procédé de photo-fermentation pour la production de polyhydroxybutyrate (polymère), parallèlement à celle d'hydrogène. De même, l'utilisation de la fermentation par voie sèche dans une bioraffinerie concept apparaît prometteuse vis à vis de la production de bioénergie et de molécules telles que les acides organiques et les alcools
Low biohydrogen (H2) yields and use of process by-products from dark fermentation (DF) of waste biomass is limiting its scaled-up application. This study aims to investigate the effects of culture pH, combination of substrate concentration and culture pH, pre-treatment of substrate and inoculum adaptation in H2 yields during the DF of three different wastes biomass. The study showed that the biodegradability of the substrates is important for the selection and application of optimum operational parameters aimed at enhancing H2 production. Moreover, long-term operational feasibility and stability of dark fermentative H2 production was demostrated using food waste and cheese whey in two semi-continuous thermophilic DF reactors. The effect of organic loading rates (OLRs), hydraulic retention times (HRTs) and co-substrates (buffalo manure) addition as a source of alkalinity on culture pH and H2 production stability was discussed. The study showed that combination of OLR, HRT and co-substrate addition could play an important role in the culture pH and stability of H2 production. Furthermore, the by-products of DF process was utilized for H2 production via photo fermentation (PF), while the waste stream generated from coupling of DF and PF processes was converted to methane in anaerobic digestion (AD). The three-step conversion of food waste in a biorefinery concept increased the total energy yields. Moreover, PF also showed a good potential for concomitant production of H2 and polyhydroxybutyrate (biopolymer). Likewise, dry fermentation could be promising to a biorefinery concept based on waste biomass for the production of bioenergy and biochemicals (organic acids and alcohols)

This study examines the use of concrete waste by-products as a new source of road construction material in Western Australia (WA). The amount of construction waste in Western Australia increases annually, whilst natural rock aggregate is in shortage.This research focuses on whether recycled concrete, derived from various sources such as by-products from the processes of manufacturing ready-mixed concrete and waste from construction and demolition (C&D), is a viable option for use as a base and sub-base course material in road building in WA.A series of laboratory tests were conducted to determine the physical, engineering and performance properties of selected research materials to evaluate their respective potential utilisation. The results demonstrate that the concrete waste materials selected from the companies: Holcim Ltd, All Earth, Capital Demolition and C&D Recycling are suitable for use as base and sub-base layers of flexible pavement in Western Australia.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2000.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The distillery industry produces large volumes of waste water with a high organic content throughout the year. These effluents must be treated in some manner before being discharged or recycled in the factory. Several treatment options are in use presently, but they all have disadvantages of some nature, such as long retention times, bad odours or the need for large areas of land. Considerable interest has been shown in the application of anaerobic digestion, especially the UASB design (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket), to treat this high strength waste water. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) bioreactor using full-strength distillery effluent. The activity of the bacteria in the biogranules was also evaluated by developing an easy and reliable activity method to estimate the general biogas and methanogenic activity and to calibrate this method using different anaerobic granules from different sources. The influence of high strength distillery effluent on the anaerobic digestion process was investigated using a mesophilic lab-scale UASB bioreactor. During the experimental study, the organic loading rate (OLR) was gradually increased from 2.01 to 30.00 kgCOD.m-3.d-1, and simultaneously, the substrate pH was gradually lowered from 7.0 to 4.7. It was found that at an OLR of 30.00 kgCOD. m-3.d-1,the pH, alkalinity and biogas production stabilised to average values of 7.8, 6 000 mg.l-1 and 18.5 I.d-1 respectively. An average COD removal> 90% was found indicating excellent bioreactor stability. The low substrate pH holds considerable implications in terms of operational costs, as neutralisation of the biorector substrate is no longer necessary. The accumulation of fine solids present in the distillery substrate was found at the higher OLR's and resulted in the granular bed increasing with subsequent biomass washout and a lowering in efficiency parameters. However, a possible pre-treatment filtration of these fine solids would eliminate this problem. The success of the upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) process is mainly due to the capability of retaining the active biomass in the reactor. Over the years, several methods have been developed to characterise and quantify sludge activity but each has advantages and disadvantages. There is thus an increasing need for a rapid method to evaluate the activity of the granular biomass. The activity method of Owen et al. (1979) as adapted by Lamb (1995), was thus evaluated in terms of efficiency and applicability in determining the activity of granular samples. The method was found to be inaccurate as well as time consuming and it was thus modified. Results obtained with the modified assay method were found to be more accurate and the impact of the different test substrates (glucose, lactate, acetate and formate) on activity, was more evident. The activity of seven different anaerobic granules, was subsequently evaluated. Biogas (Ss) and methanogenic (SM) activity was not measured in volume of gas produced per unit COD converted or volatile suspended solids (VSS), but as tempo of gas production (ml.h-1) in a standardised basic growth medium. The activity data obtained were also displayed as bar charts and "calibration scales". This illustrative depiction of activity data gave valuable information about population dynamics as well as possible substrate inhibition. The "calibration scales" can also be used to group the general biogas (Ss) and methanogenic activities (SM) of any new biogranule relative to active (O-type) and inactive (W-type) anaerobic granules, providing that the same method of activity testing is used. The "calibration scales" can thus be used to give a fast indication of how the activity value of one sample relates to the activity values of other granules, even when using different test substrates.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die stokery industrie produseer groot hoeveelhede afvalwater, wat hoë ladings van organiese materiaal gedurede die hele jaar bevat. Hierdie afvalwater moet op een of ander manier behandel word voordat dit gestort of vir hergebruik aangewend kan word. Daar is tans verskeie behandelingsmetodes wat gebruik kan word, maar elk het sy eie tekortkominge soos bv. lang retensie tye, onaangename reuke of die behoefte aan groot stukke oop grond. Groot belangstelling is getoon vir die gebruik van anaerobiese vertering, en meer spesifiek die "uflow anaerobic sludge blanket" UASB bioreaktor vir die behandeling van stokery uitvloeisels. Die doel van die studie was dus om die algehele effektiwiteit van 'n UASB bioreaktor, wat onverdunde stokery uitvloeisel behandel, te evalueer. Die methanogene- en algehele aktiwiteit van die bakterië in die biogranules was ook ge-evalueer deurdat 'n maklike en betroubare aktiwiteitsmetode omtwikkel is, waarna hierdie metode ook toegepas was op 'n reeks van verskillende tipe biogranules. Die invloed van volsterkte stokery uitvloeisel op die anaerobiese verteringsprosesse was ondersoek met die gebruik van 'n mesofiele laboratoriumskaal UASB bioreaktor. Gedurende die eksperimentele studie, was die organiese ladingstempo (OLT) verhoog van 2.01 na 30.00 kgCSB.m-3.d-1 (CSB = chemiese suurstof behoefte) met die gelyktydige verlaging in die pH van die bioreaktorsubstraat van 7.0 na 4.7. Dit was vasgestel dat met 'n OLT van 30.00 kgCSB.m-3.d-1, die pH, alkaliniteit en biogas geproduseer, gestabiliseer het na gemiddelde waardes van 7.8, 6000 mg.-1 en 18.5l.d-1 , respektiewelik, sowel as 'n gemiddelde CSB verwydering van> 90%. Al hierdie waardes dui uitstekende bioreaktor stabiliteit aan. Die lae bioreaktorsubstraat pH kan van groot waarde wees vir die industrie, aangesien neutralisering van die uitvloeisel nie meer nodig is nie en kan sodoende die operasionele koste van die proses verlaag. Die konsentrering van fyn opgeloste soliedes in die bioreaktor by hoë OLT's, kan egter problematies raak, aangesien dit die granule-bed kan vergroot en veroorsaak dat van die biomassa uitspoel en kan verlore gaan. Die verlies van aktiewe biomassa kan die effektiwiteitsparameters negatief beinvloed, maar die plasing van 'n filterings stap voor die verterings stap, behoort hierdie probleem op te los. The sukses van die UASB-stelsel rus op die versekering dat die aktiewe biomassa in die reaktor behoue bly. Oor die jare was daar 'n verskeidenheid van aktiwiteitstoetsings-metodes ontwikkel, elk met sy eie nadele. Daar bestaan dus nog steeds 'n groot behoefte vir die daarstelling van 'n aktiwiteitstoetsings-metode wat vinnig en maklik is om uittevoer. Die aktiwiteitstoetsings-metode van Owen et al. (1979) wat deur Lamb (1995) aangepas is, was in terme van sy effektiwiteit en toepaslikheid ten opsigte van die gebruik daarvan vir aktiwiteitstoetsing vir biogranules, ge-evalueer. Dit is bevind dat die metode onakkuraat sowel as tydsrowend was en gevolglik dus aangepas. Die aangepaste metode het meer akkurate resultate gelewer en die impak van die verskillende toetssubstrate (glukose, laktaat, asetaat en formaat) op die granules het ook meer duidelik na vore gekom. Gevolglik was die aktiwiteit van sewe verskillende anaerobiese biogranules ondersoek. Die eenheid waarin atiwiteitsresultate aangegee is, was nie in volume gas geproduseer per eenheid CSB verwyder of per hoeveelheid gesuspendeerde vlugtige vetsure in die biomassa nie, maar as tempo van biogas (S8)- of metaan (SM)produksie (ml.h-1). Die data wat op hierdie wyse bekom was, is gebruik om staafdiagramme sowel as "kalibrasie skale" daar te stel. Hierdie illustrerende wyse om aktiwiteitsdata uit te beeld verskaf waardevolle informasie ten opsigte van die interaksies tussen die verskillende populasies in die granule en kan ook die aanwesigheid van moontlike substraat inhibisie aandui. Die "Kalibrasie skale" kan ook gebruik word om die algehele (SB) en methanogene (SM)aktiwiteite van einge nuwe biogranule vinnig te klassifiseer ten op sigte van 'n aktiewe (O-tipe) en 'n minder aktiewe (W-tipe) anaerobiese granules, mits dieselfde metode gebruik word om die aktiwiteits data te bekom.

Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) is the most widely used solution in those countries where landfilling areas are limited. Incineration allows reducing the total volume of waste (up to 90%) and generating energy resulting from combustion. The main by-product generated in waste-to-energy plants is known as incineration bottom ash (IBA), which is a heterogeneous mixture of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, ceramics, and glass. IBA is classified as a non- hazardous material due to its composition rich in calcium oxide, silica, and iron. IBA composition and morphology are very similar to natural siliceous aggregates after an ageing treatment where the weathered bottom ash (WBA) is obtained. This maturation process makes feasible the WBA valorisation as a secondary aggregate in the field of construction and civil engineering. Moreover, the high percentage of glass and aluminium found in the WBA would allow its valorisation as a precursor in the alkali-activated binders (AABs) formulation. The main goal of this PhD thesis was the scientific and technological development of new AABs based on the alkali activation of WBA (AA-WBA binders), to reduce the use of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in building and civil engineering fields. In this sense, this aim is related to the use of more sustainable cement-based materials, which promote the circular economy and zero-waste principle through the valorisation of WBA. The potential of WBA as a precursor in the AA-WBA binders’ formulation was evaluated along with the PhD thesis through different studies that can be classified into four blocks. The first block was based on the evaluation of the WBA potential as a precursor in AABs based on its particle size. This study demonstrated the variability in the reactive SiO2 and Al2O3 availability as a function of the particle size. The potential of the entire fraction (EF) and the 8-30-mm fraction highlighted the possible use of them as precursors in the AABs formulation. The second block of this thesis was focused on the study of AA-WBA binders using the WBA as a sole precursor. Mixtures of sodium silicate (WG) and NaOH (2M, 4M, 6M, and 8M) were used as alkaline activator solutions to assess the effect of the NaOH concentration on the final properties. It was demonstrated the possibility of developing AA-WBA. The influence of alkaline activator solution concentration on the final properties of the AA-WBA was evidenced, obtaining better mechanical performance with the use of the WG/NaOH 6M solution. The results revealed the enhancement in the mechanical properties when the 8-30-mm fraction was used. However, the environmental results revealed arsenic and antimony leaching values that require further research to validate the environmental feasibility of AA-WBA. In the third block, the 8-30-mm fraction was mixed with other precursors with greater availability of Al2O3 (metakaolin and PAVAL®). The main purpose was to improve the mechanical properties and the heavy metal stabilisation effect of the AA- WBA obtained in the second block. In both cases, mechanical performance was improved due to the inclusion of Al2O3. However, the environmental properties continued to show leaching values that did not ensure the environmental viability of the AA-WBA binders. Finally, the fourth block of the thesis was focused on carrying out an environmental and ecotoxicological assessment to validate the use of AA-WBA binders as construction material. The results showed a medium-low level of ecotoxicity in the AA-WBA formulated with the 8-30-mm fraction, similar to the binders activated with MK (AA-MK).
El principal subproducte generat durant la incineració de residus sòlids urbans es coneix com a cendra de fons. La seva composició és molt similars als agregats silícics naturals després d’un tractament d’envelliment on s’obté la cendra de fons madurada (weathered bottom ash; WBA segons les sigles angleses). El seu alt contingut en vidre i alumini el converteixen en un potencial candidat com a precursor en la fabricació d’aglutinants activats alcalinament (alkali-activated binders, AABs segons les sigles angleses). L’objectiu principal d’aquesta tesi doctoral va consistir en el desenvolupament de AABs mitjançant l’activació alcalina de WBA (aglutinants AA-WBA). El potencial de la WBA i els aglutinants AA-WBA es va avaluar mitjançant diferents estudis que es poden classificar en quatre blocs. Al primer bloc es va avaluar el potencial de WBA com a precursor en funció de la seva mida de partícula. Aquest estudi va demostrar el potencial de la fracció sencera i de la fracció 8-30 mm. El segon bloc es va centrar en l’estudi d’aglutinants AA-WBA que utilitzaven el WBA com a únic precursor. Es va evidenciar la influència de la concentració de la solució activadora alcalina en les propietats finals dels aglutinants AA-WBA. Els resultats van revelar la millora de les propietats mecàniques quan es va utilitzar la fracció 8-30 mm. No obstant, els resultats ambientals van revelar valors de lixiviació d'arsènic i antimoni que requerien la validació a nivell ambiental dels aglutinants. Al tercer bloc, la fracció 8-30 mm es va barrejar amb altres precursors rics en d’Al2O3 (metakaolin i PAVAL®) per millorar les propietats mecàniques i l’estabilització de metalls pesants dels aglutinants obtinguts al segon bloc. En ambdós casos, es va millorar el rendiment mecànic, tot i que les propietats ambientals van continuar mostrant valors de lixiviació que no asseguraven la viabilitat ambiental dels aglutinants AA-WBA. Finalment, al quart bloc es va realitzar una avaluació ambiental i ecotoxicològica per validar l’ús d’aglutinants AA-WBA com a material de construcció. Els resultats van mostrar un nivell mitjà-baix d’ecotoxicitat a l’AA-WBA formulat amb la fracció de 8 a 30 mm, similar als aglutinants activats amb MK (AA-MK).

Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.
The poultry industry is one of the largest industries in the South African agricultural sector. To sustain their various operations, this industry utilises a large quantity of potable water to process slaughtered birds in order to satisfy hygiene and sanitation requirements in processing facilities. Thus, the consumption of potable water during poultry slaughterhouse operations results in the production of high-strength poultry slaughterhouse wastewater (PSW), which is laden with a variety of pollutants, including fats, oil and grease (FOG), carcass debris, feathers and organic matter, including proteins, that should be removed from the wastewater, or at least reduced in concentration, prior to the PSW being discharged into the environment. This is to avoid and/or minimise levies and non-compliance penalties from monitoring institutions in charge of controlling the quality of effluents in the area from which the PSW was collected for this study. Furthermore, the option of treating and recycling the PSW to address the current issue of water scarcity in the Western Cape (South Africa), and to minimise possible harmful effects on the environment, will reduce the overreliance on slaughterhouses in the region on potable/drinking water, thus also lessening running costs associated with water procurement for operations. Various technologies, involving physical, chemical or biological processes, have been evaluated for the treatment of PSW, with this study focusing on anaerobic treatment (part of the biological treatment) of PSW, using a high-rate anaerobic bioreactor system (HRABs), which provides for low production of sludge, the production of biogas as a source of energy and the provision of high performance in terms of organic matter removal. Moreover, HRABs are cheaper, when compared to other aerobic treatment technologies. However, numerous potential challenges were encountered when using HRABs, such as low production of biogas due to gas entrapment, head losses across the granular bed, sludge washout in upflow HRABs, uneven wastewater distribution, and thus poor dispersion of the organic matter, which impacts on the adequacy of treatment, poor release of toxic substances contained in the entrapped biogas (NH3 or H2S), clogging of the underdrain system for down-flow HRABs, or the formation of dead zones within the granular bed, resulting in short-circuiting.

Oil shale is a valuable natural resource of oil. The United States has only 5% of the known world reserves of recoverable crude oil and about 73% of the known world reserves of recoverable oil shale. Before there can be full-scale commercial development of oil shale, the problems associated with the large amounts of wastes generated by the processing of the shale must be solved. The wastes have a complex chemical matrix. It is felt that the spent shale can be used as a sorbent to either treat or pretreat the contaminated process waters or could be codisposed with the process waters, Quite extensive work has been done in exploring this alternative with respect to inorganic constituents, but that with organic constituents has been mainly restricted to the measurement of total organic carbon. This study was done to base the analysis of the suitability of the spent shale as a sorbent upon individual compounds so that a more fundamental understanding could be obtained as to how families of compounds behave.
Ph. D.

Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016.
Poultry slaughterhouse wastewater (PSW) contains organic matter that can be degraded by microorganisms. Such matter can further be used by the microbial community as a nutrient source for growth. Moreover, this type of wastewater also contains a high quantity of particulate matter, lipids and proteins, including antimicrobial compounds such as triclosan (TCS) and trichlorocarbanilide (TCC) used during cleaning and sanitising of processing facilities. Lipids and particulate matter lead to clogging of pipes and fouling of diffusers in the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). To overcome this problem, a pre-treatment system such as a dissolved air flotation system (DAFs) in which synthetic flocculants are used, is commonly used prior to the biological treatment of the wastewater. Synthetic flocculants add to the environmental burden associated with the use of synthetic compounds, particularly when these compounds are used in WWTPs. This study focused on the reduction of suspended solids, lipids and proteinaceous matter using a bioflocculant- supported DAF for the treatment of PSW.

This study examines the waste of cotton gins as a potential alternative energy source, on account of its heat content, availability, and low emission rates. To confirm that this potential energy source meets minimum industrial fuel standards, this research has carried out an investigation of some important physical characteristics and toxic element analysis of cotton gin waste. Using cotton gin waste as fuel is an attractive solution to the problems of disposing of a surplus agricultural waste as well as supplementing fuel must meet both environmental emission standards and industrial fuel standards, the physical and chemical characteristics of cotton gin waste and its toxic element concentrations are important for its objective evaluation as a fuel. Constituent components, moisture contents, and ash contents of four separate parts of cotton gin waste were determined and evaluated closely following the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) test methods. The three most toxic heavy metals, Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr), and Lead (Pb), chosen for quantitative analysis were determined by using an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and a microwave oven sample digestion method.

Fertilizer P fixation and fertilizer N losses in soils may be reduced through additions of polyphenolic compounds. The influence of ammonium lignosulfonate (NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS) on triple superphosphate (TSP) efficiency was investigated in a soil incubation study using three Quebec soils and in a growth bench study using one soil. For the incubation study, soils were analyzed for pH and P extractability, as a function of NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS rate and time. In the growth bench study, TSP and NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS were applied at varying rates and corn (Zea mays L.) dry matter yields and nutrient compositions analyzed. Similar studies were conducted in subsequent growth bench studies, to evaluate combinations of NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS, diammonium phosphate (DAP), and urea on two soils.
Ammonium LS increased soluble P levels when applied with TSP. The effect was most significant in fine textured soils, and increased with time. This improved P availability to plants, without affecting growth. The optimum NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS:P$ sb2$O$ sb5$ application ratio was approximately 2.8:1. Ammonium LS did not improve availability of DAP-P in either of the subsequent experiments, nor did it improve urea fertilizer efficiency. Some NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS-urea-DAP formulations did, however, improve corn growth beyond that obtained when only urea and DAP were applied in combination. In nutrient amended soils, applying NH$ sb4 sp+$-LS DAP was detrimental to growth and, for some application rates, reduced nutrient uptake.

Food wastage represents a massive issue in today's society. It impacts the environment (e.g., climate change, resources depletion, biodiversity loss), society (e.g. food security), and the global economy. All the stakeholders could change systemically to transition towards the circular economy. Corporates must involve leadership, employees, suppliers, and consumers to build a more efficient and resilient system where waste and by-products generation is limited. The unavoidable waste could be valorized to new raw materials to reduce the environmental impact of their disposal. This thesis focuses on Barilla (the Italian food company since 1877) and its willingness to valorize by-products (e.g. bread crust), maximizing all aspects of sustainability: economy, ecology, and social equity. First, the author formed an Upcycling Team, an inter-functional group of voluntaries, to define Barilla's criteria for by-products valorization. Afterwards, the Team screened the possible bread crust valorization options (e.g. food product, beer, and animal feed production) using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a decision-making tool that allows selecting the best alternative under conflicting criteria. The method's strength is the ability to judge the elements in pairs and use qualitative evaluation. The AHP suggested that producing a food product (e.g. rusk) is the most sustainable option. Furthermore, the author carried out a partial Life Cycle Assessment to compare the global warming potential (GWP) of the production of upcycled rusk to animal feed accounting for the avoided production of the standard products. She demonstrated that producing upcycled rusks using 1 kg of bread crust results in greater net-reduction of GHG emissions than upcycled animal feed. These findings may push Barilla to implement an upcycled food product designed by adopting the eco-design approach to implement a sustainable food product from its raw materials to its end-of-life.

Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária
Nas últimas décadas, o impacto ambiental dos resíduos tem sido um tema de crescente importância a nível mundial. A produção de grandes quantidades de resíduos levou à criação de programas internacionais de gestão de resíduos, com o objetivo de minimizar a eliminação destes. Além disso, têm sido vários os casos de surtos de doenças ligadas à cadeia alimentar, o que tem levado a uma crescente preocupação no que diz respeito aos subprodutos de origem animal e a sua correta gestão. Este trabalho tem como objetivo caracterizar qualitativa e quantitativamente os resíduos resultantes da venda de produtos da pesca em vários mercados municipais de Lisboa e descrever os seus sistemas de gestão. Para tal, foi registado o peso de 200 embalagens de produtos da pesca e de 189 espécimes antes e após a preparação. Das embalagens pesadas, apenas 79,31% do peso total correspondia aos produtos da pesca, sendo que os restantes 20,69% correspondem ao peso da embalagem e do gelo. Em relação à preparação dos produtos da pesca, o valor médio da percentagem de subprodutos situou-se nos 16,53%, enquanto a mediana foi de 12,50%. No que diz respeito aos sistemas de gestão, têm vindo a ser implementados planos que permitem a correta separação dos vários tipos de resíduos e dos subprodutos, e existe uma crescente consciencialização dos operadores da importância dessa separação.
ABSTRACT - In the last decades, the impact of waste on the environment has been a topic of growing importance worldwide. The production of large amounts of waste has led to the creation of international waste management programs, aiming to minimize waste disposal. Likewise, the multiple disease outbreaks related to the food chain have led to an increasing concern regarding animal by-products and their proper management. The objectives of this study are the qualitative and quantitative characterization of waste resulting from the fishery products sale in multiple Lisbon marketplaces, and the description of their management systems. For this matter, the weight of 200 packages of fishery products and of 189 specimens was recorded before and after preparation. Regarding the weighted packages, only 79,31% of the total weight corresponded to the fishery products, while the remaining 20,69% corresponded to the packaging and ice. Regarding fish preparation, the average percentage of animal by-products was 16,53%, while the median was 12,50%. Concerning the management systems, plans that allow the correct sorting of different types of waste and animal by-products are being implemented and there is a growing awareness of the workers about this separation.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 1998.
Trademark symbol follows Chemchar in title. Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaf 130). Also available on the Internet.

Grapes (genus Vitis) are an important fruit crop from economic and cultural point of view in many countries of Europe, Asia and America. Currently, countries as France, Spain and Italy produce on average 7% of the fresh grape and 90% of the wine grape. At the same time, chemical pesticides are a ubiquitous element in agriculture and are among the most widely used chemicals in the world. In addition, grape canes represent a large source of waste derived from the viticulture industry, with an estimated volume of 1−3 t/ha/year. Likewise, the seafood processing industry produces a large quantity of by-products and discards (heads, tails, skins, scales, viscera, backbones, and shells). Yet, these food wastes may often contain several usable substances of high value including grape cane extract and chitosan that may have important environment, agriculture and health benefits. Considering this important topic, this work proposes the use of by-products from grape cane waste (stilbene extract) and the fishing industry (chitosan), as substitutes of pesticides on grapevine against Botrytis cinerea. In the present study, the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes was investigated. Considering the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes, stilbene extract could be easily obtained collecting canes on the pruning time in December and storing them for 12 weeks at room temperature to reach the highest accumulation of stilbenes. Moreover, we analyzed the effect of the stilbene accumulation on grape canes of seven autochthonous grape varieties from Veneto region. The cultivars Verdiso and Incrocio Manzoni 13.0.25 showed the highest accumulation of stilbenes when harvested in October and stored for twelve weeks at room temperature, highlighting the importance of the cultivar on stilbene accumulation. Chitosan is a highly investigated biopolymer with well-known antimicrobial properties, that are largely influenced by the molecular weight, the degree of acetylation as well as the derivatization and preparation methods used. The biological activity of a commercial chitosan soluble in acid solution, obtained from shrimp shell waste, with a molecular weight of 173 kDa and a degree of acetylation of 17% was investigate. Exogenous application of stilbene extract or chitosan demonstrated to protect grapevine against the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Stilbene extract (SE) demonstrated to induce satisfactory protection toward Botrytis cinerea on grapevine plants, thus being a promising natural fungicide. SE possessed a direct antifungal activity inferred by the inhibitory effect Grapes (genus Vitis) are an important fruit crop from economic and cultural point of view in many countries of Europe, Asia and America. Currently, countries as France, Spain and Italy produce on average 7% of the fresh grape and 90% of the wine grape. At the same time, chemical pesticides are a ubiquitous element in agriculture and are among the most widely used chemicals in the world. In addition, grape canes represent a large source of waste derived from the viticulture industry, with an estimated volume of 1−3 t/ha/year. Likewise, the seafood processing industry produces a large quantity of by-products and discards (heads, tails, skins, scales, viscera, backbones, and shells). Yet, these food wastes may often contain several usable substances of high value including grape cane extract and chitosan that may have important environment, agriculture and health benefits. Considering this important topic, this work proposes the use of by-products from grape cane waste (stilbene extract) and the fishing industry (chitosan), as substitutes of pesticides on grapevine against Botrytis cinerea. In the present study, the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes was investigated. Considering the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes, stilbene extract could be easily obtained collecting canes on the pruning time in December and storing them for 12 weeks at room temperature to reach the highest accumulation of stilbenes. Moreover, we analyzed the effect of the stilbene accumulation on grape canes of seven autochthonous grape varieties from Veneto region. The cultivars Verdiso and Incrocio Manzoni 13.0.25 showed the highest accumulation of stilbenes when harvested in October and stored for twelve weeks at room temperature, highlighting the importance of the cultivar on stilbene accumulation. Chitosan is a highly investigated biopolymer with well-known antimicrobial properties, that are largely influenced by the molecular weight, the degree of acetylation as well as the derivatization and preparation methods used. The biological activity of a commercial chitosan soluble in acid solution, obtained from shrimp shell waste, with a molecular weight of 173 kDa and a degree of acetylation of 17% was investigate. Exogenous application of stilbene extract or chitosan demonstrated to protect grapevine against the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Stilbene extract (SE) demonstrated to induce satisfactory protection toward Botrytis cinerea on grapevine plants, thus being a promising natural fungicide. SE possessed a direct antifungal activity inferred by the inhibitory effect Grapes (genus Vitis) are an important fruit crop from economic and cultural point of view in many countries of Europe, Asia and America. Currently, countries as France, Spain and Italy produce on average 7% of the fresh grape and 90% of the wine grape. At the same time, chemical pesticides are a ubiquitous element in agriculture and are among the most widely used chemicals in the world. In addition, grape canes represent a large source of waste derived from the viticulture industry, with an estimated volume of 1−3 t/ha/year. Likewise, the seafood processing industry produces a large quantity of by-products and discards (heads, tails, skins, scales, viscera, backbones, and shells). Yet, these food wastes may often contain several usable substances of high value including grape cane extract and chitosan that may have important environment, agriculture and health benefits. Considering this important topic, this work proposes the use of by-products from grape cane waste (stilbene extract) and the fishing industry (chitosan), as substitutes of pesticides on grapevine against Botrytis cinerea. In the present study, the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes was investigated. Considering the effect of different processes of storage and different pruning time on the stilbene accumulation on Pinot noir canes, stilbene extract could be easily obtained collecting canes on the pruning time in December and storing them for 12 weeks at room temperature to reach the highest accumulation of stilbenes. Moreover, we analyzed the effect of the stilbene accumulation on grape canes of seven autochthonous grape varieties from Veneto region. The cultivars Verdiso and Incrocio Manzoni 13.0.25 showed the highest accumulation of stilbenes when harvested in October and stored for twelve weeks at room temperature, highlighting the importance of the cultivar on stilbene accumulation. Chitosan is a highly investigated biopolymer with well-known antimicrobial properties, that are largely influenced by the molecular weight, the degree of acetylation as well as the derivatization and preparation methods used. The biological activity of a commercial chitosan soluble in acid solution, obtained from shrimp shell waste, with a molecular weight of 173 kDa and a degree of acetylation of 17% was investigate. Exogenous application of stilbene extract or chitosan demonstrated to protect grapevine against the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Stilbene extract (SE) demonstrated to induce satisfactory protection toward Botrytis cinerea on grapevine plants, thus being a promising natural fungicide. SE possessed a direct antifungal activity inferred by the inhibitory effect of the mycelium growth observed on nutrient agar medium and through the reduction of the necrotic lesions caused by B. cinerea on grapevine leaves. Furthermore, it was verified that the acquired protection derived also from an induction of some grapevine defense mechanisms. After its perception, SE induced specific defense events, such as the activation of MAPKs and a higher expression of a gene encoding a glutathione-S-transferase (GST1) and some PR genes, but negatively regulated new stilbene production. This result suggests the activation of an immune-ready state on SE-treated plants. Besides, thanks to direct fungistatic activity and filmogenic properties chitosan (173/17) conferred a good level of protection for grapevine leaves against B. cinerea. Moreover, it induced grapevine defense response with some delay. From three days from the treatment there was an induction of the JA/ET-mediated response and a repression of the SA-mediated signaling, and a transient accumulation of trans-resveratrol. The finding demonstrated that these food byproducts derived from the practice of viticulture and from the fishing industry, respectively, could be an alternative for the development of novel natural fungicides.