Academic literature on the topic 'Brigalow'

Acacia harpophylla F. Muell. (brigalow) used to naturally occur over a range of about 50 000 km2 in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Large scale clearing for agriculture has reduced the area to less than 20 000 km2 and it is estimated that 20–25% of vertebrate fauna living in brigalow communities will become locally extinct as a result of the current clearing induced loss of habitat. Some coal mining companies in central Queensland have become interested in providing habitat for the endangered bridle nail-tailed wallaby that lives in brigalow vegetation. However, there is little known about establishment techniques for brigalow on mine sites and other disturbed ground; an understanding of brigalow biology and ecology is required to assist in the conservation of this threatened vegetation community and for re-creation of bridled nail-tail wallaby habitat in the post mining landscape. Brigalow is an unusual species of Acacia because it is not hard-seeded and germinates readily without the need to break seed-coat imposed dormancy. Germination trials were undertaken to test the ability of brigalow seed to germinate with a range of temperatures and salinity levels similar to those experienced in coal mine spoil. Optimum germination was found to occur at temperatures from 15 to 38°C and no germination was recorded at 45°C. Brigalow was very tolerant of high salt levels and germinated at percentages greater than 50% up to the highest salinity tested, 30 dS/m. Germination of greater than 90% occurred up to an electrical conductivity of 20 dS/m. The results indicate brigalow seed can be sown in summer when rains are most likely to occur, however, shading of the seed with extra soil or mulch may ensure the ground surface does not become too hot for germination. Because of its ability to germinate at high salinity levels, brigalow may be suitable for use in saline mine wastes which are common on sites to be rehabilitated after mining.

The reproductive performances of herds of Belmont Red (BR) and Hereford (H) breeding females were compared at Narayen Research Station in south-eastern Queensland on cleared and sown brigalow land (Brigalow) and on native speargrass pastures with trees killed (Speargrass). The conception rates (BR, 83%; H, 83%) and calving rates (BR, 80%; H, 78%) were similar, but BR calves grew faster (P<0.001) than H calves especially on Speargrass where BR had a 13% advantage. The mean calving date of H was 13 days earlier than BR (18 days on Speargrass; 7 days on Brigalow). Values for the weight of calfweaned per cow mated for BR and H respectively were 195 kg and 181 kg on Brigalow, and 155 kg and 140 kg on Speargrass. Breed x pasture-type interactions were significant for cow weight, time of calving and calf weight-for-age at weaning. There were significant effects of pasture type on animal performance. Compared with Speargrass, cows on Brigalow were heavier, they calved earlier and their calves grew faster. Production, measured as weight of calf weaned, was 3 times higher on Brigalow than on Speargrass per unit area and 30% higher per cow mated.

In Queensland, Australia, large tracts of native vegetation have been cleared for agriculture, resulting in substantial hydrological changes in the landscape. Australia’s longest-running paired catchment study, the Brigalow Catchment Study (BCS), was established in 1965 to monitor hydrological changes associated with land development, particularly that of the 1960s Land Development Fitzroy Basin Scheme. The BCS has unequivocally shown that developing brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) for cropping or for grazing doubles runoff volume. However, to date little research had been undertaken to quantify the changes in peak runoff rate when brigalow is cleared for cropping or grazing. The present study compared peak runoff rates from three brigalow catchments, two of which were subsequently cleared for cropping and pasture. Prior to land development, average peak runoff rates from the three brigalow scrub catchments were 3.2, 5 and 2mmh–1 for catchments 1 to 3 respectively. After development, these rates increased to 6.6mmh–1 from the brigalow scrub control catchment (catchment 1), 8.3mmh–1 from the cropping catchment (catchment 2) and 5.6mmh–1 from the pasture catchment (catchment 3). Peak runoff rate increased significantly from both the cropping and pasture catchments after adjusting for the underlying variation in peak runoff rate due to climatic variation between the pre- and post-development periods. The average peak runoff rate increased by 5.4mmh–1 (96%) for the cropping catchment and by 2.6mmh–1 (47%) for the pasture catchment. Increases in peak runoff rate were most prevalent in smaller events with an average recurrence interval of less than 2 years under cropping and 4 years under pasture.

AbstractPlant biodiversity is threatened by habitat loss, fragmentation and invasion by exotic species, but the effects of these disturbances on individual plant species are rarely quantified. Since the 1950s, brigalow Acacia harpophylla forests in Australia have been extensively cleared and converted to pastures dominated by exotic grasses. Here we assess the habitat requirements, population numbers and threats for four poorly known bush tomato species, Solanum adenophorum, Solanum dissectum, Solanum elachophyllum and Solanum johnsonianum. Herbarium records and surveys demonstrated a strong association of all four species with brigalow habitat, although S. elachophyllum also occurred in other habitat. We derived historical and current population estimates from plant densities at current sites and the area of mapped brigalow habitat. Density estimates are imprecise because the survey data vary greatly, but the assessment indicates the populations of all four species have declined > 93%. Solanum dissectum and S. johnsonianum did not persist in cleared brigalow habitat, whereas S. adenophorum and S. elachophyllum had some capacity to persist in clearings. None of the species occur where the exotic grass cover is > 40%. Between 27% and 57% of the records of the four species are in brigalow remnants with a high edge-to-area ratio or open canopy (< 50% cover), making them highly vulnerable to invasive grasses. We recommend the categorization of S. dissectum and S. johnsonianum as Critically Endangered, S. adenophorum as Vulnerable and S. elachophyllum as Near Threatened.

The Golden-tailed Gecko, Strophurus taenicauda (De Vis 1886), is redescribed and two new subspecies from centralQueensland are diagnosed on the basis of scalation, colour pattern and genetic differences. The distribution of S. t. taeni-cauda comprises the south-eastern part of the Queensland Brigalow Belt bioregion. Strophurus taenicauda albiocularisssp. nov. occupies the northern half of the range whilst S. taenicauda triaureus ssp. nov. has a limited range in the centraleastern part of the Brigalow Belt. The two new subspecies are predominantly inhabitants of Eucalyptus woodlands andare not as restricted to Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) woodlands as S. t. taenicauda. A single record of the nominate subspecies from northern New South Wales is also reported, extending the range of the species by >250km.

The Brigalow Catchment Study (BCS) was established to determine the impact on hydrology when brigalow land is cleared for cropping and grazing. The paired catchment study was commenced in 1965 using catchments of approximately 15 ha, with natural vegetation dominated by brigalow scrub (Acacia harpophylla). Three contiguous catchments were selected near Theodore in central Queensland to represent the extensive brigalow bioregion of central and southern Queensland and northern New South Wales (~40 Mha). The hydrology of the 3 catchments was characterised during a 17-year calibration period (1965–81). The catchments were considered hydrologically similar, with sufficient data available for an empirical comparison between catchments. In 1982, two of the catchments were cleared, with one developed for cropping and the other sown to improved pasture. The third catchment was used as an uncleared control. Hydrologic characteristics were then compared for the following 21 years. In their virgin state, the catchments behaved similarly, with average annual runoff being 5% of annual rainfall. Once cleared, total runoff from the cropping catchment increased to 11% of annual rainfall and total runoff from the pasture catchment increased to 9% of annual rainfall; however, timing of the individual runoff events varied between land uses. In order to confirm that changes in hydrology were a function of land use and not just seasonal variability or sampling error, several analytic techniques were used: a simple comparison of runoff totals, comparison of events, comparison of probability of exceedance for daily runoff, and comparison of predicted and observed runoff using a water balance modelling approach.

Soil and land-management interactions in Australian native-forest regrowth remain a major source of uncertainty in the context of the global carbon economy. We sampled soil total organic C (TOC) and soil total N (TN) stocks at 45 sites within the Brigalow ecological community of the Brigalow Belt bioregion, Queensland, Australia. The sites were matched as triplets representing three land uses, specifically: uncleared native brigalow forest (‘Remnant’); grassland pasture (‘Pasture’), derived by clearing native vegetation and maintained as pasture for a minimum of 10 years, and; regrowing native brigalow forest (‘Regrowth’, stand ages ranging from 10 to 58 years) that had developed spontaneously after past vegetation clearing for pasture establishment. Soil TOC fractions and natural abundance of soil C and N isotopes were examined to obtain insight into C and N dynamics. An updated above- and belowground carbon budget for the bioregions was generated. Average soil TOC stocks at 0–0.3-m depth ranged from 19 to 79 Mg ha–1 and soil TN stocks from 1.8 to 7.1 Mg ha–1 (2.5th and 97.5th percentiles, respectively). A trend in stocks was apparent with land use: Remnant > Regrowth ≅ Pasture sites. Soil δ13C ranged from –14 to –27‰, and soil δ15N ranged from 4‰ to 17‰, in general reflecting the difference between Pasture (C4-dominated) land use and N2-fixing (C3-dominated) Remnant and Regrowth. Mid-infrared spectroscopy predicted C fractions as a percentage of soil TOC stock, which ranged from 5% to 60% (particulate), 20–80% (humus) and 9–30% (resistant/inert). The geo-referenced soil and management information we collected is important for the calibration of C models, for the estimation of national C accounts, and to inform policy developments in relation to land-resource management undertaken within the Brigalow Belt bioregions of Australia.

This paper describes a long-term, paired-catchment study, its broad findings, and considerations for future resource management of brigalow lands in north-eastern Australia. The Brigalow Catchment Study (BCS) commenced in 1965 with a pre-clearing calibration phase of 17 years to define the hydrology of 3 adjoining catchments (12–17 ha). After 2 catchments were cleared in 1982, 3 land uses (brigalow forest Acacia harpophylla, cropping, and grazed pasture) were monitored for water balance, resource condition and productivity, providing information for scientific understanding and resource management of the major land uses of the brigalow bioregion. In addition, this paper draws upon several project reviews to highlight the value of the BCS as an ‘outdoor laboratory’, its data resource, and to reflect on the study’s scientific rigor to support present and future value. An assessment of the BCS against national and international attributes of best practice for long-term studies showed the study to rate highly in aspects of design, implementation, monitoring, and data management, and moderately in formal publication, strategic management, and networking. The literature shows that Brigalow Catchment Study is the longest paired-catchment study in Australia, and continues to sample the interactions between climate, soils, water, land use, and management. Finally, this paper provides the context for component-specific papers on changes in hydrology, productivity, and salt balance. Results from the study to date include: a doubling of runoff after clearing, a reduction in wheat yield by more than 60% over 20 years, a halving of pasture availability 3 years after clearing, a decline in cattle liveweight gain of 4 kg/ha.year over an 8-year period with a constant stocking rate, and the leaching of 60% of the root-zone (0–1.5 m) chloride after clearing for cropping. Unanticipated applications of the data from the study include: (i) a crucial set of soil samples for calibration of the RothC soil carbon model used to estimate Australia’s soil carbon emissions; and (ii) estimates of deep drainage as a basis for salinity risk assessment in the region.

A new species of diplodactylid gecko in the genus Strophurus Fitzinger, from central Queensland, Australia, is described herein as Strophurus trux sp. nov. It is similar to the recently described Strophurus congoo Vanderduys from north Queensland and apparently shares a habitat preference for Triodia hummock open woodlands. It is notably different from the latter in possessing a vivid yellow to golden eye. It is only known from one small area of the Brigalow Belt Bioregion, although it is expected to occur more widely than the one area in which it has been found. It is likely that it is endemic to the Brigalow Belt Bioregion.

Large tracts of brigalow (Acacia harpophylla F. Muell. ex Benth. Mimosaceae) vegetation once covered the Queensland Brigalow Belt. Over the last century, a significant reduction in brigalow coverage has taken place (> 90%), primarily a result of land clearing for agricultural development. Despite significant loss of brigalow and its associated biodiversity, potential exists for reversing the loss, avoiding further land degradation and promoting sustainable agricultural production, through the establishment of brigalow-cropping systems. Such land-use systems are characterised by deliberate integration of stands of regrowth and remnant brigalow vegetation with areas of dryland cropping. This landscape ecology study increased knowledge and understanding of brigalow-cropping systems using two complementary investigative approaches: (1) a conventional, reductionist, quantitative approach; and (2) a holistic, qualitative approach. The first approach was used to investigate brigalow-cropping systems from agronomic, hydrological and ecological perspectives. These perspectives provided insight into aspects of brigalow-cropping system function, structure and composition. The second approach looked at brigalow-cropping systems from the Goethean perspective. This latter perspective sought to understand brigalow-cropping systems on a ‘whole-of-paddock’ basis. Each perspective constituted a discrete study, with the studies done on properties located in the Tara Shire of south-east Queensland. Specifically, the agronomic perspective looked at tree-crop competition adjacent to stands of regrowth and remnant brigalow. It found that young brigalow regrowth (< 5 years since last disturbance) did not have a negative impact on adjacent cropping. However, older brigalow regrowth (> 10 years since last disturbance) and remnant brigalow vegetation had a significant, detrimental impact on adjacent production, with tree-crop competition zones ranging from 12–47 m. Both field measurements and simulation modelling (using the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator, APSIM) suggested that reduced yield adjacent to brigalow stands was mainly due to competition for soil water. It was concluded that from a short-term economic viewpoint, integration of brigalow vegetation with dryland cropping generally incurs a production cost. The hydrological perspective investigated determinants of deep drainage and evidence for increased deep drainage in brigalow-cropping systems. Based on plant water extraction patterns, plant available water capacities, and the temporal distribution of active green leaf material, it was reasoned that the highest rates of deep drainage are likely to occur under annual cropping; followed by regrowth brigalow and remnant brigalow vegetation. Supporting evidence for relative differences in deep drainage rates was found in soil chloride data. At one site in particular, chloride leaching had occurred following the clearing of brigalow vegetation and an eleven-year period of annual cropping. On this basis it was inferred that rates of deep drainage under cropping were greater than those occurring under adjacent regrowth and remnant brigalow. The ecological perspective looked at the floristic and structural characteristics of regrowth and remnant brigalow vegetation, in order to improve understanding of brigalow community development and ecological values in brigalow-cropping systems. It found that brigalow communities tend to follow the inhibition model with respect to their floristic development, with Acacia harpophylla being the dominant woody species. Structural development in these communities is best characterised by changes in tree cover, shrub cover, grass cover and litter cover. Overall, a considerable difference was observed between regrowth and remnant brigalow in terms of floristics and structure. At least 100 years of post-disturbance vegetation development is required before 90% of the floristic and structural characteristics of remnant brigalow will be recovered. It was concluded, however, that the ecological value of regrowth brigalow stands should not be discounted; as they provide important habitat for both flora and fauna and are a means for increasing native vegetation cover in agricultural landscapes. The Goethean perspective looked at brigalow-cropping systems as a ‘whole’, rather than focusing on one particular element. This perspective sought to appreciate and describe a brigalow-cropping system (at the paddock scale), in qualitative, holistic terms; based on a method developed by the German poet, playwright and natural scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The insights and understanding obtained from application of the Goethean method complemented the quantitative, analytical understanding of brigalow-cropping systems acquired from the agronomic, hydrological and ecological studies. In particular, holistic, qualitative understanding was used to redesign a brigalow-cropping system in a single paddock in a manner that was sensitive to the ‘character’ of the landscape. The two approaches to scientific investigation (quantitative and qualitative), and the insights they generated, were brought together in brigalow-cropping scenario analysis. Eight different brigalow-cropping scenarios were developed and evaluated at the paddock scale. These scenarios were derived from the present-day status quo, a conventional approach to land-use redesign and the Goethean method. A series of analyses were done to investigate economic versus ecological trade-offs for the different scenarios. These analyses were based on results from the agronomic, hydrological and ecological studies. The economic variable calculated for each scenario was total paddock yield (tonnes); while the ecological variables were deep drainage minimisation area (ha), native habitat area (ha) and total number of woody species (weighted index). Although deep drainage minimisation area is, strictly-speaking, a hydrological variable, for the trade-offs analysis it was considered an ecological variable, given its importance in terms of promoting the long-term health of agricultural landscapes. Using simple numerical analysis to evaluate the four variables altogether, it was found that a brigalow-cropping design directed at enhancing hydrological and ecological outcomes produced the ‘best’ result in terms of economic versus ecological trade-offs. With this particular design, a decrease in total paddock yield was offset by substantially greater gains in deep drainage minimisation area, native habitat area and total number of woody species. In contrast, a design directed at enhancing agricultural production produced the ‘worst’ trade-offs result. In the case of this latter design, an increase in total paddock yield was offset by relatively greater reductions in deep drainage minimisation area, native habitat area and total number of woody species. Overall, this thesis shows that production losses due to the integration of brigalow vegetation with cropping, can be substantially offset by ecological gains. Hence, it is worthwhile for landholders to investigate opportunities for integrating regrowth and remnant brigalow stands with dryland cropping. It is recommended that in the design of brigalow-cropping systems, conventional socio-economic and ecological considerations should be borne in mind. However, it is also important to look towards a broader range of qualitative landscape values and novel land-use conceptualisations. It is suggested that a multi-faceted approach, based on both conventional and Goethean methods for land-use redesign, will assist with the development of brigalow-cropping systems that promote the revitalisation, long-term health and sound management of fragmented landscapes; throughout the Tara Shire and the greater Brigalow Belt.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith School of Environment
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The estimation of runoff volume and peak runoff rate has been the focus of significant hydrological research worldwide. The results of these studies, usually in the form of empirical relationships or models, are intrinsically linked to the environment in which the study was conducted. This often limits the applicability and accuracy of the method of runoff estimation at alternative and ungauged locations. Within the brigalow belt of central Queensland, Australia, a scarcity of stream gauging stations to measure runoff volume and peak runoff rate has impeded research on the surface water hydrology of the region. Intermittent failure of these stations and consequently, multiple periods of missing data, have added further complexity and challenge to the understanding of catchment hydrology in the region. Commencing in 1965 and continuing today, the Brigalow Catchment Study in central Queensland has measured both runoff volume and peak runoff rate from three small catchments which initially contained native brigalow scrub. The natural hydrology of the three catchments was characterised during a 17-year calibration period from 1965 to 1981. In 1982, two of the three catchments were cleared, with one developed for cropping and one developed for improved pasture, while the third was retained as an uncleared control catchment. Study of the effect of land development on surface hydrology commenced in 1984. Twenty-one years of record was used to quantify the changes in peak runoff rate associated with land development. Results however, were confounded by missing data. To allow for robust analysis, estimates of missing data were generated via three different methods: (1) multiple variable regression analyses; (2) Soil Conservation Service curve number and graphical peak discharge methodologies; and (3) a simple variable infiltration rate model. The suitability of each technique for the estimation of peak runoff rate was assessed using both graphical and numerical evaluation.
Thesis (Masters)
Master of Philosophy (MPhil)
Griffith School of Engineering
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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[Abstract]: Agricultural intensification, involving habitat fragmentation and modification, typically leads to a decline in biodiversity and ecosystem function. While most studies concentrate on remnant patches, the less intensively managed components of agricultural landscapes may also provide biodiversity values and ecosystem services. This study examines the contribution of different categories of land management to biodiversity and ecosystem function along a gradient of agricultural intensification. Differences within these land management categories are also examined. Research results are interpreted in the broad context of ecosystem services and their resilience in agro-ecosystems.

Terrestrial catchments adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef have undergone extensive anthropogenic modification over the last 150 years, including substantial land clearing and land use change. From 1996 to 2006, rates of land clearing in Queensland were among the highest in the world. More than 60% of this clearing occurred within the Brigalow Belt bioregion, which includes 98% of the Fitzroy Basin and 46% of the Burdekin Basin, both of which drain directly into the Great Barrier Reef lagoon. This land clearing and land use change has led to increased pollutant loads of nutrients, sediment and pesticides entering the Great Barrier Reef, which adversely impact the survival of this precious ecosystem. Agricultural land use is currently the largest contributor to pollutant loads. The effects of land clearing and land use change on runoff in the Brigalow Belt bioregion are well documented. Long-term research has shown clearing of virgin brigalow scrub for cropping or grazed pasture has doubled runoff irrespective of land use. Peak runoff rates doubled when land was cleared for cropping and increased by 50% when cleared for grazed pasture. The short-term effects of land clearing and land use change on land resources such as soil fertility were also documented, but the long-term implications were not. It was unclear how these changes in hydrology and soil fertility as a result of land clearing and land use change impacted water quality. Contemporary water quality investigations seeking to address this question are confounded by multiple issues. For example, climatic variability in central Queensland is large, so long-term monitoring is essential to develop true systems understanding. Short-term, three-to-five-year monitoring programs often fail to capture extremes in climate, so findings may not translate temporally. Broad-scale land clearing in the Brigalow Belt bioregion of central Queensland commenced in the 1960s and was generally considered to have ceased in 2006. As such, contemporary water quality data sets, while reflective of current catchment condition, likely provide little insight into the magnitude of change in water quality immediately post clearing due to multi-decadal lags between clearing and monitoring. Larger catchment scale water quality studies can be further confounded by mixed land use within a catchment and mixed land management within a single land use. Both scenarios make it difficult to separate land use effects on water quality from land management effects on water quality, with one likely to mask the effects of the other. When broad-scale land clearing in the Brigalow Belt bioregion of central Queensland commenced in the 1960s, changes in hydrology and soil fertility were anticipated. In order to determine the effects of this land clearing and land use change on hydrology, soil fertility and productivity, the Brigalow Catchment Study was initiated in 1965. The subsequent data collected from this long-term paired, calibrated catchment study provided an opportunity to determine the impacts of land clearing and land use change on water quality. The use of long-term data from paired catchments of a single land use, that have been monitored for hydrological and soil fertility change since prior to clearing, resolves many of the confounding factors common to contemporary water quality studies. This study of the effects of land clearing and land use change on water quality had four objectives as follows: 1) To determine the impact of changing land use from virgin brigalow scrub into a crop or pasture system on runoff water quality; 2) To evaluate whether clearing of brigalow scrub for cropping or grazing would alter the dynamics of soil organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and potassium over time; 3) To determine the impact on water quality of managing grazing land by varying stocking rate; and 4) To determine the impact of managing grazing land with tebuthiuron, a herbicide used for broad-scale woody weed control in grazing systems, on water quality. All four of these objectives were priority knowledge gaps of the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan 2017-2022, the 2017 Scientific Consensus Statement and their predecessors. Long-term water quality modelling indicated that changing land use from virgin brigalow scrub to cropping or grazing increased loads of total suspended solids, total and dissolved inorganic phosphorus, and ammonium nitrogen. The well-managed (unfertilised) pasture system had less nitrogen in runoff compared to runoff from virgin brigalow scrub. In years when runoff occurred from the agricultural catchments, but no runoff occurred from the virgin brigalow scrub, water quality loads were entirely anthropogenic and totally attributable to land use change. These changes in water quality were modelled by extrapolating data collected at least 17 years after land clearing and land use change. During this 17-year period, significant nutrient fluxes occurred within the surface 0.1 m of the soil profile associated with clearing, burning and subsequent agricultural production. These fluxes, in particular the nine-fold increase in ammonium-nitrogen, the eight-fold increase in nitrate-nitrogen and the two to three-fold increase in bicarbonate- and acid-extractable phosphorus immediately after clearing likely resulted in extremes in water quality loads and pollutant concentrations compared to that observed in later years. The effect of managing grazing land by varying stocking rate was greater than that of changing land use from virgin brigalow scrub to conservatively grazed pasture. Heavy grazing of improved pasture more than tripled runoff, peak runoff rate and total suspended solids loss compared to conservatively grazed pasture. Loads of total suspended solids, nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff were also greater from heavy than conservative grazing. The effect of land management on water quality was most easily determined where the input to the system was entirely anthropogenic, such as broad-scale application of herbicide. Unlike nutrients, with no confounding natural input, herbicide loss in runoff was entirely contingent on herbicide use. Tebuthiuron loss in runoff was primarily in the dissolved phase with no correlation to total suspended solids. Concentrations of tebuthiuron in runoff declined exponentially with time, cumulative rainfall and cumulative runoff. The new knowledge of the effects of land clearing, land use change and land management on soil fertility and runoff water quality generated in addressing the four objectives of this thesis has been extended, both spatially and temporally, by its inclusion in models for Great Barrier Reef catchments. This modelling estimates the effects of land management on water quality from catchments such as the Fitzroy Basin. Specifically, the research presented in this thesis has underpinned the design, calibration and validation of models at both the paddock and catchment scales as part of the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan 2017-2022. This new body of knowledge has also been used to guide the development of regulations for protection of the Great Barrier Reef. These regulations were the focus of a 2020 senate inquiry, during which new knowledge from this thesis was presented in both written submissions and given as evidence.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Eng & Built Env
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
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