Academic literature on the topic 'Brachylaima'

The edible land snail Cornu aspersum, native to the Mediterranean coastlines of North Africa, is widely distributed on most continents and often invasive in areas where introduction is recent. This species could contribute to the geographic spread of parasites as demonstrated for Brachylaima spp. These cosmopolitan trematodes may represent a threat to human health, like in Australia where Brachylaima cribbi infects humans. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time the occurrence of Brachylaima spp. in two French populations of C. aspersum, Thorigné-Fouillard (Ille-et-Vilaine), and Arçais (Deux-Sèvres), with an overall prevalence of 10.4% (Thorigné-Fouillard) and 73.3% (Arçais), respectively and a metacercarial intensity on average three times higher in Thorigné-Fouillard (37) than in Arçais (11). Cornu aspersum may act as a first and second intermediate host, as demonstrated in Arçais. The morphometrics of metacercariae, particularly the great body length about 2 mm, discriminate our Brachylaima species from those already described in C. aspersum (B. cribbi in Australia, and B. aspersae, B. llobregatensis and B. mascomai in Europe). Molecular analysis, based on 28S and COI, suggests the occurrence of two species in our study, one of which is probably Brachylaima mesostoma, an intestinal parasite of passeriform birds described in Central Europe. We underline the need for further research to identify species of Brachylaima in France and measure the health hazard of consuming field-collected snails.

Brachylaimids are parasitic trematode fluke worms that have a terrestrial life cycle involving land snails and slugs as the first and/or second intermediate hosts for the cercarial and metacercarial larval stages. A wide range of mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians are the definitive hosts for the adult worm. Brachylaima spp. have been reported from most continents including Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America and Australia. There are over 70 described species in the genus with seven species indigenous to Australia. Although Brachylaima spp. are a cosmopolitan terrestrial trematode they have not been recorded to infect humans other than the three Brachylaima cribbi infections reported in two children and an adult from South Australia.

AbstractAn epidemiological survey of 1688 free-ranging raccoons (Procyon lotor) captured on the Japanese main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu and Kyushu was undertaken to determine whether Baylisascaris procyonis, which provokes fatal neurological larva migrans was present; however, the worm was not detected in any of these individuals. A helminthological investigation was carried out on 229 of the captured racoons and the following worms obtained: Toxocara tanuki, Porrocaecum sp., Molineus legerae, Ancylostoma kushimaense, Aonchotheca putorii, Centrorhynchus sp., Centrorhynchus bazaleticus, C. elongatum, Plagiorhynchidae gen sp., Hemiechinosoma sp., Metagonimus takahashii, M. miyatai, Euparyphium sp., Plagiorchis muris, Brachylaima sp., and Taenia hydatigena. These were the first records of Porrocaecum sp., M. miyatai, Brachylaima sp. and T. hydatigena obtained from Japanese feral raccoons. Scanning electron microscopic and/or molecular analyses were performed for both T. tanuki and T. hydatigena as these helminths both have a zoonotic counterpart amongst their families.

SUMMARYThe Brachylaimoidea are digenean parasites of vertebrates, including humans, domestic animals, poultry and wild game. Numerous Brachylaimoidea, particularly adults ofBrachylaimaandLeucochloridium, are difficult to identify to species. We provide and analyse sequences of two nuclear (18S rDNA, ITS2) and two mitochondrial (CO1, ND1) DNA loci of central European species of the Brachylaimoidea, namelyLeucochloridium holostomum, Leucochloridium paradoxum, Leucochloridium perturbatum, Leucochloridium subtilis, Leucochloridium vogtianum, Urotocus rossitensis, Urogonimus macrostomus, Michajlovia migrata, Leucochloridiomorpha lutea, Brachylaima arcuatus, Brachylaima fuscataandBrachylaima mesostoma. We identified three clades in the genusLeucochloridium, which do not correspond to the previously suggested subgeneraNeoleucochloridium, PapilloleucochloridiumandLeucochloridium. We reject classification ofUrotocusandUrogonimusin Leucochloridiinae, and, instead, re-establish the subfamilies Urotocinae and Urogoniminae. We synonymize the genusRenylaimawith the genusBrachylaima. We rejectM. migrataas a member of Leucochloridiinae sensu stricto or Brachylaimidae suggested by some previous authors. We found that the previously sequencedGlaphyrostomumsp. does not cluster with any hitherto sequenced Brachylaimidae. We also provide comparative measurements of the examined central European Brachylaimoidea, address the the specificity of their localization in the host and discuss their host-specific prevalence and intensity of infections based on the extensive dataset of birds examined in 1962–2015.

We found that parasitic worms were widespread in the study Galliformes of Uzbekistan. The total helminth infection rate in domestic and wild Galliformes was 50.5%. 43 species of helminths belonging to cestodes, trematodes and nematodes were identified in infected birds. For the first time for the helminth fauna of Uzbekistan, we recorded 3 species of trematodes (Brachylaima fuscatus, Collyriculum faba and Echinostoma miyagawai) and 10 species of nematodes (genera: Capillaria, Aonchotheca, Ascaridia, Heterakis, Dispharynx, Streptocara, Tetrameres, Diplotriaena and Splendidofilaria). In our collected materials, representatives of the Cestoda class were represented by 10 common and widespread species. The Trematoda class was represented by 11 species in the study territory. Two species Brachylaima fuscatus (Rudolphi, 1819) and Cоrrigia corrigia (Braun, 1901) were first recorded in the Himalayan snowcock; and Echinostoma miyagawai Ichii, 1932 in the partridge in the mountainous territories of Central Uzbekistan. The Nematoda class was characterized by the greatest species diversity in Galliformes of Uzbekistan – we recorded 22 species. Among them, Diplotriaena perdicis Sonin et Spassky, 1958; Splendidofilaria gvozdevi Sonin et Baruś, 1978; and Splendidofilaria papillocerca (Lubimov, 1946) were recorded by us for the first time for Galliformes.

Data on trematodes (Trematoda) of the Siberian Cipmunk (Tamias sibiricus) in Magadan Oblast are presented. Four trematode species of the two families (Plagiorchiidae Lühe, 1901 (Plagiorchis vespertilionis (Müller, 1780); Pl. elegans (Rudolphi, 1802), Pl. eutamiatis (Schulz, 1932), and Brachylaimidae Goyeux et Folay, 1930 (Brachylaima recurva (Dujardin, 1845)) are identified. An illustrated description of all the four species of trematodes, first noted in the Chipmunk in the North-East of Russia, is given.

Los estudios que sobre ciclos biológicos de Tremátodos Digénidos de la familia Brachylaimidae Joyeux et Foley, 1930 se lleva a cabo desde hace ya años en el Departamento de Parasitología de la Facultad de Farmacia de la Universidad de Barcelona nos condujeron, en su día, al inicio del presente trabajo destinado a prestar una pequeña contribución al conocimiento de la bionomía de una especie concreta de Trematodo perteneciente a la familia anteriormente citada: Brachylaima ruminae Mas-Coma et Montoliu, 1985. El ciclo evolutivo de esta especie de Digénido ha sido dilucidado totalmente por MAS-COMA & MONTOLIU (1978 a, b) y MONTOLIU (1984) tanto en la Naturaleza como experimentalmente en el Laboratorio de nuestro Departamento. La complejidad de este ciclo triheteroxeno terrestre nos situó ante un amplio y atractivo abanico de posibilidades de estudio e investigación, dado que cada uno de los aspectos del ciclo es merecedor en sí mismo de un estudio en profundidad.

El caracol de consumo humano Cornu aspersum actúa como hospedador intermediario en el ciclo biológico de Brachylaima spp. albergando metacercarias libres en riñón. Su ingestión insuficientemente cocinados permitiría a las metacercarias originar adultos en el intestino humano causando la braquilaimosis, parasitosis con una mortalidad esperada del 5-10%, con casos humanos en Australia. Los objetivos de esta tesis fueron: determinar la prevalencia de metacercarias Brachylaima spp. en C. aspersum de consumo en mercados españoles; estudiar la dinámica de parasitación considerando la localización geográfica de los caracoles y la estacionalidad como factores de riesgo respecto a la exposición humana al parásito; describir la influencia de la importación de caracoles sobre la dispersión geográfica de Brachylaima spp.; evaluar la eficacia del praziquantel (PZQ) frente a metacercarias Brachylaima spp.; desarrollar un método bioanalítico mediante HPLC-MS/MS para determinar cualitativamente y cuantitativamente PZQ en el gasterópodo y evaluar mediante microscopía electrónica de transmisión (TEM) los efectos ultraestructurales producidos por el PZQ en metacercarias tratadas. Se analizó 3710 ejemplares de C. aspersum durante 5 años en mercados españoles [Barcelona (n=2525), Bilbao (n=207), Madrid (n=290), Tudela (n=301), Valencia (n=163) y Zaragoza (n=224)]. Se examinó individualmente el riñón y se registró la carga de metacercarias. Se calculó la prevalencia global (41’97%;95%IC:40’38%-45’56%), por ciudad y por mercado en el caso de Barcelona y la estacionalidad (↑otoño). El modelo de regresión logística que mide la probabilidad de adquirir caracoles parasitados utilizando la ciudad y la estación como predictores (79% de acierto global), mostró riesgo significativo (p=0.001) en interacciones Tudela-Otoño (4.330-78.584) y Barcelona-Otoño (2.551-38.442). Se determinó la prevalencia de metacercarias en caracoles importados de Argelia y Sudáfrica obteniéndose adultos experimentales cuya aproximación específica se realizó mediante análisis morfométrico comparativo con adultos B. mascomai y B. llobregatensis. Se emplearon 18 variables morfométricas aplicándose MANOVA y Análisis de Componentes Principales, mostrando superposición B. llobregatensis/Adultos argelinos y B. mascomai/Adultos sudafricanos. La eficacia de PZQ frente a metacercarias Brachylaima spp. en C. aspersum se evaluó mediante dos ensayos (VICH GL7): de determinación de la dosis adecuada para conseguir una reducción de la carga parasitaria igual o superior al 90% y de confirmación de dosis. Se administró PZQ a los caracoles vía oral en el pienso de engorde. El método analítico HPLC-MS/MS se desarrolló siguiendo la guía EMEA/CHMP/EWP/192217/2009 de la EMA. En el ensayo de determinación de dosis se testaron tres dosis individualmente (n=300, 10 días): 1’2mgPZQ/caracol, 1’8mgPZQ/caracol (eficacia 97’3 %, p<0.001) y 2’4mgPZQ/caracol (eficacia 98’7%, p<0.001). En el test de confirmación de dosis (n=200) se ensayó 2’4 mg/caracol en grupo (10 caracoles/caja, 7 días) (eficacia 94’6%,p<0.001). La prevalencia disminuyó del 68’7% en el grupo control al 10.1% en el grupo tratamiento, p<0.001. La dosis recibida correspondió a 200’2mgPZQ/kg de caracol con concha. En el método analítico se evaluaron la linealidad rangos 0’05-0’8µg/ml y 0’8-6µg/ml (r2=0’99), el límite de cuantificación inferior (0’05 µg/ml), la selectividad, el efecto de arrastre, la exactitud variaciones nominales inferiores al ±20%,, la precisión manteniéndose en el intervalo de 15-20%, la integridad de la dilución, el efecto matriz (%CV=10’86 y %CV=10’01) y la estabilidad. Se determinó cuantitativamente el residuo de praziquantel (n=60) en caracoles tratados (11mgPZQ/g pienso), siendo de 0’093 mgPZQ/g caracol (10% del PZQ teóricamente ingerido). Los efectos ultraestructurales del praziquantel en metacercarias recuperadas de C. aspersum tratados individualmente (1’2 mgPZQ/caracol y 2’4 mgPZQ/caracol) y en grupo (2’4mgPZQ/caracol ad libitum durante 7 días) mostraron pérdida de la orientación característica de los cuerpos celulares tegumentarios T2 y mitocondrias observada en las metacercarias control, alteración mitocondrial y de los cuerpos celulares tegumentarios T2, ya a nivel de las células tegumentarias. La contracción del sistema digestivo fue tan severa que el lumen no pudo apreciarse.
The edible land snail Cornu aspersum acts as second intermediate host in the cycle of Brachylaima sp. trematode, harboring free metacercariae in its kidney. The ingestion of undercooked infected snails by humans allow metacercariae to develop to adult stage in the intestine causing brachylaimiasis. The aims of this dissertation were: to explore the prevalence of Brachylaima sp. metacercariae in C. aspersum intended for consumption in Spanish marketplaces considering geographical localization and seasonality as risk factors and the potential effect of international snail trade on the parasite dispersion, to assess the efficacy of praziquantel (PZQ) against Brachylaima sp. metacercariae, to develop a bioanalytical method by HPLC-MS/MS to quantify PZQ residue, and to assess ultrastructural changes by transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) of PZQ treated Brachylaima metacercariae. A total of 3,710 C. aspersum specimens were analyzed along 5 years in Spain, the overall prevalence was 41.97% (95%CI: 40.38%-45.56%) with a season effect of increasing prevalence from summer to autumn with a logistic regression model with a correct prediction of 79.0%. Studies conducted on prevalence and viability of metacercariae from snails imported to Spain from Algeria and South Africa provided experimental adult specimens which were measured considering 18 variables. Morphometric studies performed through MANOVA and Principal Component Analysis, revealed univariate effects in 13 variables and an overlap between B. llobregatensis/Algerian adults and B. mascomai/South African adults, respectively. In dose determination assays three doses with snail food were individually tested: 1.2 mg PZQ/snail, 1.8 mg PZQ/snail (efficacy 97.3 %, p<0.001) and 2.4 mg PZQ/snail (efficacy 98.7%, p<0.001). In dose confirmation tests the 2.4 mg PZQ/snail dose was group tested being the efficacy 94.6 %, p<0.001; and the prevalence 10.1 %, p<0.001 from 68.7 %. In the analytical method, linearity, lower limit of quantification (0.05 µg/ml), selectivity, carry over, accuracy, precision, dilution integrity, matrix effect and stability were tested and PZQ determined in 60 treated snails (0.093 mg PZQ/g snail). TEM studies revealed that the characteristic arrangement was lost for mitochondria and the T2 secretory bodies, both also showed degeneration, T2 bodies even in the tegumental cell bodies, and the digestive system displayed a strong contraction.

Resistance of human pathogenic bacterial strains results in selective pressure against known antibiotic. However, plant derived compounds that possess antibacterial potential are currently being investigated for treatment of wound infections in diabetic patients as they are inexpensive and non-toxic. Hence, this dissertation was designed to evaluate two medicinal plants (Brachylaena elliptica and Brachylaena ilicifolia) traditionally used in the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, and its secondary complications in diabetic patients. The in vitro antioxidant activity of both plants were evaluated using DPPH (1, 1-diphenylhydrazl), ferric reducing power, ABTS (2, 2’-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), NO (nitric oxide) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) techniques. The antibacterial test and Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by agar dilution method against 5 bacteria strains (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogene, Proteus vulgaris and Proteus mirabilis) infecting wounds in diabetic patients using amoxicillin and ciprofloxacin as positive control. The phytochemical analyses were assessed using standard published methods. Identification of bioactive components in essential oils of both plants were assessed using GCMS. The aqueous and ethanol extracts of both plants were also evaluated to identify bioactive components using LC-MS. The results of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of phenols, tannins, flavanoids, flavanols, proanthocyanidins, saponins and alkaloids in both plants. Both plants indicated strong antioxidant activities which might be due to the presence of bioactive compounds. The aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts of both plants demonstrated appreciable broad spectrum activities against these wound pathogens with MIC ranging between 5 and 0.3 mg/ml. The GC-MS analysis of the essential oils of both plants revealed the presence of monoterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, phenolics and esters. The LC-MS analysis of the aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts of both plants showed that both plants are rich in alkaloids, terpenes, terpenoids, monoterpernoids, and flavanoids. Conclusively, this study has partially justified the ethnomedicinal use of B. elliptica and B.licifolia leaves for the treatment of various diseases, including diabetes and wound infections caused by bacteria in diabetic patients. These may be attributed to the presence of antioxidant compound such as phenols, flavanoids, saponins, tannins, alkaloids and other phytochemical compounds.

Natural forests are characterised by great vegetation diversity and create habitats for a major part of Earth’s terrestrial organisms. Plantation forests, which are mainly composed of a few genera of fast-growing trees, constitute an increasing fraction of global forests, but they only partly compensate for loss of area, habitat and ecological functions in natural forests. Plantation forests established near natural forests can be expected to serve as buffers, but they seem to be relatively poor in invertebrate species and it is not clear why. This bachelor’s degree project aimed at establishing the ecological and edaphic factors that correlate with soil invertebrate diversity in dry upland forests and surrounding plantation forests in eastern Africa. Some aspects of the above-ground vegetation heterogeneity were investigated since this was assumed to influence the heterogeneity of the soil environment, which is considered as critical for soil biodiversity. The obtained knowledge may be valuable in conservation activities in East African forests, which are threatened by destruction, fragmentation and exotic species. The study area was Karura Forest, a dry upland forest in Nairobi, Kenya. Three different sites were investigated; a natural forest site characterized by the indigenous tree species Brachylaena huillensis and Croton megalocarpus, and two different plantation forest sites, characterized by the exotic species Cupressus lusitanica and Eucalyptus paniculata, respectively. For each forest type, six plots were visited. Soil invertebrates were extracted from collected soil and litter samples by sieving and Berlese-Tullgren funnels. The invertebrates were identified, and the taxonomic diversity calculated at the order level. The ecological and edaphic factors, measured or calculated for each plot, were tree species diversity, ratio of exotic tree species, vertical structure of trees, vegetation cover, vegetation density, litter quality, soil pH, soil temperature and soil moisture. One-way ANOVA was used to compare soil invertebrate diversity and other variables between different forest types. Akaike’s Information Criterion and Multiple Linear Regression were used to establish linear models with variables that could explain measured variations of the diversity. There was some evidence for higher soil invertebrate diversity in natural forests than in surrounding plantation forests. The abundance of soil invertebrates was also clearly higher in natural forests, which indicates that natural forests are more important than plantation forests for conservation of soil invertebrate populations. Soil invertebrate diversity (in terms of number of orders present) was found to be influenced by forest type and litter quality. The diversity was higher at places with high amounts of coarse litter, which here is considered as more heterogenous than fine litter. The dependence on forest type was partly a consequence of differences in soil pH since Eucalyptus trees lower soil pH and thereby also soil biodiversity. No relation to heterogeneity of above-ground vegetation was found. For future conservation activities in Karura Forest Reserve it is recommended to continue removing exotic plant species and replanting indigenous trees, to prioritize the removal of Eucalyptus trees before Cypress trees, to only remove a few trees at a time and to establish ground vegetation when doing so.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, Discipline of Microbiology and Immunology, 2003?
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Brachylaima spp. (Digenea: Brachylaimidae) are terrestrial trematodes of mammals and birds and have land snails as their first and second intermediate hosts. This thesis describes a new species of Brachylaima and investigates infection in both snail intermediate hosts and definitive host animals. A laboratory life-cycle was established using brachylaimid eggs recovered from the faeces of an infected human. Five species of introduced European helicid and hygromiid snails, Theba pisana, Cernuella virgata, Cochlicella acuta, Cochlicella barbara and Microxeromagna armillata were susceptible first intermediate hosts. These same snails and introduced Helix aspersa as well as the native snails Succinea australis and Strangesta gawleri were suitable second intermediate hosts. Field and laboratory studies revealed that in addition to humans and mice, various species of birds and reptiles were also definitive hosts. On the basis of its unique morphological and lifecycle features, a new species, Brachylaima cribbi was described. The scanning electron microscopical appearances of the various life-cycle stages were detailed. Studies of Swiss albino outbred mice and 8 strains of inbred mice revealed that C57BL/6J mice were most susceptible to B. cribbi infection. The peak infection occurred 4 weeks after inoculation with metacercariae following which worms were expelled over the next few weeks. Exposure to a second infection in C57BL/6J mice did not result in accelerated expulsion of adult worms but did significantly inhibit their fecundity. In contrast, when immunodeficient NOD SCID mice were infected with B. cribbi metacercariae the adult worms persisted for the life span of the host mice. 6,432 land snails were collected over a distance of 3,000 km across southern Australia. Sporocyst-infected snails were found in all districts of South Australia and Victoria with the percentages of infected T. pisana, C. virgata, C. acuta and C. barbara ranging from 1.7 to 4.7%. These 4 species together with M. armillata, S. australis and S. gawleri were infected with metacercariae being found in 18-63% of snails and the mean number of metacercariae per infected snail ranged from 2.1 to 6.1. Laboratory studies revealed that eggs may remain viable for almost 12 months in mouse faeces. The prepatent period for a sporocyst infection is 7-10 weeks after egg ingestion. Metacercariae 7 weeks of age are capable of developing into adult worms. Detailed studies of seasonal variations in sporocyst and metacercarial infection rates were studied at 4 ecologically diverse sites on the Yorke Peninsula of South Australia. The clinical features and epidemiological circumstances of B. cribbi infections of 12 humans are detailed, as is their satisfactory response to treatment with praziquantel.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, 2003.

Submitted in complete fulfillment of the Degree (D.Tech.: Biotechngology)--Durban University of Technology, 2013.
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease, which occurs as a result of insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance and is a major cause of disability and hospitalization. There are many known therapeutic strategies for the treatment of diabetes, with conventional treatments including the reduction of the demand for insulin, stimulation of endogenous insulin secretion, enhancement of the action of insulin at the target tissues and the inhibition of degradation of oligo- and disaccharides. One group of drugs used for the management of Type 2 diabetes is represented by the inhibitors of α-glucosidase and α-amylases. These enzymes are responsible for the breakdown of oligo- and/or disaccharides to monosaccharides. The inhibition of these enzymes leads to a decrease of blood glucose level, because monosaccharides are the form of carbohydrates which are absorbed in the small intestine. The treatment of Type 2 diabetes is complicated by several factors inherent to the disease and elevated post prandial hyperglycemia (PPHG) is one of the risk factors. Therefore, it becomes necessary to identify the amylase inhibitors from natural sources having lesser side- effects. The traditional African herbal medicinal system practiced for thousands of years have reportedly used anti-diabetic plants with no known side effects. Such plants and their products have been widely prescribed for diabetic treatment by traditional healers all around the world with less known mechanistic basis of their functioning. Therefore, these natural products need to be evaluated scientifically in order to confirm claims for their anti-diabetic properties. This focus of this study was to investigate potential phytochemicals from Brachylaena discolor as possible dietary adjuncts or therapeutics for diabetes therapy. Methanol and aqueous extracts were evaluated for their α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition potential, toxicity, mutagenicity and free radical scavenging capacity. The methanol extract, which showed the most positive results was used in a chemically induced diabetic rat model. Male Wistar rats were injected with streptozotocin to induce diabetes. Rats were divided into 8 groups which consisted of both induced and non-induced rats which were dosed via gavage with methanolic plant extract, metformin and 1% Tween 80 (vehicle for delivery of extract and metformin) respectively per treatment group. Blood analysis was carried out every 7 days to monitor the general health profile, which included blood glucose levels. After 28 days of treatment rats were euthanized using Fluothane and pancreatic tissue harvested for Transmission Electron Microscopy for ultrastructural analysis. The crude extract was also subjected to preparative HPLC and LCMS for compound identification. From results obtained Brachylaena discolor extracts showed great potential as an anti- diabetic drug. The methanolic extract of Brachylaena discolor yielded superior inhibition properties when compared to its aqueous counterparts as well as a high free radical scavenging capacity. Brachylaena discolor also exhibited a proliferative effect on the cell line in the toxicity study indicating no toxicity from the extract. In the diabetic rat model the Brachylaena discolor methanolic extract induced a marked decrease in the blood glucose level of diabetic rats with less severe side-effects when compared to metformin the reference drug used. Ultrastructural analysis showed severe mitochondrial swelling and damage to the nucleus in the diabetic untreated rats when compared to diabetic rats being treated with the plant extract. From the LCMS results 2 peaks were identified in the active fraction obtained from the preparative HPLC with the chemical formula C17H38NO2 and C16H35N2O respectively. Due to the active fraction being at the tail-end of a reverse-phase fractionation, the mixture of two peaks are likely to be a collection of saturated (non-UV active) di- / sesqui or triterpenoid. The results obtained from this study show promising potential for Brachylaena discolor as a potential dietary adjunct or therapeutic for diabetes therapy.