Academic literature on the topic 'Butcherbird songs'

This paper challenges the assumption that improvisation is a process unique to humans. Despite the general reluctance of biologists to consider birdsong “music,” they routinely comment on improvisation found in the signals of songbirds. The Australian pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) is such a species. Analysis (including transcriptions and sonograms) of solo song, duets and mimicry illustrates their remarkable preoccupation with novelty and variety, and traces improvisation's role in the creation of their complex song culture. The author suggests further zoömusicological case studies for the relevance this research could have to other human (musical) capacities.

Music maintains a characteristic balance between repetition and novelty. Here, we report a similar balance in singing performances of free-living Australian pied butcherbirds. Their songs include many phrase types. The more phrase types in a bird's repertoire, the more diverse the singing performance can be. However, without sufficient temporal organization, avian listeners may find diverse singing performances difficult to perceive and memorize. We tested for a correlation between the complexity of song repertoire and the temporal regularity of singing performance. We found that different phrase types often share motifs (notes or stereotyped groups of notes). These shared motifs reappeared in strikingly regular temporal intervals across different phrase types, over hundreds of phrases produced without interruption by each bird. We developed a statistical estimate to quantify the degree to which phrase transition structure is optimized for maximizing the regularity of shared motifs. We found that transition probabilities between phrase types tend to maximize regularity in the repetition of shared motifs, but only in birds of high repertoire complexity. Conversely, in birds of low repertoire complexity, shared motifs were produced with less regularity. The strong correlation between repertoire complexity and motif regularity suggests that birds possess a mechanism that regulates the temporal placement of shared motifs in a manner that takes repertoire complexity into account. We discuss alternative musical, mechanistic and ecological explanations to this effect.

The acoustic structure of birdsong is spectrally and temporally complex. Temporal complexity is often investigated in a syntactic framework focusing on the statistical features of symbolic song sequences. Alternatively, temporal patterns can be investigated in a rhythmic framework that focuses on the relative timing between song elements. Here, we investigate the merits of combining both frameworks by integrating syntactic and rhythmic analyses of Australian pied butcherbird ( Cracticus nigrogularis ) songs, which exhibit organized syntax and diverse rhythms. We show that rhythms of the pied butcherbird song bouts in our sample are categorically organized and predictable by the song’s first-order sequential syntax. These song rhythms remain categorically distributed and strongly associated with the first-order sequential syntax even after controlling for variance in note length, suggesting that the silent intervals between notes induce a rhythmic structure on note sequences. We discuss the implication of syntactic–rhythmic relations as a relevant feature of song complexity with respect to signals such as human speech and music, and advocate for a broader conception of song complexity that takes into account syntax, rhythm, and their interaction with other acoustic and perceptual features.

Song in oscine birds (as in human speech and song) relies upon the rare capacity of vocal learning. Transmission can be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. As a rule, memorization and production by a naïve bird are not simultaneous: the long-term storage of song phrases precedes their first vocal rehearsal by months. While a wealth of detail regarding songbird enculturation has been uncovered by focusing on the apprentice, whether observational learning can fully account for the ontogeny of birdsong, or whether there could also be an element of active teaching involved, has remained an open question. Given the paucity of knowledge on animal cultures, I argue for the utility of an inclusive definition of teaching that encourages data be collected across a wide range of taxa. Borrowing insights from musicology, I introduce the Australian pied butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) into the debate surrounding mechanisms of cultural transmission. I probe the relevance and utility of mentalistic, culture-based, and functionalist approaches to teaching in this species. Sonographic analysis of birdsong recordings and observational data (including photographs) of pied butcherbird behavior at one field site provide evidence that I assess based on criteria laid down by Caro and Hauser, along with later refinements to their functionalist definition. The candidate case of teaching reviewed here adds to a limited but growing body of reports supporting the notion that teaching may be more widespread than is currently realized. Nonetheless, I describe the challenges of confirming that learning has occurred in songbird pupils, given the delay between vocal instruction and production, as well as the low status accorded to anecdote and other observational evidence commonly mustered in instances of purported teaching. As a corrective, I press for an emphasis on biodiversity that will guide the study of teaching beyond human accounts and intractable discipline-specific burdens of proof.

An undue focus on Temperate Zone oscines (songbirds or passerines) has led to a geographical bias in interpretation of song frmnction and evolution. This bias led initially to relatively simplistic theories of the ftmnction of bird song with vocalizations divided into 'songs' and 'calls'. Songs were complex, learned vocalizations, given by males in the breeding season, thnctioning in territory defence and mate attraction and stimulation. Calls, on the other hand, were simple innate vocalizations serving more immediate needs such as begging for food and raising an alarm. Female song, where it occurred, was considered an aberration. Further studies suggested that complex songs were associated with mate attraction functions while simpler songs were associated with territory defence. However it became apparent that the distinction between songs and calls was not nearly so clear-cut and the supposed connection between complexity and function in song was questioned. Moreover it was realised that female song could not be dismissed as a mere aberration. Another problem was the ftmnction of the dawn chorus, where research had failed to find a consistent, all-encompassing explanation. Since most studies had been done on Northern Hemisphere songbirds, it was becoming clear that the geographical focus needed to be broadened. The life histories of Northern Hemisphere TemperateZone songbirds are very different from those in many other regions. In contrast to the situation in this zone, maintenance of year-round territory, territory defence by both male and female, life-long social monogamy and extensive female vocalization are widespread in tropical, subtropical and Southern Hemisphere regions. Recently it has been suggested that more intensive studies of vocalizations in these regions might help clariQi some of these issues and consequently an endemic Australian passerine was chosen for the current study. The study focused on the vocalizationsof the grey butcherbird Cracticus torquatus Artamidae, which displays the life history features described above. The main study population was located in the Brisbane suburbs of Rainworth and Bardon. Additional data were gathered from other Brisbane suburbs and bushland sites within the city and at Lake Broadwater near Dalby, Queensland. Vocalizations were initially recorded electronically and analysed using Canary sound editing program. Vocalization data were supplemented using an aural recording method, which was independently checked for reliability. Behavioural data including posture during vocalizations and interactions with other birds were also gathered. Initial investigationsrevealed the existence of two main categories of vocalizations - those given by the family group during the day, all year round and those given at dawn by males during the breeding season. For the focal study populations, group vocalizations were studied throughout the year over several years, however the song given at dawn by males during the breeding season proved to be quite complex and three birds from three territories in the main study area were chosen as case studies. Recordings were made of the vocalizations of the three case study birds over three breeding seasons. Starting and fmishing times (with respect to civil twilight) were recorded in order to determine both changes in song bout duration and starting time throughout the breeding season. Additional birds from the same area, from the other Brisbane suburbs and from the bushland sites were studied to check the validity of conclusions drawn from the case studies. The results of the investigations revealed a vocalization structure that contrasted strongly with the simple picture of bird song drawn from study ofNorthernHemisphere Temperate Zone passerines. The vocalizations given during the day, often referred to as the 'song' of this species, were very different from the early dawn song given by the male during the breeding season. This latter appeared to be song sensu stricto according to the paradigms developed for Northern Hemisphere birds. The thytime vocalizations, however, fitted neither the classic definition of 'song' nor the classic definition of 'call'. This relatively long-term study revealed different starting time patterns and periodicity for thy vocalizations and male breeding season song. Day vocalizations commenced at a fairly constant time with respect to civil twilight throughoutthe year but breeding season song started progressively earlier from the beginning through to the middle of the season then progressively later till the end of the season. Relative finishing time of breeding song however remained constant so that the duration of breeding season song gradually increased then decreased paralleling the change in starting times. A consequence of the two distinct classes of vocalizations was that there were essentially two distinct 'dawn choruses'. One, consisting of group vocals, was sung all year round; the other was given by males singing 'breeding season' song. Since there was no reason the expect that a single function would necessarily be ascribed to both choruses, this raised the possibility that some of the confusion surrounding the ftinction and nature of the 'dawn chorus' originated from a failure to recognize the existence of two such choruses. Variation in time and space showed ifirther differences between the two vocalization classes. The breeding song of each male was distinctly different from that of his neighbours and there was a marked change in the repertoire of any individual from one year to the next. In marked contrast, daytime vocalization repertoires of neighbouring groups were virtually indistinguishable and changed little from year to year. These findings, together with information from recent literature, suggested that the two song classes had a different ontogeny, function and possibly evolution. It was proposed that territory declaration was the function of dawn singing by grey butcherbird family groups but that the function most consistent with adult male dawn song was attraction of females for extra-pair copulations. It was suggested that chorusing itself was to some extent an accidental by-product of the advantage to the individual or group of singing at dawn although a recently proposed function, the social dynamics function, could not be ruled out. Further differences from the Northern Hemisphere situation were detected in subsong. First, subsong was given by birds in their first year and also by adult males. The finding of subsong in adult males was not without precedent as it has been documented previously for a small number of passerines, especially those that change repertoire from year to year. Subsong in young (first year) birds, however, was unusual in that birds practised in small groups rather than in the complete isolation usually associated with subsong. Moreover they did not practise adult male song but instead practised group daytime vocalizations. It was suggested that it was important for birds to learn to sing in company for the important task of group territory defence. Further investigation of the literature and observations during the present study revealed similar vocalization classes and behaviours in other members of the Artamidae and other endemic Australasian taxa. These literature investigations also revealed that the possession two song vocalization classes was quite widespread although they tended to be restricted (but not exclusive) to males rather than found in males and females. These findings led to furtherresearch into the significanceofAustraliain the evolution of songbirds, the role of co-operative breeding in Australianpasserines, and finally to an hypothesis for a possible origin of male bird song. It is suggested that male song arose in a social environment where the male and female were in frequent vocal communication. If the tendency to seek extra-pair copulations (EPCs) and female choice had already been incorporated into the suite of passerine behaviours, it would be necessary to avoid the mate during such activities and the male would need to advertise with a signal distinct from group vocalizations. Early dawn, with poor light conditions, could be a favourable time for these activities. Thus it is proposed that the ancestral condition was with all group members singing most vocalisations, the intermediate situation was similar to that in the grey butcherbird and the 'advanced' condition was where female and other group member vocalizations (other than calls) have dropped out and only male song remains.