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Journal articles on the topic 'Botulinum toxin'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 28 July 2024

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1

Mubarik Ali and Norina Jabeen. "Botulism a Major Risk in Animals After Flood in Pakistan; A Review." Indus Journal of Agriculture and Biology 1, no. 1 (December 31, 2022): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.59075/ijab.v1i1.139.

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Flooding has affected and will likely continue to alter the occurrence, distribution, and prevalence of animal diseases, including botulism, according to a growing body of evidence. The pathogen Clostridium botulinum is thought to be one of several species that can produce the A–H-coded botulinum toxins. These toxins (BoNT) are thought to be the most harmful elements found in nature. The poison hits nerves that are firing more frequently, which causes the pattern of damage. The toxin specifically affects synapses and neuromuscular junctions by preventing the generation or release of acetylcholine there. The majority of animals who contract botulism die from it; it affects the breathing, chewing, and swallowing muscles as well as the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, leading to flaccid paralysis and respiratory arrest. The neurotoxins types C and D produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum in an animal or plant substance, during decomposition, are the cause of the condition in cattle. Failure of the respiratory system causes death. The toxin that causes botulism, also known as botulinus poisoning, is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. There are few available treatment options for the neuroparalytic disease botulism, which impacts the livestock business globally and has been documented in a number of nations.
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2

Serwik-Trandasir, Aleksandra, Agata Kania, Malwina Gonet, Karolina Miszczyk, Karolina Włodarczyk-Cybulska, Patrycja Maj, Natalia Sergiel, Piotr Mozer, Jakub Maternia, and Michal Lazar. "Wide range applications of botulinum toxin in medicine - literature review." Journal of Education, Health and Sport 45, no. 1 (August 24, 2023): 203–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/jehs.2023.45.01.014.

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Introduction and purpose : Botulinum toxin is one of the most dangerous natural toxins. Botulinum toxin poisoning causes botulism. Botulism is a set of systemic symptoms resulting from flaccid muscle paralysis. The first symptomatology of toxin poisoning was described at the beginning of the 19th century. After more than 200 years, botulinum toxin is associated primarily with aesthetic medicine treatments, where it is used to temporarily improve the appearance, mainly by reducing mimic wrinkles. Aim of the study: The aim of the study is to collect information available in PubMed, Google Scholar, academic textbooks and characteristics of botulinum toxin medicinal products, especially regarding its wide use, mechanism of action, adverse events and contraindications. As a result, the presentation of the versatile use of botulinum toxin as a medicinal product in many fields of medicine. Brief description of the state of knowledge: Botulinum toxin is produced by the anaerobic bacteria Clostridium botulinum. Its mechanism of action consists in flaccid muscle paralysis. Most preparations with botulinum toxin are only registered for strictly defined aesthetic medicine treatments. Other registered indications for the use of medicinal products with botulinum toxin include overactive bladder, various types of spasticity and prevention of headaches. In addition, in medicine, botulinum toxin is commonly used off-label. Summary: Botulinum toxin is widely used not only in aesthetic medicine. Intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin are successfully used in various fields of medicine, such as: urology, neurology, ophthalmology, gastroenterology, dermatology, gynecology, otolaryngology, dentistry and even psychiatry.
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3

Masters, Anne M., and Dieter G. Palmer. "Confirmation of botulism diagnosis in Australian bird samples by ELISA and RT rtPCR." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 33, no. 4 (May 6, 2021): 684–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10406387211014486.

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We developed a sandwich ELISA that detects Clostridium botulinum C and D toxins and reverse-transcription real-time PCRs (RT-rtPCRs) that detect botulinum C and D toxin genes, respectively, to replace the mouse bioassay. The toxin genes were closely associated with the toxin molecules and used as surrogates for the presence of toxin. Samples (638) from 103 clinical cases of birds (302) with suspected botulinum toxicity came from wild birds and poultry (9 cases). Samples tested included blood serum, other body fluids, various tissues, gut contents, maggots, water, and sediment. Botulism was diagnosed in 34 cases (all of which had positive samples in the ELISA, the C toxin gene RT-rtPCR, or both assays). Botulism was suspected in 16 cases (each of which had 1 positive sample either in the ELISA or the C toxin gene RT-rtPCR). In the remaining 53 cases, no samples were positive, but botulism could not be excluded in 32 of these cases, whereas there was no indication of botulism or another diagnosis in 21 cases. The D toxin gene was not detected in any of the clinical samples. No C or D toxin genes were detected in 71 pooled cloacal swabs from 213 healthy migratory birds. The use of an ELISA that detects botulinum C and D toxins in combination with a RT-rtPCR for the botulinum C toxin gene can help confirm the diagnosis of botulism in birds.
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4

FRANCIOSA, GIOVANNA, MANOOCHEHER POURSHABAN, MONICA GIANFRANCESCHI, ANTONIETTA GATTUSO, LUCIA FENICIA, ANNA MARIA FERRINI, VERUSCKA MANNONI, GREGORIO DE LUCA, and PAOLO AURELI. "Clostridium botulinum Spores and Toxin in Mascarpone Cheese and Other Milk Products." Journal of Food Protection 62, no. 8 (August 1, 1999): 867–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-62.8.867.

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A total of 1,017 mascarpone cheese samples, collected at retail, were analyzed for Clostridium botulinum spores and toxin, aerobic mesophilic spore counts, as well as pH, aw (water activity), and Eh (oxidation–reduction potential). In addition 260 samples from other dairy products were also analyzed for spores and botulinum toxin. Experiments were carried out on naturally and artificially contaminated mascarpone to investigate the influence of different temperature conditions on toxin production by C. botulinum. Three hundred and thirty-one samples (32.5%) of mascarpone were positive for botulinal spores, and 7 (0.8%) of the 878 samples produced at the plant involved in an outbreak of foodborne botulism also contained toxin type A. The chemical–physical parameters (pH, aw, Eh) of all samples were compatible with C. botulinum growth and toxinogenesis. Of the other milk products, 2.7% were positive for C. botulinum spores. Growth and toxin formation occurred in naturally and experimentally contaminated mascarpone samples after 3 and 4 days of incubation at 28°C, respectively.
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5

Bossi, P., A. Tegnell, A. Baka, A. Werner, F. van Loock, J. Hendriks, H. Maidhof, and G. Gouvras. "Bichat guidelines for the clinical management of botulism and bioterrorism-related botulism." Eurosurveillance 9, no. 12 (December 1, 2004): 31–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/esm.09.12.00505-en.

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Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by botulinum toxin, which is produced by the Clostridium botulinum. This toxin is the most poisonous substance known. It 100 000 times more toxic than sarin gas. Eating or breathing this toxin causes illness in humans. Four distinct clinical forms are described: foodborne, wound, infant and intestinal botulism. The fifth form, inhalational botulism, is caused by aerosolised botulinum toxin that could be used as a biological weapon. A deliberate release may also involve contamination of food or water supplies with toxin or C. botulinum bacteria. By inhalation, the dose that would kill 50% of exposed persons (LD50) is 0.003 microgrammes/kg of body weight. Patients with respiratory failure must be admitted to an intensive care unit and require long-term mechanical ventilation. Trivalent equine antitoxins (A,B,E) must be given to patients as soon as possible after clinical diagnosis. Heptavalent human antitoxins (A-G) are available in certain countries.
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6

Palazón-García, Ramiro, and Ana María Benavente-Valdepeñas. "Botulinum Toxin: From Poison to Possible Treatment for Spasticity in Spinal Cord Injury." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 9 (May 5, 2021): 4886. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094886.

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Botulism has been known for about three centuries, and since its discovery, botulinum toxin has been considered one of the most powerful toxins. However, throughout the 20th century, several medical applications have been discovered, among which the treatment of spasticity stands out. Botulinum toxin is the only pharmacological treatment recommended for spasticity of strokes and cerebral palsy. Although its use as an adjuvant treatment against spasticity in spinal cord injuries is not even approved, botulinum toxin is being used against such injuries. This article describes the advances that have been made throughout history leading to the therapeutic use of botulinum toxin and, in particular, its application to the treatment of spasticity in spinal cord injury.
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7

Ninh Thi, Hanh, Hoa Le Vinh, Ba Tran Hong, Quan Pham Van, Long Le Thanh, and Loan Pham Thi. "Producing positive control materials for template in PCR testing to detect botulinum neurotoxin types A and B genes." Heavy metals and arsenic concentrations in water, agricultural soil, and rice in Ngan Son district, Bac Kan province, Vietnam 7, no. 1 (March 21, 2024): 53–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.47866/2615-9252/vjfc.4209.

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Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum and some other bacterial strains such as C. butyricum and C. baratii. It is considered the strongest toxin known to humans and can cause botulism. Botulinum neurotoxin can be fatal in humans and most botulism cases are caused by type A and B toxins. In this study, the research team used C. botulinum strains isolated from botulism poisoning cases in Vietnam, which were identified to produce type A and B toxins, from which we successfully transformed plasmids carrying genes specific for BoNT type A and type B genes based on the reference gene sequence according to TCVN 11395:2016. These plasmids were successfully used as template DNA for PCR reactions. In the PCR reaction, plasmids used to transform genes producing botulinum toxin types A and B have a detection limit of 102 copies/µL. The study has fully verified the validation parameters, with 100% accuracy and specificity.
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8

Drożdżyńska, Marta, Izabela Sobieraj-Garbiak, Anna Chlasta, and Maria Jastrzębska. "Botulinum toxin and its clinical applications." Diagnostyka Laboratoryjna 51, no. 2 (July 13, 2015): 139–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0004.1521.

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Botulin, exotoxin produced by C. botulinum, is one of the most potent toxins known to the mankind. For nearly 40 years it has been successfully used in various fields of medicine, despite the word botox is still mainly associated with aesthetic medicine and more or less successful beauty treatments. The review of the literature and description of the current knowledge about botulinum toxin and its clinical applications was the aim of the study. Botulinum toxin is protein composed of two chains linked together by a disulfide bridge. Seven serotypes were distinguish and label from A to G. The botulinum toxin mechanism of action involves proteolysis of specific neuronal proteins which resulting in blockade of acetylcholine release from presynaptic vesicles at the neuromuscular junction. For the first time botulin was used by A. Scott in treatment of strabismus. Since then botulinum neurotoxin has found its application in such areas as ophthalmology, neurology and urology. Botulinum proved to be a safe drug with few adverse effects, among which dysphagia is the most dangerous. Although the effect of botulinum toxin is unstable and reversible, there is a possibility of appearance of antibodies and clinical resistance, particularly in patients undergoing long-term therapy. Since the discovery, botulinum neurotoxin, has undergone a transformation from the deadly poison to the drug used in many areas of medicine. Numerous studies confirm that botulin, when used responsibly with the smallest effective dose and required intervals, is safe for the organism. Botulin can be for physicians a therapeutic tool, which can bring relief from the symptoms and suffering and significantly improving patients quality of life.
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9

Harris, Richard A., Fabrizio Anniballi, and John W. Austin. "Adult Intestinal Toxemia Botulism." Toxins 12, no. 2 (January 24, 2020): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins12020081.

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Intoxication with botulinum neurotoxin can occur through various routes. Foodborne botulism results after consumption of food in which botulinum neurotoxin-producing clostridia (i.e., Clostridium botulinum or strains of Clostridium butyricum type E or Clostridium baratii type F) have replicated and produced botulinum neurotoxin. Infection of a wound with C. botulinum and in situ production of botulinum neurotoxin leads to wound botulism. Colonization of the intestine by neurotoxigenic clostridia, with consequent production of botulinum toxin in the intestine, leads to intestinal toxemia botulism. When this occurs in an infant, it is referred to as infant botulism, whereas in adults or children over 1 year of age, it is intestinal colonization botulism. Predisposing factors for intestinal colonization in children or adults include previous bowel or gastric surgery, anatomical bowel abnormalities, Crohn’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, antimicrobial therapy, or foodborne botulism. Intestinal colonization botulism is confirmed by detection of botulinum toxin in serum and/or stool, or isolation of neurotoxigenic clostridia from the stool, without finding a toxic food. Shedding of neurotoxigenic clostridia in the stool may occur for a period of several weeks. Adult intestinal botulism occurs as isolated cases, and may go undiagnosed, contributing to the low reported incidence of this rare disease.
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10

Long, Sharon C., and Tiffany Tauscher. "Watershed issues associated with Clostridium botulinum: A literature review." Journal of Water and Health 4, no. 3 (April 1, 2006): 277–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.016b.

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Botulism the disease, the related organism (Clostridium botulinum) and toxin have gained renewed attention in these times of heightened homeland security and bioterrorism preparedness. Since C. botulinum is ubiquitous in nature, botulism outbreaks resulting from environmental exposure can be of concern to watershed managers and drinking water utilities. This paper reviews aspects of naturally occurring C. botulinum in light of concerns for source water watersheds. Information regarding sources and occurrence of botulism, C. botulinum and botulism toxins are discussed. Ecology and physiology of environmental C. botulinum and cycles of disease are reviewed. Finally, the effectiveness of water treatment and disinfection measures is discussed.
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11

Chen, Nicole. "Recent understanding of botulinum toxin and its main detection methods." Theoretical and Natural Science 20, no. 1 (December 20, 2023): 274–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-8818/20/20230793.

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The Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) has the title of the most potent poison known to man. It causes a serious condition known as botulism. Guidelines and regulations for the industrial processing of food have made foodborne botulism rarer, but the use of the toxin in pharmaceutical industries and its potential as a bioweapon make detection methods of the toxin a necessary thing. Currently, the Mouse Lethality Bioassay (MLB) is still considered the golden standard of botulinum toxin detection even though it has several limitations. There had subsequently been the development of several alternatives to the MLB, including immunoassays, endopeptidase-based assays, and more. This paper gives an overview of the mechanisms behind botulinum toxins, current methods of detection, and the methods advantages and disadvantages.
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12

Dembek, Zygmunt F., Leonard A. Smith, and Janice M. Rusnak. "Botulism: Cause, Effects, Diagnosis, Clinical and Laboratory Identification, and Treatment Modalities." Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 1, no. 2 (November 2007): 122–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/dmp.0b013e318158c5fd.

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ABSTRACTBotulism is a neuroparalytic disease caused by neurotoxins produced by the bacteriaClostridium botulinum. Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are among the most potent naturally occurring toxins and are a category A biological threat agent. The 7 toxin serotypes of BoNTs (serotypes A–G) have different toxicities, act through 3 different intracellular protein targets, and exhibit different durations of effect. Botulism may follow ingestion of food contaminated with BoNT, from toxin production ofC botulinumpresent in the intestine or wounds, or from inhalation of aerosolized toxin. Intoxication classically presents as an acute, symmetrical, descending flaccid paralysis. Early diagnosis is important because antitoxin therapy is most effective when administered early. Confirmatory testing of botulism with BoNT assays orC botulinumcultures is time-consuming, and may be insensitive in the diagnosis of inhalational botulism and in as many as 32% of food-borne botulism cases. Therefore, the decision to initiate botulinum antitoxin therapy is primarily based on symptoms and physical examination findings that are consistent with botulism, with support of epidemiological history and electrophysiological testing. Modern clinical practice and antitoxin treatment has reduced botulism mortality rates from ∼60% to ≤10%. The pentavalent botulinum toxoid is an investigational product and has been used for more than 45 years in at-risk laboratory workers to protect against toxin serotypes A to E. Due to declining immunogenicity and potency of the pentavalent botulinum toxoid, novel vaccine candidates are being developed. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2007;1:122–134)
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13

Pohanka, Miroslav. "Botulinum Toxin as a Biological Warfare Agent: Poisoning, Diagnosis and Countermeasures." Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry 20, no. 10 (May 27, 2020): 865–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1389557520666200228105312.

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Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum and some other relative species. It causes a lethal disease called botulism. It can enter the body via infections by Clostridium (e.g. wound and children botulism) or by direct contact with the toxin or eating contaminated food (food-borne botulism). Botulinum toxin is also considered as a relevant biological warfare agent with an expected high number of causalities when misused for bioterrorist or military purposes. The current paper surveys the actual knowledge about botulinum toxin pathogenesis, the manifestation of poisoning, and current trends in diagnostics and therapeutics. Relevant and recent literature is summarized in this paper.
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14

Lilly, Timothy, and Donald A. Kautter. "Outgrowth of Naturally Occurring Clostridium botulinum in Vacuum-Packaged Fresh Fish." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 73, no. 2 (March 1, 1990): 211–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/73.2.211.

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Abstract A total of 1074 test samples of commercial, domestic, vacuum- packaged fresh fish were studied to determine whether spoilage occurs before the products become toxic from naturally occurring Clostridium botulinum spores. The products were incubated for 12 days at 12°C (mild abuse). After incubation, they were tested for botulinal toxin and evaluated for organoleptic acceptability. Even when only marginally acceptable to laboratory personnel, none of the 1074 test samples were positive for C. botulinum toxin. Thus, the fish either contained no C. botulinum spores, or the spores were unable to grow out and produce toxin before spoilage made the product marginally unacceptable.
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15

Glatman-Freedman, Aharona. "Infant Botulism." Pediatrics In Review 17, no. 5 (May 1, 1996): 185–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/pir.17.5.185.

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Infant botulism was first described in 1976. It is caused by Clostridium botulinum, a gram-positive anaerobic bacillus found most commonly in soil and agricultural products. The organism forms spores and during growth and germination releases a potent neurotoxin that is responsible for the illness. Eight neurotoxins have been recognized, but infant botulism is caused primarily by organisms producing toxin types A and B. Although adult-type botulism occurs by ingesting food contaminated with botulinus toxin, infant botulism seems to result from ingestion of spores that germinate and release the toxin inside the infant's colon. The toxin is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, travels via the blood stream, and binds irreversibly to peripheral cholinergic nerve synapses, where it prevents the release of acetylcholine.
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16

HOTCHKISS, JOSEPH H., MICHAEL J. BANCO, FRANK F. BUSTA, CONSTANTIN A. GENIGEORGIS, RICHARD KOCIBA, LISA RHEAUME, LES A. SMOOT, JAMES D. SCHUMAN, and HIROSHI SUGIYAMA. "The Relationship Between Botulinal Toxin Production and Spoilage of Fresh Tomatoes Held at 13 and 23°C Under Passively Modified and Controlled Atmospheres and Air." Journal of Food Protection 55, no. 7 (July 1, 1992): 522–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-55.7.522.

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The formation of botulinal toxin relative to spoilage of fresh whole tomatoes was investigated at 13 and 23°C under passively modified (MA) and controlled atmospheres (CA) and air. Tomatoes were subsurface inoculated with a composite of type A and proteolytic and nonproteolytic type B strains of Clostridium botulinum spores. Some were also inoculated with Alternaria mold spores. MA (1.0–2.9% O2) was passively established by a combination of product respiration and package permeability. CA was established by placing tomatoes in continuously flushed (1% O2, 20% CO2, balance N2) Plexiglass plastic containers. Tomatoes were tested for botulinum toxin by the mouse assay at the time when they first became inedible based on predefined stages of decay rather than specific storage times in order to determine the relationship between spoilage and botulinal toxigenesis. All tomatoes became inedible according to the established criteria within 17 to 46 d depending on the storage temperature and atmosphere. Botulinum toxin was not detected in the 24 composite samples of inedible tomatoes (representing 99 tomatoes) which were tested at the time they first became inedible. Toxin was detected in four of five additional composite samples (representing 10 tomatoes) which were held 2 to 9 d beyond the time they were first determined to be inedible. These data indicate that MA-packaged tomatoes can become toxic but only after becoming severely spoiled beyond the point of being organoleptically acceptable. The risk of botulism from consumption of extended shelf life whole tomatoes appears to be insignificant.
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17

Franciosa, Giovanna, Manoocheher Pourshaban, Alessandro De Luca, Anna Buccino, Bruno Dallapiccola, and Paolo Aureli. "Identification of Type A, B, E, and F Botulinum Neurotoxin Genes and of Botulinum Neurotoxigenic Clostridia by Denaturing High-Performance Liquid Chromatography." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, no. 7 (July 2004): 4170–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.7.4170-4176.2004.

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ABSTRACT Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) is a recently developed technique for rapid screening of nucleotide polymorphisms in PCR products. We used this technique for the identification of type A, B, E, and F botulinum neurotoxin genes. PCR products amplified from a conserved region of the type A, B, E, and F botulinum toxin genes from Clostridium botulinum, neurotoxigenic C. butyricum type E, and C. baratii type F strains were subjected to both DHPLC analysis and sequencing. Unique DHPLC peak profiles were obtained with each different type of botulinum toxin gene fragment, consistent with nucleotide differences observed in the related sequences. We then evaluated the ability of this technique to identify botulinal neurotoxigenic organisms at the genus and species level. A specific short region of the 16S rRNA gene which contains genus-specific and in some cases species-specific heterogeneity was amplified from botulinum neurotoxigenic clostridia and from different food-borne pathogens and subjected to DHPLC analysis. Different peak profiles were obtained for each genus and species, demonstrating that the technique could be a reliable alternative to sequencing for the rapid identification of food-borne pathogens, specifically of botulinal neurotoxigenic clostridia most frequently implicated in human botulism.
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Nguyen, Duc, Thu Nguyen, and Huu Nguyen. "Investigation of botulism in free-range ducks farming in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam." Open Veterinary Journal 12, no. 5 (2022): 632. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/ovj.2022.v12.i5.7.

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Background: One of the most common diseases in free-range ducks in the Mekong Delta is “botulism”. Botulism is a poultry disease caused by botulinum exotoxin of Clostridium botulinum. Aim: The purpose of the investigation was to evaluate the prevalence of botulism in free-range ducks in the Mekong Delta and the risk of infection by determining the presence of Clostridium botulinum in the farming environment. Methods: Research on 200 duck flocks with 187050 individuals raised freely in the fields in the provinces of the Mekong Delta including An Giang, Can Tho, Hau Giang, and Kien Giang. The ducks were diagnosed with botulism based on clinical symptoms. To demonstrate the presence of botulinum neurotoxins and identify serotype, samples of serum and/or gut were analyzed by mouse bioassay. Samples of soil (n=600), water (n=600), crabs (n=216), and snails (n=400) were taken from the grazing regions for Clostridium botulinum analysis by PCR assay. Results: There were 1.19% (2235/187050) free-range ducks in the Mekong Delta positive for botulism. Clinical symptoms of botulism including limberneck, drooping eyelids - enlarged pupils, and leg paralysis were prevalent across free-range ducks, with the frequency of 87.92% (1965/2235), 90.07% (2013/2235), and 79.78% (1783/2235), respectively. The lesions of pulmonary edema – hemorrhage, hemorrhagic liver, and gas-producing intestines were common, accounting for 86.19% (362/420), 95.48% (401/420), and 92.14% (387/420), respectively. Botulin toxin type C was found in a considerable number of serum samples, accounting for 40.48% (51/126). Meanwhile, the percentage of serum samples containing botulin toxin types E and D was 28.57% (36/126) and 25.40% (32/126), respectively. Clostridium botulinum was detected in the farming environment specifically 17.5% (105/600) in soil, 19.67% (118/600) in water, 8.33% (18/216) in crabs, and 3.00% (12/400) in snails. Conclusion: The free-range ducks in the Mekong Delta were at high risk of botulism because of the latent presence of Clostridium botulinum in the farming environment.
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Zbrojkiewicz, Małgorzata, Agata Lebiedowska, and Barbara Błońska-Fajfrowska Barbara Błońska-Fajfrowska. "Botulinum toxin in medicine and cosmetology – two hundred years’ history and new perspectives." Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej 72 (April 16, 2018): 278–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0011.7617.

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It has been nearly 200 years since the discovery of the botulinum toxin and the strain responsible for its synthesis Clostridium botulinum. Over this period, the knowledge about botulism and the use of botulinum toxin in medicine has been significantly expanded. Currently, eight serotypes of botulinum toxin (A-H) are known and they differ from each other by molecular weight, antigenic structure, immunogenicity, receptors, localization of coding genes and by the duration of the therapeutic effect. American physician Allan B. Scott was the first to demonstrate the use of botulinum toxin for medical purposes. Nowadays, botulinum toxin type A is widely used in medicine. Botulinum toxin injections are not only one of the most popular non-surgical aesthetic-cosmetic procedures, but are also widely used in neurology, ophthalmology and dermatology. The therapeutic potential of botulinum toxin has not been exhausted yet. Currently, many clinical trials are underway to extend the therapeutic indications of botulinum toxin and to improve its safety. Due to the huge development in medicine, botulinum toxin is today not only associated with aesthetic procedures and improvement in appearance, but also with raising the quality of life for people suffering from diseases with excessive muscle contraction and with other neuromuscular disorders.
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Dong, Min, Geoffrey Masuyer, and Pål Stenmark. "Botulinum and Tetanus Neurotoxins." Annual Review of Biochemistry 88, no. 1 (June 20, 2019): 811–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-013118-111654.

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Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) and tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) are the most potent toxins known and cause botulism and tetanus, respectively. BoNTs are also widely utilized as therapeutic toxins. They contain three functional domains responsible for receptor-binding, membrane translocation, and proteolytic cleavage of host proteins required for synaptic vesicle exocytosis. These toxins also have distinct features: BoNTs exist within a progenitor toxin complex (PTC), which protects the toxin and facilitates its absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, whereas TeNT is uniquely transported retrogradely within motor neurons. Our increasing knowledge of these toxins has allowed the development of engineered toxins for medical uses. The discovery of new BoNTs and BoNT-like proteins provides additional tools to understand the evolution of the toxins and to engineer toxin-based therapeutics. This review summarizes the progress on our understanding of BoNTs and TeNT, focusing on the PTC, receptor recognition, new BoNT-like toxins, and therapeutic toxin engineering.
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CRANDALL, ALLISON D., KAREN WINKOWSKI, and THOMAS J. MONTVILLE. "Inability of Pediococcus pentosaceus to Inhibit Clostridium botulinum in sous vide Beef With Gravy at 4 and 10°C." Journal of Food Protection 57, no. 2 (February 1, 1994): 104–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-57.2.104.

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The ability of Pediococcus pentosaceus to inhibit Clostridium botulinum toxigenesis in minimally heat-treated, vacuum-packaged sous vide-type beef with gravy was investigated. The bacteriocinogenic strain P. pentosaceus ATCC 43200 and the nonbacteriocinogenic strain P. pentosaceus 43NP1 were coinoculated with proteolytic and nonproteolytic C. botulinum types A and B spores into minimally processed meat with gravy. Toxin was present in samples inoculated with C. botulinum alone by day 31 at 4°C and by day 6 at 10°C. When coinoculated with C. botulinum, neither strain of Pediococcus was capable of significantly delaying the appearance of toxin. Although an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method for botulinal toxin was useful for screening toxin-positive samples, a high proportion of false negatives was revealed by confirmatory mouse bioassays. This research confirms that, if botulinal spores are present, sous vide beef does present a botulinal hazard, even when kept under adequate refrigeration.
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Fujinaga, Yukako. "Interaction of Botulinum Toxin with the Epithelial Barrier." Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2010 (2010): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/974943.

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Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is a protein toxin (~150 kDa), which possesses a metalloprotease activity. Food-borne botulism is manifested when BoNT is absorbed from the digestive tract to the blood stream and enters the peripheral nerves, where the toxin cleaves core proteins of the neuroexocytosis apparatus and elicits the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. The initial obstacle to orally ingested BoNT entering the body is the epithelial barrier of the digestive tract. Recent cell biology and molecular biology studies are beginning to elucidate the mechanism by which this large protein toxin crosses the epithelial barrier. In this review, we provide an overview of the structural features of botulinum toxins (BoNT and BoNT complex) and the interaction of these toxins with the epithelial barrier.
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Маргарян К.С., Саргсян Т.С., and Асланян А.С. "БОТУЛОТОКСИН. МЕХАНИЗМ ТОКСИЧЕСКОГО ВОЗДЕЙСТВИЯ. ПРИНЦИП ДЕЙСТВИЯ ЛЕКАРСТВЕННЫХ ПРЕПАРАТОВ НА ОСНОВЕ РАЗНЫХ СЕРОТИПОВ БОТУЛОТОКСИНА. ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ В МЕДИЦИНЕ." MEDICINE, SCIENCE AND EDUCATION, no. 36 (November 2023): 3–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.56936/18291775-2023.36-3.

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The paper discusses the most recent understanding of the mechanisms of action of naturally occurring botulinum toxins in the context of chemical analysis, the types of botulism, the conditions of their origin, causes of development, as well as the methods of prevention of the toxic process, according to the type of lesion. The structural and pathogenic mechanisms of these toxins (A, B, C, D, E, F, G) are very similar (due to the property of inhibiting the exocytosis of neurotransmitter and causing muscle paralysis). However, because each type of toxin has a unique receptor, they have different affinities for the three transporter proteins found in SNAR (VAMP, SNAP, and syntaxin). If in the process of pathogenesis BTA (botulotoxin A) cleaves the protein in the synaptose, BTB cleaves synaptobrevin, while the intracellular target of BTC (which is still in the research stage) are two proteins of the transporter complex (synaptotagmin and syntaxin) at the same time, which has a positive effect on some pharmacological features. The existence of the A1 and A2 subtypes of BTA is discussed, and a chemical justification is provided for why even a minor alteration in the amino acid sequence results in a difference in the biological and immunological characteristics of these subtypes. Furthermore, evidence supports the idea that reducing the amount of complexing proteins is a strategy to lessen toxicity, reduce immune-resistance, assure a long-lasting myorelaxant impact, and thereby increase the potential of botulinum toxin therapy. And this can be achieved by reducing the inactive toxins in the mixture, the ways of which are presented. Meanwhile, on the basis of that same mechanism, one of the unique manifestations of A and B botulinum toxins acting as active drugs, the phenomenon of botulinum toxin therapy, is explained, if of course they are completely free of toxic substances and act in minimal amounts. In the meantime, the phenomena of botulinum toxin therapy, one of the distinctive manifestations of A and B botulinum toxins operating as active medications, is explained on the basis of that same mechanism, assuming, of course, that they are completely free of toxic components and act in minimal levels. This is when they are converted from poison to medicine as “wonderful forces of nature that are meant to help people with diseases that were previously thought to be incurable”. The uniqueness of their mechanism of action, the availability of the drug in any zone of injection, the long duration of the pharmacological effect and, most importantly, the absence of systematic and side effects already justify the demand for drugs, based on botulinum toxins, in neurology, surgery, traumatology, nephrology, dentistry, ophthalmology, aesthetic medicine and later also prospective possibilities of their application in other clinical fields.
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Hannett, George E., Ward B. Stone, Stephen W. Davis, and Danielle Wroblewski. "Biodiversity ofClostridium botulinumType E Associated with a Large Outbreak of Botulism in Wildlife from Lake Erie and Lake Ontario." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77, no. 3 (November 29, 2010): 1061–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.01578-10.

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ABSTRACTThe genetic relatedness ofClostridium botulinumtype E isolates associated with an outbreak of wildlife botulism was studied using random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Specimens were collected from November 2000 to December 2008 during a large outbreak of botulism affecting birds and fish living in and around Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. In our present study, a total of 355 wildlife samples were tested for the presence of botulinum toxin and/or organisms. Type E botulinum toxin was detected in 110 samples from birds, 12 samples from fish, and 2 samples from mammals. Sediment samples from Lake Erie were also examined for the presence ofC. botulinum. Fifteen of 17 sediment samples were positive for the presence ofC. botulinumtype E. Eighty-oneC. botulinumisolates were obtained from plants, animals, and sediments; of these isolates, 44C. botulinumisolates produced type E toxin, as determined by mouse bioassay, while the remaining 37 isolates were not toxic for mice. All toxin-producing isolates were typed by RAPD; that analysis showed 12 different RAPD types and multiple subtypes. Our study thus demonstrates that multiple genetically distinct strains ofC. botulinumwere involved in the present outbreak of wildlife botulism. We found thatC. botulinumtype E is present in the sediments of Lake Erie and that a large range of bird and fish species is affected.
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Jaremek, Anna, Joanna Kępa, Norbert Kandefer, Michał Wyszkowski, Aleksandra Grabarczyk, Anna Pawlak, Sylwia Grad, Małgorzata Gregorek, and Paweł Gregorek. "The Use of Botulinum Toxin in Medicine: Safety and Efficacy Based on the Latest Research." Journal of Education, Health and Sport 44, no. 1 (August 18, 2023): 35–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/jehs.2023.44.01.003.

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Introduction and aim of the study: Botulinum toxin, produced by anaerobic bacteria of the Clostridium botulinum family, is one of the most potent organic compounds known to man. Despite its toxicity, it has found widespread use in medicine. From applications in aesthetic medicine, through the treatment of various disease entities, botulinum toxin has become an extremely valuable tool in the hands of doctors. The aim of this study is to review the latest research on the use of botulinum in medicine, with an emphasis on its safety and effectiveness. Methodology: The review work is mainly based on articles searched in the Pubmed and Google Scholar databases in the years 2016-2023. The study was conducted by reviewing keywords such as "botulin", "botulin toxin", "botulin treatment", "botulin aesthetic". Current state of knowledge: Botulinum is used in the treatment of such disease entities as hyperhidrosis, cervical dystonia, migraines, neurogenic bladder, as well as in the treatment of scars and wrinkles. The use of botulinum in medicine is safe, provided that it is used by qualified specialists and in appropriate doses. An area that requires further research is the impact of long-term botulinum therapy on the antibodies produced against the toxin. Additionally, an important area for further research is patient monitoring, appropriate dose adjustment and frequency of administration, which in turn can increase the effectiveness of treatment. Summary: Botulinum toxin is an effective tool in medicine, which has many applications. However, as with any drug, it requires appropriate use and understanding of potential side effects. Further research and education are key to fully exploiting its potential and assessing the risk associated with long-term use.
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Rempel, Lucas, Raza N. Malik, Claire Shackleton, Martín Calderón-Juárez, Rahul Sachdeva, and Andrei V. Krassioukov. "From Toxin to Treatment: A Narrative Review on the Use of Botulinum Toxin for Autonomic Dysfunction." Toxins 16, no. 2 (February 10, 2024): 96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/toxins16020096.

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Since its regulatory approval over a half-century ago, botulinum toxin has evolved from one of the most potent neurotoxins known to becoming routinely adopted in clinical practice. Botulinum toxin, a highly potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium botulinum, can cause botulism illness, characterized by widespread muscle weakness due to inhibition of acetylcholine transmission at neuromuscular junctions. The observation of botulinum toxin’s anticholinergic properties led to the investigation of its potential benefits for conditions with an underlying etiology of cholinergic transmission, including autonomic nervous system dysfunction. These conditions range from disorders of the integument to gastrointestinal and urinary systems. Several formulations of botulinum toxin have been developed and tested over time, significantly increasing the availability of this treatment for appropriate clinical use. Despite the accelerated and expanded use of botulinum toxin, there lacks an updated comprehensive review on its therapeutic use, particularly to treat autonomic dysfunction. This narrative review provides an overview of the effect of botulinum toxin in the treatment of autonomic dysfunction and summarizes the different formulations and dosages most widely studied, while highlighting reported outcomes and the occurrence of any adverse events.
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Shao, Jian-Wei, Xiang-Dong Ruan, Xin-Cheng Qin, Jie Yan, and Yong-Zhen Zhang. "Metatranscriptomics reveals that the death of a Mongolian wild ass was caused by Clostridium botulinum in Inner Mongolia, China." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 32, no. 2 (February 15, 2020): 287–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1040638720905314.

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Clostridium botulinum is an important pathogen that causes botulism in humans and animals worldwide. C. botulinum group III strains, which produce a single toxin of type C or D or a chimeric toxin of type C/D or D/C, are responsible for botulism in a wide range of animal species including cattle and birds. We used unbiased high-throughput RNA sequencing (i.e., metatranscriptomics) to identify a strain of group III C. botulinum from a deceased Mongolian wild ass ( Equus hemionus). The strain was closely related to some European strains. Genetic analysis of the recovered bacterial sequences showed that the C. botulinum strain identified might represent a type C/D strain of group III. Infection by C. botulinum producing the mosaic toxin of type C/D is the most likely cause of the death of the wild ass.
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GLASS, KATHLEEN A., KRISTINE M. KAUFMAN, ANGELIQUE L. SMITH, ERIC A. JOHNSON, JOSEPH H. CHEN, and JOSEPH HOTCHKISS. "Toxin Production by Clostridium botulinum in Pasteurized Milk Treated with Carbon Dioxide." Journal of Food Protection 62, no. 8 (August 1, 1999): 872–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-62.8.872.

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The addition of carbon dioxide to milk at levels of <20 mM inhibits the growth of selected spoilage organisms and extends refrigerated shelf life. Our objective was to determine if the addition of CO2 influenced the risk of botulism from milk. Carbon dioxide was added to pasteurized 2% fat milk at approximately 0, 9.1, or 18.2 mM using a commercial gas-injection system. The milk was inoculated with a 10-strain mixture of proteolytic and nonproteolytic Clostridium botulinum spore strains to yield 101 to 102 spores/ml. Milk was stored at 6.1 or 21°C for 60 or 6 days, respectively, in sealed glass jars or high-density polyethylene plastic bottles. Milk stored at 21°C curdled and exhibited a yogurt-like odor at 2 days and was putrid at 4 days. Botulinal toxin was detected in 9.1 mM CO2 milk at 4 days and in all treatments after 6 days of storage at 21°C. All toxic samples were grossly spoiled based on sensory evaluation at the time toxin was detected. Although botulinal toxin appeared earlier in milk treated with 9.1 mM CO2 compared to both the 18.2 mM and untreated milk, gross spoilage would act as a deterrent to consumption of toxic milk. No botulinal toxin was detected in any treatment stored at 6.1°C for 60 days. At 6.1°C, the standard plate counts (SPCs) were generally lower in the CO2-treated samples than in controls, with 18.2 mM CO2 milk having the lowest SPC. These data indicate that the low-level addition of CO2 retards spoilage of pasteurized milk at refrigeration temperatures and does not increase the risk of botulism from treated milk stored at refrigeration or abuse temperatures.
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McGrath, S., J. S. G. Dooley, and R. W. Haylock. "Quantification of Clostridium botulinumToxin Gene Expression by Competitive Reverse Transcription-PCR." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66, no. 4 (April 1, 2000): 1423–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.66.4.1423-1428.2000.

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ABSTRACT Clostridium botulinum produces a characteristic botulinum neurotoxin which can cause an often fatal neuroparalytic condition known as botulism. Although food-borne botulism is rare, critical screening by food companies is necessary to ensure that food products are safe. At present, the food industry assesses the risks of botulinum neurotoxin production by challenge testing to check any new food products and to check the efficacy of new storage regimes. Challenge testing involves artificial introduction of defined strains of microorganisms into food, and microbial growth and possible toxin production are then monitored. Botulinum toxin is normally analyzed by using the mouse bioassay. However, the mouse bioassay is expensive, slow, and politically sensitive because of animal rights issues. In this paper we describe adaptation of a new assay, competitive reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), to monitor botulinum neurotoxin production. This method accurately measures the level of toxin-encoding mRNA inC. botulinum cells. Measurement of mRNA should provide a good indication of gene expression as mRNA is turned over rapidly in bacterial cells. In addition, the method is rapid, specific, and sensitive. The competitive RT-PCR method was developed to examineC. botulinum E VH toxin gene expression and was used to investigate the level of toxin production by C. botulinum E VH when the organism was grown in two different types of broth. The results which we obtained with the competitive RT-PCR method demonstrated that this method is more rapid and more sensitive than the mouse bioassay.
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Archana, M. S. "Toxin yet not toxic: Botulinum toxin in dentistry." Saudi Dental Journal 28, no. 2 (April 2016): 63–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sdentj.2015.08.002.

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Vossen, Matthias Gerhard, Klaus-Bernhard Gattringer, Judith Wenisch, Neda Khalifeh, Maria Koreny, Verena Spertini, Franz Allerberger, et al. "The First Case(s) of Botulism in Vienna in 21 Years: A Case Report." Case Reports in Infectious Diseases 2012 (2012): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/438989.

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We describe two linked cases of botulinum toxin intoxication to provide the clinician with a better idea about how botulism cases may present since early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in botulism. Botulinum toxin is the strongest neurotoxin known.Methods:We review the available literature, the compiled clinical data, and observations.Results:After a slow onset of clinical signs a married couple living in Vienna presented with dysphagia, difficulties in accommodation, inability to sweat, urinary and stool retention, dizziness, and nausea. They suffered intoxication with botulinum toxin type B. Botulism is a rarely occurring disease in Austria. In the last 21 years there were only twelve reported cases.Conclusion:Both patients went to a general practitioner as well as several specialists before they were sent to and correctly diagnosed at our outpatient department. To avoid long delays between intoxication and diagnosis we think it is crucial to advert to the complex symptoms a nonsevere intoxication with botulinum toxin can produce, especially since intoxications have become rare occurrences in the industrialized societies due to the high quality of industrial food production.
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MA, LI, GUODONG ZHANG, JEREMY SOBEL, and MICHAEL P. DOYLE. "Evaluation of the Effect of Acetylsalicylic Acid on Clostridium botulinum Growth and Toxin Production." Journal of Food Protection 70, no. 12 (December 1, 2007): 2860–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-70.12.2860.

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The Republic of Georgia (ROG) has the highest incidence of botulism among all countries in the world, with most cases attributed to home-preserved vegetables. Based on epidemiologic data, the occurrence of botulism in ROG is lower in areas where aspirin (active ingredient, acetylsalicylic acid [ASA]) is added to home-canned vegetables. The objective of this study was to evaluate, with a broth medium, the antibotulinal activity of ASA to determine the possible role of ASA in preventing botulinum toxin production in home-canned vegetables. Trypticase-peptone-glucose-yeast (TPGY) broth (pH 7.0) with 0, 0.3, and 0.6 mg of ASA per ml was inoculated with a 10-strain mixture of proteolytic Clostridium botulinum type A and B spores at ca. 103 spores per ml. The inoculated broths were incubated at 31°C under anaerobic conditions, and C. botulinum growth and botulinum toxin production were determined for up to 36 h. Results showed ASA in broth delayed (time to initial detectable toxin produced and amount of toxin produced), but did not prevent, both growth and toxin production by C. botulinum. These results would not provide a definitive explanation for differences in toxin production in canned vegetables prepared with and without aspirin.
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Eleopra, Roberto, Valeria Tugnoli, Rocco Quatrale, Ornella Rossetto, Cesare Montecucco, and Dirk Dressler. "Clinical use of non-a botulinum toxins: Botulinum toxin type C and botulinum toxin type F." Neurotoxicity Research 9, no. 2-3 (June 2006): 127–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03033930.

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Kamarthi, Nagaraju, Sangeeta Malik, Sumit Goel, Swati Gupta, and Shubham Sharma. "Botulinum toxin: a boon or bane in dentistry." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 11, no. 4 (June 23, 2022): 348. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20221603.

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Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin which is produced by the Clostridium botulinum bacteria. It is an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod-shaped bacteria which is commonly found in soil, on plants, in water and in the intestinal tracts of animals. All the serotypes of botulinum toxin interfere with neural transmission by blocking the release of acetylcholine. The use of botulinum toxins has revolutionised the treatment of various ophthalmic spastic disorders, Orofacial pain conditions, facial dystonia and periocular wrinkles. A precise knowledge and understanding of the functional anatomy of the mimetic muscles is absolutely necessary to correctly use botulinum toxins in clinical practice. This article is an effort to understand Botulinum toxin and its applications in head and neck.
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GLASS, KATHLEEN A., and MICHAEL P. DOYLE. "Relationship Between Water Activity of Fresh Pasta and Toxin Production by Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum." Journal of Food Protection 54, no. 3 (March 1, 1991): 162–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.4315/0362-028x-54.3.162.

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Four types of fresh pasta (meat- or cheese-filled tortellini and flat noodle linguine or fettucine) were prepared with different water activities, inoculated with proteolytic Clostridium botulinum spores, packaged under a modified atmosphere, and stored at either 4 or 30°C for 8 to 10 weeks. Products were assayed for botulinal toxin at appropriate sampling times. No toxin was detected in any fresh pasta held at 4°C for up to 8 weeks. However, toxin was detected in meat tortellini with aw of 0.99 and 0.95 at 2 and 6 weeks, respectively, when held at 30°C. Toxin was not detected in tortellini with an aw of 0.94 or below held at 30°C for 10 weeks. Toxin was produced at 2 weeks in linguine at aw 0.96 and held at 30°C, whereas no linguine or fettucine at aw 0.93 or 0.95 and held at 30°C was toxic during 10 or 8 weeks, respectively. The aw of fresh pasta is a principal factor in preventing botulinal toxin production by proteolytic C. botulinum in temperature-abused products. A survey of commercially available fresh pasta revealed that most flat noodles were below the aw limit for botulinal toxin production, whereas most of the filled pasta had aw values which permitted toxin production if temperature abuse occurred.
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Kelch, William J., Larry A. Kerr, John K. Pringle, Barton W. Rohrbach, and Robert H. Whitlock. "Fatal Clostridium Botulinum Toxicosis in Eleven Holstein Cattle Fed Round Bale Barley Haylage." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 12, no. 5 (September 2000): 453–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104063870001200511.

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Twenty-two lactating Holstein cattle in Tennessee had clinical signs of intoxication with preformed Clostridium botulinum toxin. These signs included weakness, paralysis of the tongue and chest muscles, abdominal breathing, and, in 11 of the 22 cows, death. Differential diagnoses included hypocalcemia, hypo-magnesemia, carbohydrate overload, and several toxicoses including mycotoxin, lead, nitrate, organophosphate, atropine or atropine-like alkaloid, and botulism. A diagnosis of botulism by the ingestion of preformed C. botulinum type B toxin was made by eliminating these other diseases, by finding C. botulinum type B spores in 3 bales of round bale barley haylage fed to these cattle, and by isolating preformed type B toxin from 1 of the 3 bales. Confirmation of the toxin type was made by demonstrating mouse lethality by intraperitoneal injection of specimen extracts with neutralization by C. botulinum type B antitoxin. The haylage, harvested green and encased in black plastic bags to facilitate fermentation, was presumably contaminated by the botu-linum toxin when fermentation failed to produce enough acid to lower the pH to 4.5, the pH below which C. botulinum growth is inhibited. Farmers and ranchers who use round hay balers to produce haylage should be alert to this potential problem.
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Corsalini, Massimo, Francesco Inchingolo, Gianna Dipalma, Angelika Elzbieta Wegierska, Ioannis Alexandros Charitos, Maria Assunta Potenza, Antonio Scarano, et al. "Botulinum Neurotoxins (BoNTs) and Their Biological, Pharmacological, and Toxicological Issues: A Scoping Review." Applied Sciences 11, no. 19 (September 23, 2021): 8849. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11198849.

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Botulinum toxins or neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most potent neurotoxins known, and are currently extensively studied, not only for their potential lethality, but also for their possible therapeutic and cosmetic uses. Currently, seven types of antigenically distinct toxins are known and characterized, produced by a rod-shaped bacterium, Clostridium botulinum. Human poisoning by botulism (presenting with severe neuromuscular paralytic disease) is usually caused by toxins A, B, E, and F type. Poisoning from contaminated food preparations is the most common cause of noniatrogenic botulism. The spores are highly resistant to heat but are easily destroyed at 80 °C for thirty minutes. Type A and B toxins are resistant to digestion by the enzymes of the gastrointestinal system. After their entry, BoNTs irreversibly bind to cholinergic nerve endings and block the release of acetylcholine from the synapses. In contrast, in wound botulism, the neurotoxin is instead product by the growth of C. botulium in infected tissues. The contamination by BoNT inhalation does not occur by a natural route but it is certainly the most dangerous. It can be caused by the dispersion of the botulinum toxin in the atmosphere in the form of an aerosol and therefore can be deliberately used for bioterrorist purposes (e.g., during CBRN (chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear) unconventional events). In addition, BoNTs are currently used to treat a variety of diseases or alleviate their symptoms, such as the onabotulinumtoxinA for migraine attacks and for cosmetic use. Indeed, this paper aims to report on updated knowledge of BoNTs, both their toxicological mechanisms and their pharmacological action.
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Tanakol, Ali, Zekayi Kutlubay, Burhan Engin, and Server Serdaroğlu. "Botulinum Toxin." Dermatoz 10, no. 4 (October 7, 2020): 107–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.4274/dermatoz.galenos.2019.54264.

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39

&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 1389 (February 2012): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-201213890-00044.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 704 (June 1998): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199807040-00016.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 724 (October 1998): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199807240-00017.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 1173 (October 2007): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-200711730-00022.

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Nigam, PK, and Anjana Nigam. "Botulinum toxin." Indian Journal of Dermatology 55, no. 1 (2010): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.60343.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 1365 (August 2011): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-201113650-00032.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 538 (February 1995): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199505380-00013.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 556 (June 1995): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199505560-00023.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 560 (July 1995): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199505600-00017.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 600 (May 1996): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199606000-00013.

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Savardekar, Preeti. "Botulinum toxin." Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology 74, no. 1 (2008): 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0378-6323.38427.

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&NA;. "Botulinum toxin." Reactions Weekly &NA;, no. 435 (January 1993): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00128415-199304350-00021.

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