Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Building materials'

The last few decades have seen unprecedented levels of change both in the production of building materials and in the ways they are deployed in building. Despite rigorous debates about materials in architecture from very different areas of theory and practice – ranging from the new materialists' critique of the concept of matter to ecological concerns with embodied energy and life cycle analysis of building materials – the extent to which these developments might demand more adequate conceptualisations of materials remains unexplored. The position this research takes is that building materials cannot be assumed to be nothing more than particular instances of matter in general – whether matter is understood in its classical philosophical hylomorphic relation to form, or as the physical substances of science. Here, the architectural specification – a document usually considered to be merely 'technical' and therefore outside theoretical enquiry – provides descriptions of building materials drawn from inside architectural practice. It yields a number of types of description – from 'naming' to the 'recipe' to performance – and the differences between these 'forms of clause' and the degree to which each is contained by or exceeds the notion of hylomorphic matter are shown to involve radically different conceptualisations of materials. Moreover, the specification makes visible the changing historical and industrial contexts that constitute its format and content. Part I sets out this variation and constructs a typology of forms of clause, and Part II studies two of them in detail. The key philosophical move derives from Gilbert Simondon's work on individuation in so far as materials are considered not as substances or as matter (as already individuated individuals) but in terms of the dynamic processes through which they are constituted (individuation). First, process-based clauses provide found descriptions of form taking in terms of such operations, and expand Simondon's account of the preparations which set up the possibility of individuation in a technical object to include statutory, social and other operations in addition to the physical ones he describes. Second, the performance clause requires us to understand how specific use (excluded by Simondon in his accounts of technical systems) might itself become preparatory in the new industrial conditions of performance-engineered materials. Part III takes up Simondon's 'complete system' of individuation and understands the variety of forms of clause as evidence of a variety of 'systems of material' which necessarily include the full range of the preparations which make possible the specific deployment of any given material in building. Furthermore, what is constituted in any individuating system is not so much an individual as the possibility of a transductive mediation between hitherto disparate realities. It is, in particular, the possibilities of new mediations that are produced in industry – between a terrorist threat and a piece of glass – in addition to more familiar ones – between a notion of form and a lump of clay for example, that demand attention and new conceptualisations. For Simondon, transduction is also a process of thought which derives problems and resolutions from within a domain rather than seeking a principle from elsewhere. If we are to understand how concepts emerge from applied practices and their productions, and not just from philosophy and science, then the transductive method has applications well beyond the question of building materials that is put into motion via the architectural specification in the process of this research.

This research project extends my creative work and unpacks my interest in the use of sonification and mapping as compositional strategies, both in my own practice and more broadly. The thesis reflects on the installed composition, 'Building Materials', synthesising a methodology for the creation of similar works by exploring research problems arising from its creation. The thesis considers the tension between the apparently objective process of mapping and the personal, intuitive, nature of creative practice. This tension establishes a space of uncertainty into which viewers can respond imaginatively to a work built on unseen mappings, granting an audience a sense of the sonified phenomenon. These themes are discussed, and two discrete terms are arrive at: 'installed composition' and 'reverse mapping'. The first contextualises my practice with a descriptor that can help an audience usefullly situate the work and by extension others similar, while the second proposes a model for reading work made using these processes that centres on the relationship between the actual mapped phenomenon and a speculative version in an audience's mind.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc
Public concern about all radiation and radon exhalation from building materials has been highlighted recently. The purpose of this study is to address this public concern and to investigate the contribution of building materials to indoor radon levels. As in soil and rocks, radon gas is formed inside the building materials by decay of the parent nuclide 226Ra. It is not possible to determine the radon exhalation rate simply from the activity concentration of 226Ra, instead one must measure radon exhalation rates directly from the surface of the material. 222Rn has been identified as an important factor that could result in a health hazard by studies all around the world. The exhalation experiments were done at the UWC physics department, in the Nuclear Physics Lab. A RAD7 radon detector was used to measure the radon concentration in an air tight chamber that contained various building material samples. The RAD7 records the number of alpha particles with energy of 6.11 MeV which results from the decay of 218Po, the daughter of 222Rn. The RAD7 detector converts counts into Becquerel’s per cubic metre (Bq/m3). The building materials tested were the raw materials used in construction such as two different types of building sand, building stones, coarse aggregate, floor and roof tiles, various granites from across the world that were sourced locally and uranium bearing sandstone originating from a Beaufort-West prospecting site. Stones from this site were used as filler material in the construction of two farm houses. Most building materials were found to have a very low rate of radon exhalation. The only materials that had any significant radon exhalation were 2 granite samples with a maximum exhalation rate of 1.5 Bq.m-2.h-1 and the uranium bearing sandstone. It is safe to say that the overwhelming majority of building materials tested are safe to use but some granites may require further study. The uranium bearing sandstone is a definite radiation protection issue and should not be used in any construction.

Post-functionalization of 3,5-bis(2-pyridyl)-4-hydro-1,2,4,6-thiatriazine (Py2TTAH) and its synthetic precursors have been explored through alkylation, arylation, and coordination. While alkylation was initially pursued at the central nitrogen atom of Py2TTAH, functionalization instead occurred on the sulfur atom. Consequently, the proclivity of the sulfur towards alkylation and arylation was studied. Neutral 3,5-bis(2-pyridyl)-S-methyl-1,2,4,6-thiatriazine (S-Me-Py2TTA) and 3,5-bis(2-pyridyl)-S-ethyl-1,2,4,6-thiatriazine were achieved via either anionic or cationic intermediates, and all isolable species were fully characterized. In addition, an aromatic derivative, 3,5-bis(2-pyridyl)-S-phenyl-1,2,4,6-thiatriazine was obtained through reactions using hypervalent iodide as an electrophile. Functionalization of Py2TTAH and S-Me-Py2TTA was also explored through coordination with iron. The synthesis and crystal structures of two different iron complexes are described. The incorporation of boron with Py2TTAH and its precursor, N-2-pyridylimidoyl-2-pyridylamidine was also considered. Both compounds afforded the same boratriazine ring. Overall, this thesis describes the groundwork for future functionalization of the Py2TTA framework, and its potential for molecular materials applications.

This research examines the environmental parameters associated with the production and delivery of building materials in the U.K. in 1991. Using primary data supplied from commercial sources, an eco-profile is produced for each material by calculating the gross inputs of energy and raw materials and gross outputs of solid waste, air and water emissions. The production sequences are traced from raw materials in the ground through to the final product and extend to include transport operations and the production and delivery of fuels and ancillary materials. The results are used to complete eco-profiles for the construction of a three bedroom bungalow house and a four bedroom two storey detached house. It is shown that per square metre of floor space, the construction of the two storey detached house produces considerable reductions in the burdens on the enviromnent. Eco-profiles are used to compare the environmental burdens associated with alternative building materials. The effect of alternative building materials on the eco-profiles of house construction is discussed. It is shown that significant reductions in the gross inputs and outputs maybe made by substituting dense concrete blocks for clay bricks.

Currently there is a growing pressure on energy efficiency for new buildings in the UK and worldwide. This has arisen partly due to the increasing awareness of the public for sustainable building construction. In addition, there is pressure on building materials manufacturers, due to new government regulations and legislations that are targeting energy usage and carbon dioxide emissions in new buildings. This research work reports on unfired clay building materials (unfired clay bricks) technology for sustainable building construction. The technology aims at the reduction of the high energy input, especially that arising from firing clay bricks in kilns. The research has investigated the use of lime or Portland cement as an activator to an industrial by-product (Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag-GGBS) to stabilise Lower Oxford Clay (LOC). Portland cement was used in the formulation of the unfired clay brick tests specimens predominantly as a control. The development of an unfired clay brick in this current work is considered by the researcher as a significant scientific breakthrough for the building industry. Another breakthrough is the fact that only about 1.5% lime was used for GGBS activation. This is a very low level of usage of lime that is not comparable to, or sufficient for, most road construction applications, where far less strength values are needed and where 3-8% lime is required for effective soil stabilisation. Hence, the final pricing of the unfired clay brick is expected to be relatively low. Industrial scale brick specimens were produced during two separate industrial trials. The first trial was at Hanson Brick Company Ltd, Bedfordshire, UK, while the second was carried out at PD Edenhall Ltd, Bridgend, South Wales, UK. The results clearly demonstrate that all key parameters such as compressive strength, thermal properties and durability were within the acceptable engineering standards for clay masonry units. From the environmental and sustainability analysis results, the unfired clay material has shown energy-efficiency and suggests a formidable economical alternative to the firing of clay building components. This study is one of the earliest attempts to compare fired and unfired clay technology, and also to combine energy use and CO2 emission for unfired clay bricks relative to those bricks used in mainstream construction. This is an attempt to come up with one parameter rating. The overall results suggest that the spinoff from this technology is an invaluable resource for civil engineers and other built environment professionals who need quick access to up-to-date and accurate information about the qualities of various building and construction materials.

This research investigates the application of the AISC Direct Analysis Method for stability bracing design of columns, beams, beam-columns and frames. Emphasis is placed on out-of-plane flange bracing design in metal building frame systems. Potential improvements and extensions to the 2005 AISC Appendix 6 stability bracing provisions are studied and evaluated. The structural attributes considered include various general conditions encountered in practical metal building design: unequal brace spacing, unequal brace stiffness, nonprismatic member geometry, variable axial load or bending moment along the member length, cross-section double or single symmetry, combined bending and axial load, combined torsional and lateral bracing from girts/purlins with or without diagonal braces from these components to the inside flanges, load height, cross-section distortion, and non-rigid end boundary conditions. The research addresses both the simplification to basic bracing design rules as well as direct computation for more complex cases. The primary goal is improved assessment of the demands on flange bracing systems in metal building frames.

An importantmatter in the field of building physics is the questioning of how wellbuildings sustain ageing, and how their overall efficiency evolves over their lifetime.Many causes for degradation are carried by moisture transfer through these porousmaterials. Indeed, infiltratedwatermay transport chemicals, altermechanical properties,and cause freeze thaw damage or mould development. It may also affect thermalproperties and energetic efficiency, as well as the health and comfort of the occupants.The understanding of how moisture transfer properties evolve during the lifespan ofbuildingmaterials is however far fromcomplete. The pore structure of amaterial itselfmay change over time, or be altered by cracks and defects caused bymechanical loadingand aggravated bymoisture-induced degradation. All sizes of fracturesmay have astrong impact on heat and moisture flow in the building envelope, and their influenceis to be accounted for in any long-termperformance assessment, not only of buildingand building components,but of any built structure in general. A considerable amountof work has already been performed in order to allow predicting the hygrothermal behaviourof buildings over longer periods of time. However, an accurate prediction of allranges of damage in a building component, from microscopic to macroscopic cracks,supposes an extensive knowledge of all damage-inducing, time-varying boundary conditionsof the problem during the simulation time. This also implies high computationalcosts, as well as important needs formaterial characterisation.As a complement to these predictive methods, a new approach was undertaken,combining experimental characterisation of crack patterns and numerical simulationsof coupled heat and moisture transfer. First, a preliminary study was conducted, consistingof measurements of the water vapour permeability of diffusely damaged constructionmaterials.This allowed identifying the experimental and numerical requirementsof the remainder of the work, which aimed at providing measurements of fracturenetwork geometries for their explicitmodelling in heat andmoisture transfer simulations.Digital image correlation and acoustic emission monitoring were then performedduring the degradation of cementitiousmaterials, in order to obtain quantitativedata on crack pattern geometries, and to assess the possibilities for damagemonitoringat the building scale. The optical technique, along with an appropriate imageprocessing procedure, was found suitable for providing precisemeasurements of fracturenetworks. Amethodwas also proposed for the interpretation of acoustic emissionrecordings in terms of damage quantification, localisation and identification.Then, a newmodel for coupled heat andmoisturemodelling in cracked porousmediawas developed, that allows including such measurements of fracture patterns intoa finite element mesh, and simulating flow accordingly. This model was validated onthe basis of experimentalmeasurements: digital image correlationwas performed duringthe fracturing of concrete samples, in which moisture uptake was then monitoredusing X-ray radiography. A good accordance was found between experimental and numericalresults in terms of 2-dimensional moisture concentration distributions. The validated code was then used for the simulation of test cases, in order to assess the hygrothermalperformance of damagedmulti-layered building components subjected toreal climatic conditions. The consequences of fractures on themoisture accumulationin walls, on the amplitude of sorption/desorption cycles and on the thermal performance,were observed.

This thesis describes the fabrication of novel green materials using nanocellulose as the building block. Bacterial cellulose (BC) was used as the nanocellulose predominantly in this work. BC is highly crystalline pure cellulose with an inherent fibre diameter in the nano-scale. A single BC nanofibre was found to possess a Young’s modulus of 114 GPa. All these properties are highly favourable for using BC as a nanofiller/reinforcement in green nanocomposite materials. In this work, the surface of BC was rendered hydrophobic by grafting organic acids with various aliphatic chain lengths. These surface-modified BC was used as nanofiller for poly(L-lactide) (PLLA). Direct wetting measurements showed that the BC nanofibre-PLLA interface was improved due to the hydrophobisation of BC with organic acids. This led to the production of BC reinforced PLLA nanocomposites with improved tensile properties. Nanocellulose can also be obtained by grinding of wood pulp, producing nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC). The surface and bulk properties of one type of NFC and BC were compared in this work. Furthermore, the reinforcing ability of NFC and BC was also studied and it was observed that there is no significant difference in the mechanical performance of NFC or BC reinforced nanocomposites. A novel method based on slurry dipping to coat sisal fibres with BC was developed to modify the surface of natural fibres. This method can produce either (i) a densely BC coating layer or (ii) “hairy” BC coated sisal fibres. Randomly oriented short BC coated sisal fibre reinforced hierarchical composites were manufactured. It was found that hierarchical (nano)composites containing BC coated sisal fibres and BC dispersed in the matrix were required to produce composites with improved mechanical properties. This slurry dipping method was also extended to produce robust short sisal fibre preforms. By infusing this preform with a bio-based thermosetting resin followed by curing, green composites with significantly improved mechanical properties were produced. BC was also used as stabiliser and nano-filler for the production of macroporous polymers made by frothing of acrylated epoxidised soybean oil followed by microwave curing.

Abstract. Radio waves interact differently with different materials. The knowledge of reflection and transmission characteristics of the electromagnetic waves through and from the building walls is the key in designing a radio propagation model. The dielectric properties of the material determine the behavior of reflection and transmission of the electromagnetic waves. Therefore, an oblique reflection model is implemented in this thesis to estimate the dielectric properties of various walls at frequency range of 0.7–7 GHz (6.3 GHz bandwidth). The measurement setup consists of a four-port vector network analyzer, two wideband dual-polarized cross-shaped Vivaldi antennas and two 8 m long coaxial cables. Measurements for parallel and perpendicular polarizations are achieved simultaneously by using the dual-polarized antennas. Time-domain gating is applied to separate the desired reflection and eliminate all other multiple reflections from the environment and to suppress the Line-of-Sight component from the delayed response. The estimation of dielectric property of a material is an optimization problem where a suitable objective function is minimized to get the appropriate value. A theoretical model is implemented, so that the minimum difference between the theoretical and measured absolute value of reflection coefficient gives an estimated value of complex relative permittivity. The non-linear least squares algorithm is used for optimization purpose. The real and imaginary part of complex relative permittivity is investigated in this thesis. The real part signifies the amount of electric energy stored in a material, and is called dielectric constant whereas the imaginary part is called the loss factor, which signifies the dissipation of the radiated energy. The estimated values are in good agreement with the values found in the literature. The estimated dielectric properties in this study, such as dielectric constant, loss tangent and Brewster angle of the various materials can be utilized further in designing radio propagation models for similar environments.

Cette thèse s'inscrit dans un objectif à long terme de déterminer in situ (et/ou en usage) les propriétés thermiques des matériaux isolants du bâtiment. Notre objectif est de réduire l'écart entre la mesure en laboratoire et la performance réelle des isolants dans les parois de bâtiments. Nous nous sommes fixés deux objectifs principaux au cours de cette étude: 1- Étudier la possibilité d'utiliser la sonde cylindre à choc thermique pour la mesure des caractéristiques thermiques des matériaux isolants du bâtiment. 2- Étudier le comportement thermique d'un isolant en usage en utilisant un montage basé sur le principe de la boite chaude gardée. Cet équipement permet d'effectuer des études dans des conditions climatiques en température et en humidité proches de situations réelles supportées par l'enveloppe d'un bâtiment. Ce travail a permis d'identifier des verrous lors de l'utilisation d'une sonde à choc thermique pour caractériser des matériaux isolants. Il a aussi montré l'intérêt de la boite chaude gardée pour effectuer des études dans des conditions réelles et pour étudier les transferts de chaleur et de masse dans les parois de bâtiments
This thesis is part of a long-term objective to determine in situ (and / or in use) the thermal properties of building insulation materials. We want to reduce the gap between the laboratory measurement and the actual performance of insulation in buildings walls. We have set two main objectives during this study: 1- To study the possibility of using a non-steady state hot probe for measuring thermal properties of insulants. 2- To study the thermal behaviour of insulation materials in use by using a guarded hot box. Climatic conditions in temperature and humidity close to real situations can be submitted supported by hot and cold cells. This work has shown the interest of using thermal probe to characterize insulating materials. Guarded hot box is also interesting for studies in real conditions and to followheat and mass transfer in buildings walls

Cette thèse s'inscrit dans un objectif à long terme de déterminer in situ (et/ou en usage) les propriétés thermiques des matériaux isolants du bâtiment. Notre objectif est de réduire l'écart entre la mesure en laboratoire et la performance réelle des isolants dans les parois de bâtiments. Nous nous sommes fixés deux objectifs principaux au cours de cette étude: 1- Étudier la possibilité d'utiliser la sonde cylindre à choc thermique pour la mesure des caractéristiques thermiques des matériaux isolants du bâtiment. 2- Étudier le comportement thermique d'un isolant en usage en utilisant un montage basé sur le principe de la boite chaude gardée. Cet équipement permet d'effectuer des études dans des conditions climatiques en température et en humidité proches de situations réelles supportées par l'enveloppe d'un bâtiment. Ce travail a permis d'identifier des verrous lors de l'utilisation d'une sonde à choc thermique pour caractériser des matériaux isolants. Il a aussi montré l'intérêt de la boite chaude gardée pour effectuer des études dans des conditions réelles et pour étudier les transferts de chaleur et de masse dans les parois de bâtiments
This thesis is part of a long-term objective to determine in situ (and / or in use) the thermal properties of building insulation materials. We want to reduce the gap between the laboratory measurement and the actual performance of insulation in buildings walls. We have set two main objectives during this study: 1- To study the possibility of using a non-steady state hot probe for measuring thermal properties of insulants. 2- To study the thermal behaviour of insulation materials in use by using a guarded hot box. Climatic conditions in temperature and humidity close to real situations can be submitted supported by hot and cold cells. This work has shown the interest of using thermal probe to characterize insulating materials. Guarded hot box is also interesting for studies in real conditions and to followheat and mass transfer in buildings walls

Bibliography: p. 119-122. Aims to show how the GB Tool (Green BuildingTool) can be used to access the environmental performance of residential building developments, with a focus on South Australia. Describes the history of, and rationale for, the GB Tool; and its practical implementation. Identifies some theoretical short comings of the GB Tool, as well as some practical difficulties with using it.

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Locally available building materials are proven energy efficient and eco-friendly, making them a sustainable building material. In the last two decades, use of raw earth as building material is augmented, owing to the environmental concerns construction industry is also reconsidering the use of raw earth, researchers on the other hand are working to understand the mechanical and dynamic behaviour of earthen buildings, yet the study of mechanical parameters possess multiple challenges due to material inert properties exposing the need of new experimental approaches to extract accurate mechanical parameters. Building techniques such as adobe, compressed earth blocks, rammed earth, and laterite building stones are on a verge of reclaiming elite position in construction industry. In this study, experimental investigation on two naturally available building materials, unstabilised rammed earth (USRE) and laterite building stones (LBS) are carried out. The work focuses on the parameters that need to be considered in the experimental procedures, which influences the mechanical properties of USRE and LBS are seen. The locally available soils in the region of Rhone-alps, France and laterite building stones from Burkina Faso are used in this experimental campaign. Rammed earth walls are constructed by compacting moist soil in layers, due to manufacturing technique there is a density gradient within the layer that leads to heterogeneity. On the other hand, the manufacturing parameters of the USRE such as compaction energy and manufacturing water content have a direct influence on the dry density of the material and therefore the strength. The manufacturing parameters and specimens replicating the in-situ condition are very important to understand the behaviour of USRE wall. Hence an experimental procedure to study the unconfined compressive strength, considering the influence of manufacturing parameters and specimens replicating in-situ conditions are performed along with the cyclic loading and unloading to study the elasto-plastic property of the USRE. The test procedure is performed on two different soils that are used to build USRE structures. Along with the compressive strength of USRE, the tensile strength and flexural strength are also presented by subjecting specimens under split tensile test and four point bending test. Another important parameter is the mechanical strength properties of USRE layer interface under lateral loads. A novel experimental procedure to study the interface strength properties are discussed in this study. The experimental procedure is simple and xii compact that can be performed using a simple uniaxial press using inclined metallic wedges that allows rectangular prism to undergo bi-axial loading. With the help of inclined metallic wedges, shear stress and normal stress can be induced on the specimen interface allowing to obtain coulomb’s failure criteria and hence the strength properties of the interface. Laterite building stones (LBS) which are mainly used in tropical countries are porous in nature. The moisture retention capacity of porous building material will bring indoor comfort, but the presence of water molecules within the material and their variation to the outdoor environment is responsible for complex mechanical behaviour. Hence an experimental investigation to analyse the moisture ingress of LBS and their influence on mechanical strength is designed. The moisture ingress is studied by subjecting LBS for moisture sorption and desorption test and moisture buffering test. Then the influence of moisture ingress on mechanical strength (flexure and compression) are investigated using three point bending test and unconfined compression test with loading and unloading cycles. This experimental investigation allows studying the moisture ingress and their influence on strength along with elasto-plastic behaviour of LBS

As a result of increasing population and buildings construction in Saudi Arabia, the demand for electricity is growing rapidly. There should be a greater focus on build-ings in the kingdom and several methods should be applied in order to reduce en-ergy consumption and create a lower carbon economy as residential buildings ac-count for about 70 percent of the total consumption. Saudi Arabia therefore ur-gently needs to develop residential buildings which use less energy and are more environmentally-friendly. This study investigates the recent situation of Saudi residential buildings in terms of energy and building materials, using case studies. The main aim of this study is to identify suitable strategies and propose a number of recommendations that are useful in developing residential buildings in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This paper shows the importance of selecting the right, locally available, construc-tion materials for the external wall and thermal insulation in reducing energy con-sumption for the cooling load, by 59% after using the most appropriate construction materials for Saudi climate. Several methods were used in this research including IES energy simulation software in order to compare the most common external walls in the kingdom in terms of energy consumption and cooling load. Then, add-ing and selecting the right place for 0.50 m of polyurethane thermal insulation to the selected external wall to achieve the maximum reduction of cooling load. It uses the example of a typical Saudi house design provided by the Saudi ministry of housing in three main cities in the kingdom: Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam. Fur-thermore, the paper discusses the challenges facing the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in recent years and those of the future, such as a lack of the awareness amongst the Saudi population, and a lack of building standards and regulations.

As new promising alternatives, novel bio-based materials are already developed to apply in construction sectors due to biodegradability, low toxicity, sustainability, renewability, and acceptable general properties. However, their flammability and need to guarantee a low fire risk in the constructions is also an essential factor to restrict their further application. This thesis focused on investigation of bio-based material with good flame-retardant performance and corresponding flame-retardant mechanism. The detailed investigation was developed by following stages: synthesis of bio-based flame retardant and its application in PLA; effect of bio-based flame retardant on the fire resistance and other properties of natural fiber reinforced PLA. Finally, the smouldering and combustion performances of the bio-based thermal insulation material made from natural fiber were studied as well. 1) On basis of bio-based concept, PA and THAM were selected as raw material to synthesize a novel flame retardant and the chemical structure was confirmed via some characterizations. Afterwards, this synthetic product PA-THAM was employed as an efficient flame retardant to PLA by melt mixing. This binary system showed an improvement in flame retardancy, which was achieved by a combination of heat transfer effect, slight dilution and barrier action. For example, only 3 wt% loading of PA-THAM imparted PLA-based biocomposite LOI value of 25.8% and UL 94 V-0 level, as well as a significant self-extinguishing ability was observed. Besides, the molten viscosity of biocomposite also demonstrated more reduction compared with neat PLA due to the lubrication of PA-THAM, while there was little change in the mechanical properties. 2) PA-THAM and corn pith cellulose (OCC) were combined via in-situ modification and used to prepare a PLA-based biocomposite. After OCC was modified by PA-THAM successfully, which was proved by SEM/ EDS, FTIR, and TGA, the effect of PA-THAM on thermal stability and fire behaviors of PLA-based composite were also investigated accordingly. 5 phr addition of PA-THAM enabled this natural fiber reinforced polymer biocomposite (NPC) to illustrate a 50 °C higher temperature at maximum degradation rate than control sample without additive, and an improvement was also obtained in flame retardant properties with an increase of LOI value, a reduction of PHRR, and more char residue. The predominant flame-retardant mechanism focused on the synergistic effect of PA-THAM and OCC that occurred in condensed phase. Besides, the same level introduction of PA-THAM improved the interfacial affinity between PLA and OCC that maintained good mechanical properties as well. 3) A bio-based thermal insulation material was made from corn pith cellulose, alginate, and bio-efficient flame retardants. After introducing these bio-based additives, the smouldering and flaming combustion behaviors were improved significantly. Compared with the reference sample, thermal insulation particleboard with 8 wt% loading of a mixture of PA-THAM and a sodium borate salt (DOT) increased the initial temperature of smoldering ignition by 70 ºC, and meanwhile, the value of PHRR in flaming combustion decreased by 25.5%. Furthermore, the thermal conductivity was hardly affected, while the temperature at which the maximum thermal degradation occured increased. The correlative flame retardant mechanism was attributed to a synergistic effect from both flame retardants, which promoted a formation of more stable charring layer at initial stage.
Los materiales de base biológica ofrecen una alternativa prometedora para aplicaciones en el sector de la construcción, debido a que se trata de materiales biodegradables, renovables y de baja toxicidad. Sin embargo, su capacidad de inflamar y la necesidad de mantener un bajo riesgo frente a incendios en los edificios es un factor esencial para restringir su posterior aplicación. Esta tesis se ha centrado en el desarrollo de materiales de base biológica con buen comportamiento frente al fuego y la investigación de los mecanismos de los retardantes de llama involucrados. La investigación se desarrolló en tres etapas que se detallan a continuación. 1) Partiendo del concepto de base biológica, se seleccionaron PA y THAM como materias primas para sintetizar un nuevo retardante de llama y la estructura química se confirmó mediante la caracterización del compuesto resultante. Posteriormente, este producto sintético PA-THAM se empleó como un retardante de llama eficiente para PLA mediante mezcla fundida. Este sistema binario mostró una mejora en la resistencia al fuego, que se logró mediante una combinación de los efectos de transferencia de calor, ligera dilución y acción barrera. Por ejemplo, con sólo un 3% en peso de carga de PA-THAM se logró un valor de LOI de 25,8% del compuesto de PLA y un nivel UL 94 V-0, así como una capacidad de autoextinción significativa. Además, la viscosidad fundida del biocompuesto también se redujo en relación a la del PLA puro debido a la lubricación ejercida por el PA-THAM. Por otro lado, la adición del retardante ocasionó pocos cambios en las propiedades mecánicas. 2) El retardante basado en PA-THAM y la fracción fina obtenida triturando la médula de maíz (OCC) se combinaron mediante modificación in situ y se usaron para preparar un biocompuesto basado en PLA. La médula de maíz fue modificada con éxito con el PA-THAM, la cual cosa se demostró por SEM / EDS, FTIR y TGA, el efecto de PA-THAM sobre la estabilidad térmica y el comportamiento al fuego del material compuesto a base de PLA también fueron investigados. La adición de 5 phr de PA-THAM permitió a este biocompuesto reforzado con fibras naturales (NPC) alcanzar una temperatura 50 °C más alta en el punto de degradación máximo comparado con la muestra de control sin aditivo. También se obtuvo una mejora en el comportamiento al fuego con un aumento del valor de LOI, una reducción del pico máximo del ritmo de liberación de calor (PHRR), y una mayor formación de residuo carbonizado. El mecanismo ignífugo predominante se centró en el efecto sinérgico del PA-THAM y la OCC que ocurrió en la fase condensada. Además, el mismo nivel de introducción de PA-THAM mejoró la afinidad interfacial entre PLA y OCC que también mantuvo buenas propiedades mecánicas. 3) Se prepararon muestras de un material de aislamiento térmico de base biológica a partir de médula de maíz, alginato y retardantes de llama de origen biológico. La adición del retardante de llama de base biológica logró mejorar significativamente el comportamiento al fuego, y el fenómeno de combustión sin llama (smouldering). En comparación con la muestra de referencia, el panel aislante con una carga de 8% en peso de una mezcla de PA-THAM y una sal de borato de sodio (DOT) aumentó la temperatura inicial a la que se produce la combustión sin llama en 70 ºC y, permitió reducir el valor de PHRR en un 25.5%. Además, la conductividad térmica apenas se vio afectada, mientras que la temperatura a la que se produce el valor máximo de degradación térmica aumentó notablemente. El análisis del mecanismo de acción de los retardantes reveló la existencia de un efecto sinérgico de ambos retardantes de llama, que promovió la formación de una capa de carbonización más estable en la etapa inicial.

Environmental issues have gained importance due to global environmental threat, such as depletion of energy resources and the impacts of climate change. The building sector is responsible for almost half of the impacts on the environment. Hence, this study focuses on the importance of environmental impacts of building materials. In this regard, firstly, sustainability indicators for building materials were determined and the environmental impacts of selected building materials were studied. Then, the evaluation system BREEAM and the evaluation software BEES were selected and used to evaluate one block of bachelor flats and one of housing units in ODTUKENT, which is located in the Middle East Technical University campus in Ankara, Turkey. Building materials used for the construction of walls, floors and roofs were evaluated according to the indicators accepted by BREEAM and BEES. The results for both units were compared and it was seen that the block of bachelor flats takes lower ratings than the triplex unit for BREEAM and also lower values for BEES. Therefore, the block of bachelor flats has less environmental impact than the triplex unit. While evaluating the materials an exact match for all the materials used in the case buildings could not be found in these tools. Hence, it was not possible to exact results for these materials. In this regard, countries should determine their own evaluation indicators and develop their evaluation systems.

The thermal and structural performance of building elements can be significantly impaired by the presence of excess moisture. At present, designers have available only simplistic steady-state techniques to predict such effects, for example that presented by Glaser in 1959. These simple models recognise moisture transport in vapour form only and do not allow information on material moisture content to be obtained directly. They are also based on the assumption that the material transport properties are independent of the prevailing environmental conditions, whereas they are in fact complex functions of parameters such as relative humidity. This research has been carried out to develop a set of model equations which account for both liquid and vapour transfer through porous structures, and which enable material moisture content profiles to be produced. The equations generated in this work are transient and enable the effects of moisture and thermal capacity to be considered. An experimental investigation has also been carried out to produce a methodology which can be used to obtain the required material properties. These equations and material properties have been combined with realistic boundary conditions to produce a finite difference model which enables simple wall structures to be analysed in terms of temperature, vapour pressure, relative humidity, moisture content and moisture flow rate. The use of this FORTRAN 77 computer code is illustrated by application to traditional and timber-framed wall constructions. The results illustrate the applicability and flexibility of such an approach and confirm the importance of its further development in the future.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering; and, Thesis (M.B.A.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, 1998.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 111-114).
by Maia A. Hansen.
M.B.A.
S.M.

Робота публікується згідно наказу ректора від 21.01.2020 р. №008/од "Про перевірку кваліфікаційних робіт на академічний плагіат у 2019-2020 навчальному році". Керівник проекту: доцент, к. геол.-мін. н. Дудар Тамара Вікторівна.
Object of research – Horodenkivske deposit of brick raw materials in Ivano-Frankivsk region, as a threat to the ecology of society, mining industry. Aim оf work – assessment of technogenic loads and the analysis of ecological safety. Mehods of research: estimation by type and amount of expected waste, emissions (discharges), water, air, soil and subsoil pollution, noise, vibration, light, heat and radiation pollution, as well as radiation resulting from preparatory and construction work and planned activities.

Робота публікується згідно наказу ректора від 21.01.2020 р. №008/од "Про перевірку кваліфікаційних робіт на академічний плагіат у 2019-2020 навчальному році". Керівник проекту: доцент, к. геол.-мін. н. Дудар Тамара Вікторівна.
Object of research – Horodenkivske deposit of brick raw materials in Ivano-Frankivsk region, as a threat to the ecology of society, mining industry. Aim оf work – assessment of technogenic loads and the analysis of ecological safety. Mehods of research: estimation by type and amount of expected waste, emissions (discharges), water, air, soil and subsoil pollution, noise, vibration, light, heat and radiation pollution, as well as radiation resulting from preparatory and construction work and planned activities.

Modern indoor environments contain a vast array of contaminating sources. Emissions from these sources produce contaminant concentrations that are substantially higher indoors than outside. Because we spend most of our time indoors, exposure to indoor pollutants may be orders-of-magnitude greater than that experienced outdoors. Phthalate esters have been recognized as major indoor pollutants. They are mainly used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility of polyvinylchloride (PVC) products, as well as in humectants, emollients, and antifoaming agents. Phthalates are found in a wide range of consumer products including floor and wall coverings, car interior trim, floor tiles, gloves, footwear, insulation on wiring, and artificial leather. Because these phthalate additives are not chemically bound to the polymer matrix, slow emission from the products to the surrounding air or other media usually occurs. Biomonitoring data suggest that over 75% of the U.S. population is exposed to phthalates. The ubiquitous exposure to phthalates is of concern because toxicological investigations have demonstrated considerable adverse health effects of phthalates and their metabolites. Studies have shown that exposure to phthalates results in profound and irreversible changes in the development of the reproductive tract, especially in males, raising the possibility that phthalate exposures could be the leading cause of reproductive disorders in humans. In addition, effects such as increases in prenatal mortality, reduced growth and birth weight, skeletal, visceral, and external malformations are possibly associated with phthalate exposure. Epidemiologic studies in children also show associations between phthalate exposure in the home and the risk of asthma and allergies. Given the ubiquitous nature of phthalates in the environment and the potential for adverse human health impacts, there is a critical need to understand indoor emissions of phthalates and to identify the most important sources and pathways of exposure. In this study, a model that integrates the fundamental mechanisms governing emissions of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from polymeric materials and their subsequent interaction with indoor surfaces and airborne particles was developed. The emissions model is consistent with analogous mechanistic models that predict emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from building materials. Reasonable agreement between model predictions and gas-phase di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) concentrations was achieved for data collected in a previously published experimental study that measured emissions of DEHP from vinyl flooring in two very different chambers. The analysis showed that while emissions of highly volatile VOCs are subject to “internal“ control (through the material-phase diffusion coefficient), emissions of the very low volatility SVOCs are subject to “external“– control (through partitioning into the gas phase, the convective mass transfer coefficient, and adsorption onto interior surfaces). Because of the difficulties associated with sampling and analysis of SVOCs, only a few chamber studies quantifying their emissions from building materials and consumer products are available. To more rigorously validate the SVOCs emission model and more completely understand the mechanisms governing the release of phthalate from polymeric building materials, the emission of DEHP from vinyl flooring was studied for up to 140 days in a specially-designed stainless steel chamber. In the duplicate chamber study, the gas-phase concentration in the chamber increased slowly and reached a steady state level of 0.9 µg/m3 after 30 days. By increasing the area of vinyl flooring and decreasing that of the stainless steel surface in the chamber, the time to reach steady state was significantly reduced, compared to the previous study (1 month vs. 5 months). The adsorption isotherm of DEHP on the interior stainless steel chamber surface was explicitly measured using two different methods (solvent extraction and thermal desorption). Strong adsorption of DEHP onto the stainless steel surface was observed and found to follow a simple linear relationship. In addition, parameters measured in the experiments were then applied in the fundamental SVOCs emission model. Good agreement was obtained between the predictions of the model and the gas-phase DEHP chamber concentrations, without resorting to fitting of model parameters. These chamber studies have shown that the tendency of SVOCs to adsorb strongly to interior surfaces has a very strong influence on the emission rate. Compared to the experimental chamber systems, however, the real indoor environment has many other types of surface that will adsorb phthalates to different extents. The emission rate measured in a test chamber may therefore be quite different to the emission rate from the same material in the indoor environment. For this reason, both a two-room model and a more representative three-compartment model were developed successively to estimate the emission rate of DEHP from vinyl flooring, the evolving gas-phase and adsorbed surface concentrations, and human exposures (via inhalation, dermal absorption and oral ingestion of dust) in a realistic indoor environment. Adsorption isotherms for phthalates and plasticizers on interior surfaces, such as carpet, wood, dust and human skin, were derived from previous field and laboratory studies. A subsequent sensitivity analysis revealed that the vinyl flooring source characteristics, as well as mass-transfer coefficients and ventilation rates, are important variables influencing the steady-state DEHP concentration and resulting exposures. A simple uncertainty analysis suggested that residential exposure to DEHP originating from vinyl flooring may fall somewhere between about 5 µg/kg/d and 180 µg/kg/d. The roughly 40-fold range in exposure reveals the inherent difficulty in using biomonitoring results to identify specific sources of exposure in the general population. This research represents the first attempt to explicitly elucidate the fundamental mechanisms governing the release of phthalates from polymeric building materials as well as their subsequent interaction with interior surfaces. The mechanistic models developed can most likely be extended to predict concentration and exposure arising from other sources of phthalates, other sources of other semi-volatile organic compounds (such as biocides and flame retardants), as well as emissions into other environmental media (food, water, saliva, and even blood). The results will be of value to architects, governments, manufacturers, and engineers who wish to specify low-emitting green materials for healthy buildings. It will permit health professionals to identify and control health risks associated with many of the SVOCs used in indoor materials and consumer products in a relatively inexpensive way.
Ph. D.

The ever-increasing awareness of global warming has made the building industry startlooking for alternative building solutions in order to meet the changing demands. Thesechallenges have given rise to organization which aim to go further and construct moresustainable alternatives in the form of Ecovillages. This thesis is conducted in collaborationwith Bysjöstrans Ekoby and aims to investigate what type of organic alternatives exist andhow they perform in building elements.The study was carried out through a comparative LCA where a base case construction forboth roof and wall was established. Followed by comparing different organic materials toeach other and the base case materials in order to determine low-impact materials. The goalwas to replaces as many layers within the structure such as insulation, structure, roofcladding, façade, wind and vapor barrier.This was later followed by combing the materials together in order to identify whichalternative construction options would perform the best in regard to greenhouse gasemissions (CO2 eq kg) and primary energy use (MJ).The results of the study show that the performance or organic materials vary significantly.Whit a lot of materials being better but also worse than traditional materials. It showed thatfor internal wall and roof surface adding clay plater can reduce the GHG emission with 68%, timber frame with 98 %, façade with 43 %, roof cladding with 93 %, vapor barrier with76 % and insulation with 79 %. The best preforming construction option could reduce thebase case emission with 68 %.

Thesis (MTech (Construction Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017.
The study investigates the predominant factors responsible for increase in the cost of building materials and the effect of this cost increase on housing delivery in Western Cape, South Africa. Sustainable housing is buildings produced to meet the present housing needs of people without conceding the ability of the future generation to meet their future needs. However, a significant increase in the cost of building materials has been a major constraint to the delivery of sustainable housings, as made evident in the literature, leading to project cost and time overruns or even project abandonment. However, building materials consume up to 65% of the total cost of construction. This factor on cost has, over the years, threatened the ability of the construction industry to deliver projects within budgeted cost, at stipulated time, and at satisfactory quality. This prompted the need to proffer solutions to these factors identified which are causing increases in the cost of building materials towards sustainable housing delivery in Western Cape. Based on this research study, housing is termed to be sustainable when it is available and affordable for the masses timely and at quality expected. The research study adopted a mixed methodological approach, involving the use of semi-structured qualitative interviews and closed-ended quantitative questionnaires administered to construction stakeholders (architects, quantity surveyors, engineers, construction managers, project managers, site supervisors and material suppliers) in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. SPSS version 24 software was used for analysing the quantitative data collected and ‘content analysis’ method was used to analyse the information collected through the qualitative interviews. The findings revealed that the major factors responsible for increasing the cost of building materials are inflation, wastages of building materials by labourers, cost of transportation and distribution of labour, design changes, client contribution to design change and change in government policies and regulation. Moreover, the research showed that fluctuation in the cost of construction and high maintenance costs due to poor workmanship also impact the cost increase of building materials for housing delivery. In addition, research findings affirmed that for optimum materials usage for the enhancement of sustainable construction, the following criteria should be considered in the selection of building materials: maintenance cost, energy consumption and maintainability. The adoption of these findings by construction stakeholders in the South African construction industry would enhance the delivery of affordable housing at reduced cost, at the required time and at the expected quality. Therefore, an adequate implementation of the framework presented in this study will enhance sustainable housing delivery.

Five projects improve understanding of how to use PCM to reduce building cooling energy. Firstly, a post-installation energy-audit of an active cooling system with PCM tank revealed an energy cost of 10.6% of total cooling energy, as compared to an identical tankless system, because PCM under%cooling prevented heat rejection at night. Secondly, development of a new taxonomy for PCM cooling systems allowed reclassification of all systems and identified under-exploited types. Novel concept designs were generated that employ movable PCM units and insulation. Thirdly, aspects of the generated designs were tested in a passive PCM sail design, installed in an occupied office. Radiant heat transfer, external heat discharge and narrow phase transition zone all improved performance. Fourthly, passive PCM product tests were conducted in a 4.2 m3 thermal test cell in which two types of ceiling tile, with 50 and 70% microencapsulated PCM content, and paraffin/copolymer composite wallboards yielded peak temperature reductions of 3.8, 4.4 and 5.2 °C, respectively, and peak temperature reductions per unit PCM mass of 0.28, 0.34 and 0.14 °C/kg, respectively. Heat discharge of RACUS tiles was more effective due to their non-integration into the building fabric. Conclusions of preceding chapters informed the design of a new system composed of an array of finned aluminium tubes, containing paraffin (melt temperature 19.79 °C, latent heat 159.75 kJ/kg) located below the ceiling. Passive cooling and heat discharge is prioritised but a chilled water loop ensures temperature control on hotter days (water circulated at 13 °C) and heat discharge on hotter nights (water circulated at 10 °C). Test cell results showed similar passive performance to the ceiling tiles and wallboards, effective active temperature control (constant 24.6˚C air temperature) and successful passive and active heat discharge. A dynamic heat balance model with an IES% generated UK office’s annual cooling load and PCM temperature%enthalpy functions predicted annual energy savings of 34%.

Abstract The present project has been developed on two distinct lines of work related to the use of biomacromolecules, in particular polysaccharides, to give special purpose hybrid materials. The first is related to preparation of calcite based materials that can potentially replace cement, the second concerns the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. I) Calcite-based biocomposite material with special mechanical properties The production of building materials is essentially related to cement production. Although cement is a material characterized by the ability to quickly hydrate and to convert into a highly mechanical stress and weather agent resistant material, its production is very ancient and polluting. In fact, the raw material consists of cement minerals which are treated at very high temperatures (1450 °C) with consequent development of CO2 which is a widely diffused greenhouse gas. Moreover, heat treatment is very expensive in terms of electricity and fossil fuel consumption. For these reasons the development of new building materials, involving mild condition chemical processes and renewable raw materials, is highly desirable for human development. Object of this investigation is the innovative preparation and evaluation of materials based on calcium carbonate and biopolymers as alternative to cement. In this formulation calcium carbonate will be used without any heat treatment, avoiding the energy demanding and pollutant decarboxylation process. Our purpose is to find a formulation in which a natural polymer, interacting with calcium carbonate granules induces a mechanical reinforcement in the composite material, that will be measured by mechanical compression stresses. The work consisted in finding the right ingredients of the formulation, which should have a consistency similar to that of mortar. A number of polysaccharides, anionic and neutral, were tested for their capacity to interact with calcite lattice. In particular carboxylated polysaccharides with high density charge such as: carboxymethylcellulose with substitution degree (DS) 2, sodium alginate, and chondroitin sulfate, were chosen. Interestingly chondroitin sulfate resulted as promising agent in improving the mechanical properties of calcium carbonate based material, in addition this hybrid material was able to raise the mechanical resistance of a concrete. 4 II) Biomacromolecules coated iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis and properties In the first year of PhD course I’ve worked on hybrid materials for biomedical application: nanoparticles are nowadays a new important object of studies of medicinal chemistry and different scientists collaborate in order to mix their skills: biologists, engineers , and chemists. The goal was to synthesize nanoparticles with an appropriate size for the human tissue and with small size dispersion, with a shell made by two components biological matrix: a polysaccharide and a protein, these should ensure tissue biocompatibility and biological activity. In detail, the aim of the project is to prepare bovine serum albumin (BSA) and hyaluronic acid (HA) coated SPIONs (BSA-HA@Fe3O4), to characterize them, load them with drugs and chemosensitizers; the hybrid nanoparticles will be evaluated in their performance in selective drug delivery for cancer cells, and in diagnostic localization of tumors in vivo. The adduct between nanoparticles composed by magnetite (Fe3O4) or maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) and biomacromolecules, hyaluronic acid (HA) and albumin (BSA), were obtained using dopamine (DA) to covalently bind these macromolecules to the surface of the nanoparticle iron oxide core. The prepared product is an iron oxide nanoparticle surrounded by HA and BSA macromolecules as ligands, which act stabilizing the superstructure, anti-cancer targeting and drug delivery.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Tufts University, 2003.
Adviser: Daniel C. Jansen. Submitted to the Dept. of Civil Engineering. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-152). Access restricted to members of the Tufts University community. Also available via the World Wide Web;

The purpose of this research is to examine how The Natural Step Framework, combined with Life Cycle Assessment and Ecological Footprint could help to manage the sustainability challenges of construction materials in China and to consider how these tools and concepts might inform each other in combination. Based on a literature review regarding the current reality of building materials in China and industry experience with use of existing sustainability concepts and tools, we build a conceptual model to integrate the three above concepts and attempt to analyse how they could work better together in the management of a sustainable transition. We then analyse the likely strengths and limitations of such an integrated model and finally use this to inform a vision of a sustainable future for building materials, discussing how the model may help China move towards sustainability.

Sweden has as the first welfare state signed the petition of having net zero GHG emissions 2045. The construction industry is a large contributor to Sweden’s current GHG emissions and an action plan signed by several construction companies, including Veidekke, has stated several partial goals and one end goal of a construction industry with net zero emissions 2045. At the same time the demand of new residential houses is high. The choice of material affects the GHG emissions during the entire lifetime, making it a key parameter when planning a construction. 80 % of the emissions during a construction origin from the production of the materials used. The R&D intensity in the construction industry is low and the sector is ruled by a high level of competition and low margins. This thesis aimed to investigate more sustainable building materials for bearing parts of multifamily houses, how they compare with conventional materials and challenges facing them. The materials investigated was compared to a reference wall with KPI:s from one construction made by Veidekke. The GHG emission from the reference wall was calculated to be 107 kg CO2-eq/m2wall. The materials were evaluated with the method of Industrial Dynamics to investigate salient and reverse salient properties, lock-ins and important stakeholders. The materials investigated were Cross-laminated timber (CLT) and different types of sustainable concretes. Creating timber concrete hybrids were also explored. CLT currently has a small market share but is a promising material with several beneficial properties. The current development of more sustainable concrete resulted in the investigation of Recycled Aggregates Concrete, Alkali Activated Concrete and the Eco-concrete with reduced amount of cement in favor for limestone powder. A second step was to explore the social and economic challenges for integrating new building materials into the construction industry. As the industry is heavily project based, the timeframe and lack of budget to explore new options acts as barrier. The processes also tend to be repetitive. As of now the industry has made itself path dependent to concrete in a large extent. However, the social acceptance towards CLT is rising and making sustainability a strategic business goal is becoming more important to appeal to the customers. Interviews at Veidekke showed the rising interest of mixing timber and concrete, but also the difficulties of pushing development forward in the industry.  The materials and their KPI:s resulted in the further investigation of CLT and Eco-concrete. By stating the salient and reverse salient properties of the materials further analysis could be done. CLT showed the greatest reduction of GHG emissions due to the embodied carbon resulting in a negative GHG emission of -66.2 kg CO2-eq/m2wall. In addition to this the construction time and several other beneficial properties were found. The reduction of GHG emissions of the Eco-concrete is great too, about 50 % comparing with the concrete used in the reference wall. As a concrete the Eco-concrete should also face less barriers as the industry is familiar with the product. Further analysis with tools from industrial dynamics showed the importance of creating incitements for developing the knowledge of a sustainable construction industry. Results also showed that new networks between the manufactures and the building sector is of essence to find and use new materials. Timber and concrete industries have the main responsibility of developing new and more sustainable products. The building sector also have a responsibility of choosing sustainable options. Advocating a diversity of solutions will create a more robust and resilient industry with fewer lock-ins and path dependencies occurring today.  The key stakeholders identified from stakeholder mapping was the business developers, the department of purchase, the timber and concrete industry and lastly the customers. Business developers need to pursue projects with clear and tough goals of sustainability. This will increase the chance of succeeding. The department of purchase need to have incitements for mapping sustainable materials and the ability to explore new subcontractors. The results of the analysis show that not a single innovation will solve the goal of having a construction industry with net zero emissions 2045. The key innovation opportunities for CLT is to develop a standardization and modularization comparable with the concrete industry. Improving the fire safety of CLT is also of essence and the development of fire proofing plasterboards and insulation could be a solution. Further research on modified design mixing and the usage of pozzolanic materials like limestone in concrete is also an important way forward. Constructing timber concrete hybrids have also raised great potential both in the literature, analysis and from the interviews to simplify the integration of timber into the market.
Sverige har som första välfärdsland skrivit under avtalet om att ha netto-noll utsläpp av växthusgaser 2045. Byggsektorn bidrar till en betydande del av Sveriges nuvarande utsläpp. En färdplan utformad och godkänd av flera byggbolag, däribland Veidekke, innehåller flera delmål och det slutgiltiga målet av en byggsektor med netto-noll utsläpp 2045. Samtidigt är behovet av nya bostäder stort. Valet av byggmaterial påverkar utsläppet från en byggnad under hela livstiden vilket gör det till en nyckelparameter vid planeringen av en nybyggnation. 80 % av utsläppen under konstruktionsfasen har sitt ursprung från tillverkningen av byggnadsmaterialen. Samtidigt är forsknings- och utvecklingsintensiteten i byggsektorn låg, marginalerna små och konkurrensen hög. Denna rapport hade avsikt att undersöka mer hållbara byggmaterial för de bärande delarna av flervåningshus, hur de mäter sig med konventionella material samt utmaningar som möter dem. Undersökta material jämfördes med en referensvägg från ett av Veidekkes byggen med hjälp av nyckeltal. Denna referensvägg beräknades att ha ett CO2-utsläpp på 107 kg CO2e/m2vägg. Med hjälp av metodik från industriell dynamik kunde sen materialen utvärderas baserat på deras egenskaper, flaskhalsar i byggsektorn undersökas samt viktiga parter för att implementera nya material analyseras. Material som undersöktes var korslimmat trä samt olika typer av miljövänlig betong. Möjligheterna till hybrider av betong och trä inspekterades också. Korslimmat trä har i nuläget en liten marknadsandel men är ett lovande material med flera positiva egenskaper. Forskning kring mer miljövänlig betong förde analysen till att undersöka återvunnen betong, alkaliaktiverad betong och en Eko-betong med lägre andel cement till fördel av kalksten. Efter detta undersöktes sociala och ekonomiska barriärer för att integrera mer hållbara material i byggsektorn. Då byggsektorn till stor del är projektbaserad, med begränsad tid och budget, försvåras integrationen av nya material. Processerna i projekten tenderar också att bli repetitiva med låg nivå av återkoppling. Som sektorn är utformad idag är den till stor del beroende av betong. Däremot ökar ständigt den sociala acceptansen kring korslimmat trä och analysen visade vikt vid att transformera hållbarhet till ett strategiskt affärsmål för att behaga kunder med ökande miljömål. Intervjuer genomförda på Veidekke visade det ökande intresset av hybrider av trä och betong, men också svårigheterna i att driva utveckling framåt i byggsektorn.  Analys av materialen och deras nyckeltal resulterade i en vidare analys av korslimmat trä samt Eko-betongen. Korslimmat trä gav den största reduktionen av växthusgaser. En yttervägg producerad i korslimmat trä beräknades till att ha ett negativt utsläpp på -66.2 CO2e/m2vägg. Förutom detta påvisades flera positiva egenskaper för materialet gällande konstruktionstid, livstid och tekniska egenskaper. Reduktionen av CO2-utsläpp från Eko-betongen var också god, drygt 50 % mindre jämfört med den betong som användes i referensväggen. Eftersom Eko-betongen är just en betongvariant bör den möta färre barriärer än korslimmat trä då hela värdekedjan i byggsektorn är bekant med betong, dess egenskaper och möjligheter. Vidare analys med hjälp av industriell dynamik påvisade behovet av incitament för att utveckla kunskap kring vad hållbart byggande är samt behovet av att utveckla nya nätverk mellan tillverkare och beställare för att hitta och använda nya material i processen. Timmer- och betongindustrier har det största ansvaret att utveckla nya och mer hållbara material. Samtidigt läggs stor vikt på byggsektorn att välja mer hållbara material. Att förespråka en byggsektor med en mångfald av lösningar kommer att utveckla en mer robust och anpassningsbar miljö med färre flaskhalsar än idag. Nyckelparterna för integrationen är affärsutvecklare, inköpare, trä- och betongindustrierna samt kunderna. Affärsutvecklare måste bedriva projekt med klara och höga miljömål för att öka chansen att lyckas. Inköpare behöver incitament för att kartlägga hållbara material och få utrymme att undersöka nya underleverantörer. Resultatet av analysen visar att ingen enskild innovation kommer kunna lösa problematiken och uppnå en byggsektor med netto-noll utsläpp 2045. Nyckelmöjligheterna för korslimmat trä är att utveckla en standard och modularisering gällande produkten. Förbättra brandskyddet för korslimmat trä är också av hög prioritet och där kan utvecklingen av brandskyddande gipsskivor och isolering vara en lösning. Vidare forskning på modifierad blandning av betong och egenskaper för puzzolana material är också en viktig del framåt. Byggnation av hybrider i trä och betong har också visat stor potential både i litteraturstudien, analysen och från intervjuer på Veidekke. Detta ses som en god möjlighet för att förenkla integrationen av trä till byggsektorn.

Energy storage using organic phase change materials (PCMs) has attracted significant attention in recent years for renewable energy utilization in building materials. PCMs are capable of storing and releasing a large amount of latent heat during their phase transitions. Paraffin (PA), a eutectic mixture (EM) of capric acid (CA) and lauric acid (LA) and butyl stearate (BS) have been selected as PCMs for this work due to their melting temperatures being close to human comfort temperature, 17 - 28 oC. Plaster (PL) as a building material is chosen due to its ease of construction into plaster boards and also because it is a good insulator against heat and sound. The most significant concern when using an organic PCM is its flammability. This research sets out to determine the effect of using PCMs in PL on the product’s flammability, and whether it is possible to use carrier materials and/or flame retardants to reduce their flammability while maintaining the thermal energy storage properties. Three techniques of incorporation of PCMs into PL are used to address this question. The first one is to immerse PL into hot melted PCMs using a vacuum impregnation method. The PCM however, could easily leak to the surface of PL, particularly when the temperature is above the melting temperature of PCM and also their high flammability evaluated using cone calorimetry was a limiting factor to pursuance of this route. The second method is a direct incorporation technique, i.e. adding PCM directly to PL. With this method also the leakage of PCMs was observed and all samples ignited, though the flammability parameters were less intense than those observed when the immersion method was used. To prevent the leakage of PCM and to improve the consistency of organic PCM with building materials, form-stable PCMs composites are used in the third method. Carrier materials, namely nanoclay (NC), diatomaceous earth (DE), expanded perlite (EP), fly ash (FA) and brick dust (BD) were selected to adsorb and retain the PCMs in their pores. SEM (scanning electron microscope) demonstrated that PCMs were uniformly adsorbed in most of the carrier materials. DSC (differential scanning calorimeter) used to measure the thermal properties of PCMs showed that when these form stable composites were added to PL, they acted as PCMs, although the latent heat values were reduced. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) results demonstrates that the PCMs’ decomposition was not affected by the presence of carrier materials or PL. Cone calorimetry showed that the use of carrier materials had minimal effect on the flammability of PCMs. To evaluate the thermal energy storage performance, a small environmental chamber was used, i.e. a small test “room” of PL with dimensions of 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm and thickness 10 mm was set up using 6 pieces of PL. The top board of the cubic room contained PCM, and the temperature differences between the surfaces of control PL and modified PL were recorded during heating and cooling of the room. The results from heating and cooling cycles showed that the PCMs and form stable-PCM composites reduced the peak temperature and delayed the time taken to release the stored energy, the values depending on the percentage of PCMs used. To reduce the flammability of PCMs while maintaining their energy storage performance, two approaches have been undertaken: (i) use of expanded graphite (EG) as a flame retardant carrier- material and (ii) use of a liquid flame-retardant, resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP). The results demonstrated that the flame retardant did not affect the energy storage performance of the PCM. While RDP was not effective on a PA containing PL sample, the flammability of a PL+BS sample was significantly reduced with the addition of EG and RDP.

There is increasing concern regarding the indoor air quality of energy efficient buildings. Indoor air pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates, commonly found in buildings, can be harmful to human health. Interior materials are known to be one of the main contributors to poor indoor air quality. There is a need to develop natural materials and systems in order to minimise the level of indoor air pollutants, or even reduce them to near zero through the use of VOC-free emitters and exploitation of the sink effect for airborne pollutants. Natural building materials are considered to possess low embodied energy and are environmentally-friendly. The aim of this research was to investigate the physical and chemical interactions between natural building materials and VOCs in new or refurbished buildings (e.g. dwellings, offices, hospitals, schools and retail outlets). Key to this was the identification of low VOC emission materials with the added benefit of passively improving the indoor air quality. Comprehensive chemical and physical characterisation of materials was undertaken in order to understand the mechanisms involved in the capture of VOCs by three classes of natural building materials: insulation, coatings and wood panels. In order to understand the interactions between VOCs and building materials, adsorption and desorption experiments were carried out in laboratory-scale environmental chambers and in a real size room with a volume of 30 m3, all with controlled temperature, relative humidity and air flow-rate. Four organic pollutants commonly found in indoor environments were selected for this study according to their physico-chemical properties: formaldehyde, toluene, limonene and dodecane. In the first stage of this research, TVOC and formaldehyde emissions from 18 commercially available natural building materials were analysed (six insulation materials, six coatings and six wood-based panels). These materials included natural wool, hemp fibres, wood fibres, gypsum, lime mortars, clay-based plasters and wood-based plasters. Four of these materials were selected to investigate their adsorption and desorption behaviour towards the selected organic pollutants. It was observed that, in general, all natural building materials showed very low, or even zero, VOC emissions. In the case of formaldehyde, this organic pollutant was found to be emitted by the wood-based panels due to the formaldehyde-based resins used to glue the wood fibres. In the case of coated wood panels, the resin impregnated paper coating was shown to act as a barrier to formaldehyde emission and as a result this showed lower emission levels compared to an equivalent uncoated material. With regard to the adsorption and desorption behaviour it was observed that highly porous materials such as lime mortar and MDF panels have good capacity to remove VOCs and formaldehyde from the indoor air due to their high surface area. They allow the diffusion of the organic pollutants through their bigger pores. Natural wool, classed as an insulation material, showed good affinity to adsorb formaldehyde due to chemisorption by the proteins present in the fibres. The later stages of this research involved the investigation of the adsorption/desorption behaviour of newly developed natural building materials incorporating bio-based additives with optimised capacity to remove VOCs from the air. The incorporations were as follows: walnut shell within MDF panels; hemp sheaves, pumice and brick powder within clay-based plasters; and cellulose flakes, natural wool and photocatalytic TiO2 particles within lime mortar. The combination of two materials was also used because of the affinity of each material with different VOCs, for example the incorporation of natural wool in a lime mortar formulation. The outcomes of this research demonstrate that, if careful consideration is given to materials selection when constructing a new building or during a refurbishment process, the old judgment “building materials are the main contributors to a poor indoor air quality” is not true. This is achieved by selecting materials with low- or zero-VOC emissions and with the capacity to remove organic pollutants from the indoor air. Therefore, these materials contribute to a better indoor air quality by releasing low or negligible emissions and by facilitating the removal of airborne pollutants.

An exploration of the relationship between man and the elements, fire and water, this project futher develops these ideas by way of the imagination. Man's attempt to form further connections with these elements is often seen as an act of humanization. It is, however, these investigations that allow for such intimate relationships between humans and elements.

This project is a fire station that demonstrates the impact fire and water has on man as well as the impact man has on fire and water. Whether the gentle flame of a candle or the ferocious explosions of a volcano, the clear flowing stream or the passionate throes of the ocean, man finds both companionship and challenge in the elements. Man's manipulation of both fire and water enable materials to extend the limit of their properties. It is this control over elements that enables architecture.
Master of Architecture