Journal articles: 'Bluetongue virus; Ruminants'

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Rojas, José M., Daniel Rodríguez-Martín, Verónica Martín, and Noemí Sevilla. "Diagnosing bluetongue virus in domestic ruminants: current perspectives." Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports Volume 10 (February 2019): 17–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vmrr.s163804.

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Vial, Mateus de Oliveira, Brennda Vitorino Corrêa, Ana Clara Malegoni, Tayná Bolsam da Silva, Lara Cassaro, Luiz Alexandre Moscon, Diogo Almeida Rondon, and Clairton Marcolongo Pereira. "Bluetongue Virus Infection in Ruminants: A Review Paper." OALib 08, no. 02 (2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107150.

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Shad, G., W. C. Wilson, J. O. Mecham, and J. F. Evermann. "Bluetongue Virus Detection: A Safer Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction for Prediction of Viremia in Sheep." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 9, no. 2 (April 1997): 118–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104063879700900202.

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A reversible target capture viral RNA extraction procedure was combined with a reverse-transcriptase nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to develop a capture PCR assay providing a rapid and safe prediction method for circulating bluetongue virus in infected ruminants. This new assay was compared with virus isolation and a recently developed antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of bluetongue virus. Eight Warhill crossbred sheep were inoculated subcutaneously with bluetongue virus serotype 10, and blood samples were taken sequentially over a period of 28 days. The capture PCR detected the peak of viremia, as determined by virus isolation and antigen-capture ELISA, from day 5 to day 14 after challenge. The results indicate that the rapid-capture bluetongue virus PCR provides a rapid indicator of samples in which virus can be isolated. In addition, this capture bluetongue virus PCR procedure does not require a lengthy phenol extraction or the use of the highly toxic methyl mercury hydroxide denaturant.

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Nath Sharma, Ravindra, Sureni Beckford, Keshaw Tiwari, Elodie Vinet, Derek Thomas, Claude de Allie, and Alfred Chikweto. "Seroprevalence of Bluetongue Virus Antibody in Ruminants from Grenada." Open Journal of Veterinary Medicine 06, no. 06 (2016): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojvm.2016.66013.

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Lee, Fan, Lu-Jen Ting, Ming-Hwa Jong, Wei-Ming Chang, and Fun-In Wang. "Subclinical bluetongue virus infection in domestic ruminants in Taiwan." Veterinary Microbiology 142, no. 3-4 (May 2010): 225–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.10.005.

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Ekue, F. N., A. N. Nfi, P. Tsangue, W. P. Taylor, and I. D. Gumm. "Prevalence of bluetongue virus antibodies in ruminants in Cameroon." Tropical Animal Health and Production 17, no. 4 (December 1985): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02356973.

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Sperlova, A., and D. Zendulkova. " Bluetongue: a review." Veterinární Medicína 56, No. 9 (October 6, 2011): 430–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/3206-vetmed.

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 Bluetongue is a non-contagious disease of domestic and wild ruminants caused by a virus within the Orbivirus genus of the family Reoviridae and transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. It is a reportable disease of considerable socioeconomic concern and of major importance for the international trade of animals and animal products. In the past, bluetongue endemic areas were found between latitudes 40°N and 35°S; however, bluetongue has recently spread far beyond this traditional range. This is in accordance with the extension of areas in which the biting midge Culicoides imicola, the major vector of the virus in the “Old World”, is active. After 1998 new serotypes of bluetongue virus (BTV) were discovered in Southern European and Mediterranean countries. Since 2006 BTV-serotype 8 has also been reported from the countries in Northern and Western Europe where Culicoides imicola has not been found. In such cases, BTV is transmitted by Palearctic biting midges, such as C. obsoletus or C. dewulfi, and the disease has thus spread much further north than BTV has ever previously been detected. New BTV serotypes have recently been identified also in Israel, Australia and the USA. This review presents comprehensive information on this dangerous disease including its history, spread, routes of transmission and host range, as well as the causative agent and pathogenesis and diagnosis of the disease. It also deals with relevant preventive and control measures to be implemented in areas with bluetongue outbreaks.  

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Đurić, Spomenka, Milorad Mirilović, Vladimir Magaš, Dragan Bacić, Zoran Stanimirović, Slobodan Stanojević, and Slavoljub Stanojević. "Simulation of the Transmission by Vectors of Bluetongue Disease and Analysis of the Control Strategy." Acta Veterinaria 68, no. 3 (September 1, 2018): 269–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/acve-2018-0024.

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Abstract Bluetongue disease is an infectious non-contagious disease of domestic and wild ruminants, transmitted by hematophagous insects of the genus Culicoides. In endemic areas the disease has a seasonal character, occurs usually in summer when the population of vectors is at its peak. Culicoides are active at temperatures in the range from 13oto 35oC. The replication of the virus stops when the environmental temperature is below 13oC. It has been reported that the temperature and humidity of the environment affect to a great extent the biology of the vector and the survival of the virus in the reservoirs. During the summer, the number of infected cattle and sheep is directly dependent on the density of the population of the vector, the length of vectors’ life-span, the temperature of the environment and by precipitation, the affi nity of the vector to different hosts, and the ability of the vector to locate the host. Bluetongue has been spreading worldwide due to climatic changes and increasing average daily temperatures. The seasonal occurrences of the disease and the climate change have conditioned the need for adopting new strategies. The stochastic SEIRD mathematical model has been developed in order to simulate the transmission of the Bluetongue virus through the susceptible ruminant population on the territory of the Republic of Serbia, as well as to investigate the effect of climatic factors on the vector population and the magnitude of a possible epizootia. Besides the effects of climatic factors, we have analyzed a number of different approaches in the control of the disease based upon the vaccination of ruminants and control of vectors.

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Ratinier, Maxime, Andrew E. Shaw, Gerald Barry, Quan Gu, Luigina Di Gialleonardo, Anna Janowicz, Mariana Varela, Richard E. Randall, Marco Caporale, and Massimo Palmarini. "Bluetongue Virus NS4 Protein Is an Interferon Antagonist and a Determinant of Virus Virulence." Journal of Virology 90, no. 11 (March 23, 2016): 5427–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00422-16.

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ABSTRACTBluetongue virus (BTV) is the causative agent of bluetongue, a major infectious disease of ruminants with serious consequences to both animal health and the economy. The clinical outcome of BTV infection is highly variable and dependent on a variety of factors related to both the virus and the host. In this study, we show that the BTV nonstructural protein NS4 favors viral replication in sheep, the animal species most affected by bluetongue. In addition, NS4 confers a replication advantage on the virus in interferon (IFN)-competent primary sheep endothelial cells and immortalized cell lines. We determined that in cells infected with an NS4 deletion mutant (BTV8ΔNS4), there is increased synthesis of type I IFN compared to cells infected with wild-type BTV-8. In addition, using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), we show that NS4 modulates the host IFN response and downregulates mRNA levels of type I IFN and interferon-stimulated genes. Moreover, using reporter assays and protein synthesis assays, we show that NS4 downregulates the activities of a variety of promoters, such as the cytomegalovirus immediate-early promoter, the IFN-β promoter, and a promoter containing interferon-stimulated response elements (ISRE). We also show that the NS4 inhibitory activity on gene expression is related to its nucleolar localization. Furthermore, NS4 does not affect mRNA splicing or cellular translation. The data obtained in this study strongly suggest that BTV NS4 is an IFN antagonist and a key determinant of viral virulence.IMPORTANCEBluetongue is one of the main infectious diseases of ruminants and is caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), an arthropod-borne virus transmitted from infected to susceptible animals byCulicoidesbiting midges. Bluetongue has a variable clinical outcome that can be related to both virus and host factors. It is therefore critical to understand the interplay between BTV and the host immune responses. In this study, we show that a nonstructural protein of BTV (NS4) is critical to counteract the innate immune response of the host. Infection of cells with a BTV mutant lacking NS4 results in increased synthesis of IFN-β and upregulation of interferon-stimulated genes. In addition, we show that NS4 is a virulence factor for BTV by favoring viral replication in sheep, the animal species most susceptible to bluetongue.

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Corbière, Fabien, Sophie Nussbaum, Jean-Pierre Alzieu, Mylène Lemaire, Gilles Meyer, Gilles Foucras, and François Schelcher. "Bluetongue Virus Serotype 1 in Wild Ruminants, France, 2008–10." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 48, no. 4 (October 2012): 1047–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.7589/2011-12-359.

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MacLachlan, N. James. "The pathogenesis and immunology of bluetongue virus infection of ruminants." Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 17, no. 3-4 (August 1994): 197–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0147-9571(94)90043-4.

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Reczyńska, Daria, Magdalena Zalewska, Michał Czopowicz, Jarosław Kaba, Lech Zwierzchowski, and Emilia Bagnicka. "Acute Phase Protein Levels as An Auxiliary Tool in Diagnosing Viral Diseases in Ruminants—A Review." Viruses 10, no. 9 (September 15, 2018): 502. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v10090502.

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We examined acute phase protein (APP) concentrations in viral infections of dairy ruminants and assessed the potential role of characteristic patterns of APP changes in auxiliary diagnosing viral diseases. All viruses reviewed are common causes of farm animal diseases. APPs are among the first agents of immunity, and their concentrations could be diagnostically relevant. In the most common ruminant viral diseases, elevated serum amyloid A (SAA) and haptoglobin (Hp) levels in blood serum have been observed. However, since these proteins are the main APPs in many viral infections, it is impossible to use their levels for diagnosing particular infections. Decreased Cp and albumin expression could help differentiate the bluetongue virus infection from other diseases. Lastly, analysis of SAA levels in blood serum and milk could be helpful in diagnosing small ruminant lentivirus infection. While promising, APP levels can only be considered as an auxiliary tool in diagnosing viral diseases in ruminants.

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Feenstra, Femke, René G. P. van Gennip, Mieke Maris-Veldhuis, Eline Verheij, and Piet A. van Rijn. "Bluetongue virus without NS3/NS3a expression is not virulent and protects against virulent bluetongue virus challenge." Journal of General Virology 95, no. 9 (September 1, 2014): 2019–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.065615-0.

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Bluetongue is a disease in ruminants caused by the bluetongue virus (BTV), and is spread by Culicoides biting midges. Bluetongue outbreaks cause huge economic losses and death in sheep in several parts of the world. The most effective measure to control BTV is vaccination. However, both commercially available vaccines and recently developed vaccine candidates have several shortcomings. Therefore, we generated and tested next-generation vaccines for bluetongue based on the backbone of a laboratory-adapted strain of BTV-1, avirulent BTV-6 or virulent BTV-8. All vaccine candidates were serotyped with VP2 of BTV-8 and did not express NS3/NS3a non-structural proteins, due to induced deletions in the NS3/NS3a ORF. Sheep were vaccinated once with one of these vaccine candidates and were challenged with virulent BTV-8 3 weeks after vaccination. The NS3/NS3a knockout mutation caused complete avirulence for all three BTV backbones, including for virulent BTV-8, indicating that safety is associated with the NS3/NS3a knockout phenotype. Viraemia of vaccine virus was not detected using sensitive PCR diagnostics. Apparently, the vaccine viruses replicated only locally, which will minimize spread by the insect vector. In particular, the vaccine based on the BTV-6 backbone protected against disease and prevented viraemia of challenge virus, showing the efficacy of this vaccine candidate. The lack of NS3/NS3a expression potentially enables the differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals, which is important for monitoring virus spread in vaccinated livestock. The disabled infectious single-animal vaccine for bluetongue presented here is very promising and will be the subject of future studies.

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Rodríguez-Martín, Daniel, Andrés Louloudes-Lázaro, Miguel Avia, Verónica Martín, José M. Rojas, and Noemí Sevilla. "The Interplay between Bluetongue Virus Infections and Adaptive Immunity." Viruses 13, no. 8 (July 31, 2021): 1511. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13081511.

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Viral infections have long provided a platform to understand the workings of immunity. For instance, great strides towards defining basic immunology concepts, such as MHC restriction of antigen presentation or T-cell memory development and maintenance, have been achieved thanks to the study of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) infections. These studies have also shaped our understanding of antiviral immunity, and in particular T-cell responses. In the present review, we discuss how bluetongue virus (BTV), an economically important arbovirus from the Reoviridae family that affects ruminants, affects adaptive immunity in the natural hosts. During the initial stages of infection, BTV triggers leucopenia in the hosts. The host then mounts an adaptive immune response that controls the disease. In this work, we discuss how BTV triggers CD8+ T-cell expansion and neutralizing antibody responses, yet in some individuals viremia remains detectable after these adaptive immune mechanisms are active. We present some unpublished data showing that BTV infection also affects other T cell populations such as CD4+ T-cells or γδ T-cells, as well as B-cell numbers in the periphery. This review also discusses how BTV evades these adaptive immune mechanisms so that it can be transmitted back to the arthropod host. Understanding the interaction of BTV with immunity could ultimately define the correlates of protection with immune mechanisms that would improve our knowledge of ruminant immunology.

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ORŁOWSKA, ANNA, MARCIN SMRECZAK, and JERZY ROLA. "Bluetongue in Europe – the risk of animal import from restricted zones." Medycyna Weterynaryjna 75, no. 05 (2019): 6254–2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.21521/mw.6254.

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Bluetongue (BT) is a vector-borne viral disease effecting ruminants caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), transmitted mainly by bites from midges of the genus Culicoides. Since the end of 20th century, BTV is endemic in several European countries and the disease is caused mainly by BTV-8 and BTV-4 infections. Bluetongue virus is characterized by high genetic diversity. To date, over 29 BTV serotypes have been documented, including recently discovered atypical serotypes BTV (25–27). The disease has a high economic impact as it causes economic losses due to animal mortality, reduced productivity and restrictions on the movement of animals. Several reports and numerous observations indicate the contribution of animal movements to the spread of BTV infections. Thus, bluetongue surveillance that includes testing of sentinel animals as well as virological testing of animals susceptible to BTV infection imported from restricted zones due to the presence of BTV is a key factor in maintaining a BT-free status

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Morikawa, Vivien M., Maysa Pellizzaro, Igor A. D. Paploski, Mariana Kikuti, Maria C. C. S. H. Lara, Liria H. Okuda, Alexander W. Biondo, and Ivan R. Barros Filho. "Serosurvey of bluetongue, caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) and Maedi-Visna in Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) of a southern Brazilian zoo." Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 38, no. 6 (June 2018): 1203–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-4590.

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ABSTRACT: Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious and non-contagious disease of compulsory notification which may affect domestic and wild ruminants, transmitted by Culicoides spp. midges. Despite the high morbidity and mortality in sheep, role of wild animals in the BT cycle remains unclear. Caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) and Maedi-Visna virus (MVV) have been reportedly found in goats and sheep, but not described in wildlife species. Accordingly, serum samples from 17 captive Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) from Curitiba zoo, southern Brazil, were tested for bluetongue, caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) and Maedi-Visna viruses by agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Antibodies for bluetongue were observed in 6/17 (35.3%) Barbary sheep by AGID test and in 7/17 (41.2%) by ELISA. All samples were negative for the presence of antibodies against caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) and Maedi-Visna viruses. These findings indicate that Barbary sheep may be infected by bluetongue virus and act as wildlife reservoir in both captive and free-range environments.

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Hemati, Behzad, Vanessa Contreras, Céline Urien, Michel Bonneau, Haru-Hisa Takamatsu, Peter P. C. Mertens, Emmanuel Bréard, Corinne Sailleau, Stéphan Zientara, and Isabelle Schwartz-Cornil. "Bluetongue Virus Targets Conventional Dendritic Cells in Skin Lymph." Journal of Virology 83, no. 17 (June 24, 2009): 8789–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00626-09.

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ABSTRACT Bluetongue virus (BTV) is the etiological agent of bluetongue, a hemorrhagic disease of ruminants (particularly sheep), which causes important economic losses around the world. BTV is transmitted primarily via the bites of infected midges, which inject the virus into the ruminant's skin during blood feeding. The virus initially replicates in the draining lymph node and then disseminates to secondary organs where it induces edema, hemorrhages, and necrosis. In this study, we show that ovine conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) are the primary targets of BTV that contribute to the primary dissemination of BTV from the skin to draining lymph nodes. Lymph cDCs support BTV RNA and protein synthesis, as well as the production of infectious virus belonging to several different BTV serotypes, regardless of their level of attenuation. Afferent lymph cell subsets, other than cDCs, showed only marginal levels of BTV protein expression. BTV infection provoked a massive recruitment of cDCs to the sheep skin and afferent lymph, providing cellular targets for infection. Although BTV productively infects cDCs, no negative impact on their physiology was detected. Indeed, BTV infection and protein expression in cDCs enhanced their survival rate. Several serotypes of BTV stimulated the surface expression of the CD80 and CD86 costimulatory molecules on cDCs as well as the mRNA synthesis of cytokines involved in inflammation and immunity, i.e., interleukin-12 (IL-12), IL-1β, and IL-6. BTV-infected cDCs stimulated antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 proliferation as well as gamma interferon production. BTV initially targets cDCs while preserving their functional properties, reflecting the optimal adaptation of the virus to its host cells for its first spread.

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Ruiz-Fons, Francisco, Álvaro R. Reyes-García, Vicente Alcaide, and Christian Gortázar. "Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Bluetongue Virus in Wild Ruminants, Spain." Emerging Infectious Diseases 14, no. 6 (June 2008): 951–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1406.071586.

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Pany, Shaswati Subhadarsini, Karam Chand, Sanchay Kumar Biswas, Bimalendu Mondal, and Hemant Kumar Panda. "Prevalence of bluetongue virus antibodies in small ruminants of coastal Odisha." Indian Journal of Small Ruminants (The) 24, no. 1 (2018): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0973-9718.2018.00030.2.

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Sohail, T., T. Yaqub, M. Shafee, T. Abbas, J. Nazir, N. Ullah, M. Rabbani, et al. "Seroprevalence of Bluetongue Virus in small ruminants in Balochistan province, Pakistan." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 65, no. 5 (March 31, 2018): 1272–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12871.

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Chambaro, Herman M., Michihito Sasaki, Edgar Simulundu, Isaac Silwamba, Yona Sinkala, Gabriel Gonzalez, David Squarre, et al. "Co-Circulation of Multiple Serotypes of Bluetongue Virus in Zambia." Viruses 12, no. 9 (August 31, 2020): 963. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v12090963.

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Bluetongue (BT) is an arthropod-borne viral disease of ruminants with serious trade and socio-economic implications. Although the disease has been reported in a number of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, there is currently no information on circulating serotypes and disease distribution in Zambia. Following surveillance for BT in domestic and wild ruminants in Zambia, BT virus (BTV) nucleic acid and antibodies were detected in eight of the 10 provinces of the country. About 40% (87/215) of pooled blood samples from cattle and goats were positive for BTV nucleic acid, while one hartebeest pool (1/43) was positive among wildlife samples. Sequence analysis of segment 2 revealed presence of serotypes 3, 5, 7, 12 and 15, with five nucleotypes (B, E, F, G and J) being identified. Segment 10 phylogeny showed Zambian BTV sequences clustering with Western topotype strains from South Africa, intimating likely transboundary spread of BTV in Southern Africa. Interestingly, two Zambian viruses and one isolate from Israel formed a novel clade, which we designated as Western topotype 4. The high seroprevalence (96.2%) in cattle from Lusaka and Central provinces and co-circulation of multiple serotypes showed that BT is widespread, underscoring the need for prevention and control strategies.

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Marku, N., K. Bërxholi, J. Spahiu, K. Sherifi, and A. Rexhepi. "Seroprevalence of bluetongue disease virus (BTV) among domestic ruminants in Kosovo and first record of BTV serotype 4 in sheep." BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 22, no. 1 (2019): 50–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.15547/bjvm.2017.

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The objective of the study was to estimate the seroprevalence and serotype of bluetongue virus (BTV) in domestic ruminants in different regions in Kosovo, in years 2014 and 2015. A total of 905 blood sera were analysed: 633 from sheep, 204 from cattle and 68 from goats, collected in 170 farms, 88 villages in 18 municipalities. All samples were analysed with c-ELISA for detection of BTV seroprevalence. From sheep with clinical signs samples were collected and were analysed with specific RT-PCR. Out of all 905 samples analysed with c-ELISA, 105 samples (11.6%) were seropositive (53 ovine, 39 bovine and 13 caprine). The 43 samples from sheep with clinical sings for bluetongue disease were confirmed by RT-PCR, and BTV-4 serotype was identified. The results indicated high seroprevalence of BTV in domestic ruminants, evidence of BTV-4 serotype in sheep, suggesting a need to strengthen national and regional scientific efforts and control strategy to meet the global challenge of this infectious disease.

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Becker, Michael E., Jonathan Roberts, Megan E. Schroeder, Glen Gentry, and Lane D. Foil. "Prospective Study of Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus and Bluetongue Virus Transmission in Captive Ruminants." Journal of Medical Entomology 57, no. 4 (February 21, 2020): 1277–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjaa027.

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Abstract Bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) cause hemorrhagic disease (HD) in wild ruminants and bluetongue disease (BT) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) in livestock. These viruses are transmitted by biting midges in the genus Culicoides (family Ceratopogonidae). Mortality from this disease can reach 90% in certain breeds of sheep and in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). From January until December of 2012, we conducted a prospective study to determine the origin and routes of transmission of BTV and EHDV in captive deer and cattle. The objective was to determine the abundance of Culicoides spp. and BTV/EHDV infection prevalence in midges, cattle, and deer in an area experiencing an outbreak of BT and EHD. Agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) tests to detect for EHDV and BTV antibodies were conducted on serum collected from cattle and deer, quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT–qPCR) was utilized for BTV/EHDV RNA detection in tissues from dead deer, and CDC miniature black light traps baited with dry ice were deployed to capture insects. The AGID results showed 19 out of 29 cattle and 18 out of 58 white-tailed deer seroconverted for these viruses during the vector season. Tradition gel-based reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was utilized to determine serotype. Sixteen cows were positive for EHDV-2, EHDV-6, or BTV-12 and 15 deer positive for EHDV-1, EHDV-6, or BTV-12. Specimens from 14 species of Culicoides (Dptera: Ceratopogonidae) (Culicoides arboricola Root and Hoffman, Culicoides biguttatus Coquillett, Culicoides crepuscularis Malloch, Culicoides debilipalpis Lutz, Culicoides furens Poey, Culicoides haematopotus Malloch, Culicoides hinmani Khalaf, Culicoides nanus Root and Hoffman, Culicoides neopulicaris Wirth, Culicoides paraensis Goeldi, Culicoides stellifer Coquillet, Culicoides variipennis Coquillet, Culicoides villosipennis Root and Hoffman, and Culicoides venustus Hoffman) were captured and tested for BTV and EHDV using RT-qPCR assays. BTV viral nucleic acid was detected in three pools from three different species of midges: C. crepuscularis, C. debilipalpis, and C. stellifer.

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Biihrer, Daniel A., Adriana S. Albuquerque, Adriana H. C. N. Romaldini, Edviges M. Pituco, Ana Carolina D. Matos, Zelia I. P. Lobato, Mary S. Varaschin, and Djeison L. Raymundo. "Serological survey of bluetongue virus in sheep from Minas Gerais." Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 40, no. 4 (April 2020): 261–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-6318.

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ABSTRACT: Bluetongue is an infectious, non-contagious disease that affects domestic and wild ruminants, caused by a virus from the Orbivirus genus, Reoviridae family, transmitted by arthropod vectors of the Culicoides genus. This paper aims to be the first serological survey of bluetongue in sheep from the Meso-regions of Campo das Vertentes and South and Southeast of Minas Gerais. Samples were collected from sheep from different properties. The serum samples were submitted to Agar Gel Immunodiffusion (AGID) and competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (cELISA). 303 serum samples were submitted to AGID and cELISA. In these samples, 164 (54.13%) were positive in the AGID technique, and 171 (56.44%) positive in the cELISA technique, with an almost perfect agreement between the techniques (kappa index = 0.887). In all visited properties, positive animals have been found in the herd. Animals acquired from properties of the studied mesoregions were more likely to be positive in IDGA and cELISA tests than animals acquired from properties in other regions of Brazil (p<0.001). These results suggest that bluetongue virus (BTV) is widespread in the mesoregions of Campo das Vertentes and South and Southeast of Minas Gerais.

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KIRKLAND, P. D., N. ZHANG, R. A. HAWKES, Z. LI, F. ZHANG, R. J. DAVIS, D. A. SANDERS, et al. "Studies on the epidemiology of bluetongue virus in China." Epidemiology and Infection 128, no. 2 (April 2002): 257–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268801006525.

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Sentinel herds of large ruminants were established at five centres in Yunnan Province, Peoples Republic of China, between 1995 and 1997. The application of a sensitive antigen capture ELISA to facilitate virus isolation procedures led to the isolation of 108 strains of bluetongue (BLU) virus. Serotypes isolated included types 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 21 and 23. Virus transmission occurred over a period of 1–3 months at each of the four positive sites, giving an overall BLU virus transmission period for the province of 5 months, from early June to early November. The greatest level of transmission took place in July and August. The duration of viraemia in individual animals varied from 1 to 7 weeks, with a mean calculated for each serotype between 6 and 20 days. The study represents the first detailed investigation of the epidemiology of BLU in China utilizing sentinel herds.

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Boyce, Mark, and Polly Roy. "Recovery of Infectious Bluetongue Virus from RNA." Journal of Virology 81, no. 5 (December 6, 2006): 2179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.01819-06.

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ABSTRACT Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an insect-vectored emerging pathogen of ruminants with the potential for devastating economic impact on European agriculture. BTV and many other members of the Reoviridae have remained stubbornly refractory to the development of methods for the rescue of infectious virus from cloned nucleic acid (reverse genetics). Partially disassembled virus particles are transcriptionally active, synthesizing viral transcripts in the cytoplasm of infected cells, in essence delivering viral nucleic acids in situ. With the goal of generating a reverse-genetics system for BTV, we examined the possibility of recovering infectious BTV by the transfection of BSR cells with BTV transcripts (single-stranded RNA [ssRNA]) synthesized in vitro using BTV core particles. Following transfection, viral-protein synthesis was detected by immunoblotting, and confocal examination of the cells showed a punctate cytoplasmic distribution of inclusion bodies similar to that seen in infected cells. Viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) was isolated from ssRNA-transfected cells, demonstrating that replication of the ssRNA had occurred. Additionally, infectious virus was present in the medium of transfected cells, as demonstrated by the passage of infectivity in BSR cells. Infectivity was sensitive to single-strand-specific RNase A, and cotransfection of genomic BTV dsRNA with transcribed ssRNA demonstrated that the ssRNA species, rather than dsRNA, were the active components. We conclude that it is possible to recover infectious BTV wholly from ssRNA, which suggests a means for establishing helper virus-independent reverse-genetics systems for members of the Reoviridae.

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Andriamandimby, Soa Fy, Cyril Viarouge, Jean-Pierre Ravalohery, Jean-Marc Reynes, Corinne Sailleau, Michael Luciano Tantely, Nohal Elissa, et al. "Detection in and circulation of Bluetongue virus among domestic ruminants in Madagascar." Veterinary Microbiology 176, no. 3-4 (April 2015): 268–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.009.

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van Rijn, Piet A., Sandra G. P. van de Water, Mieke A. Maris-Veldhuis, and René G. P. van Gennip. "Experimental infection of small ruminants with bluetongue virus expressing Toggenburg Orbivirus proteins." Veterinary Microbiology 192 (August 2016): 145–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.07.013.

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Casaubon, Julien, Valérie Chaignat, Hans-Rudolf Vogt, Adam O. Michel, Barbara Thür, and Marie-Pierre Ryser-Degiorgis. "Survey of bluetongue virus infection in free-ranging wild ruminants in Switzerland." BMC Veterinary Research 9, no. 1 (2013): 166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-9-166.

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Roy, Polly. "Bluetongue virus: dissection of the polymerase complex." Journal of General Virology 89, no. 8 (August 1, 2008): 1789–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.2008/002089-0.

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Bluetongue is a vector-borne viral disease of ruminants that is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries. Since 1998 the virus has also appeared in Europe. Partly due to the seriousness of the disease, bluetongue virus (BTV), a member of genus Orbivirus within the family Reoviridae, has been a subject of intense molecular study for the last three decades and is now one of the best understood viruses at the molecular and structural levels. BTV is a complex non-enveloped virus with seven structural proteins arranged in two capsids and a genome of ten double-stranded (ds) RNA segments. Shortly after cell entry, the outer capsid is lost to release an inner capsid (the core) which synthesizes capped mRNAs from each genomic segment, extruding them into the cytoplasm. This requires the efficient co-ordination of a number of enzymes, including helicase, polymerase and RNA capping activities. This review will focus on our current understanding of these catalytic proteins as derived from the use of recombinant proteins, combined with functional assays and the in vitro reconstitution of the transcription/replication complex. In some cases, 3D structures have complemented this analysis to reveal the fine structural detail of these proteins. The combined activities of the core enzymes produce infectious transcripts necessary and sufficient to initiate BTV infection. Such infectious transcripts can now be synthesized wholly in vitro and, when introduced into cells by transfection, lead to the recovery of infectious virus. Future studies thus hold the possibility of analysing the consequence of mutation in a replicating virus system.

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Listeš, Eddy, Sanja Bosnić, Miroslav Benić, Josip Madić, Željko Cvetnić, Mirko Lojkić, Sanja Šeparović, Ankica Labrović, and Giovanni Savini. "An outbreak of bluetongue virus serotype 9 in Southern Croatia." Acta Veterinaria Brno 80, no. 4 (2011): 331–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2754/avb201180040331.

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The aim of this study was to provide a description of the first epidemic of bluetongue and the first survey on midges of the genus Culicoides in Croatia. Clinical signs were firstly observed on November 2001 in sheep in Konavle, Dubrovnik – Neretva County. During this epizootic the overall sheep morbidity and mortality were 5.2% (95% confidence interval (c.i.), 4.1-6.6%) and 2.29% (95% c.i., 1.6-3.3%), respectively. After the outbreak, 3,318 serum samples of ruminants from 53 villages of the Dubrovnik – Neretva County were examined for bluetongue virus (BTV) antibodies by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). In forty nine (92.45%, 95% c.i., 82.11-96.92%) of the 53 villages, animals with antibodies against bluetongue virus were found. In particular, a total of 178 cattle (49.86%, 95% c.i., 44.7-55.0%), 174 sheep (13.72%, 95% c.i., 11.9-15.7%) and 270 goats (15.95%, 95% c.i., 14.3-17.8%) were seropositive. Antibodies to bluetongue virus serotype 9 were detected in 212 positive sera by serum neutralization test. The percentage of positive animals decreased (P > 0.05) from the east to the west suggesting a possible east westward spreading of BTV infection. Fourteen light-trap midge collections from seven different sites were examined. Of the 4872 Culicoides spp. collected, 4,492 (92%, 95% c.i., 91.4-92.9%) of them belonged to the species of Obsoletus complex. This study showed for the first time that a pathogenic strain of BTV-9, probably from Montenegro, entered Croatia causing disease and death in local sheep and that C. obsoletus and C. scoticus were likely the major vectors of infection.

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Ashby, Martin, Paulina Rajko-Nenow, Carrie Batten, and John Flannery. "Simultaneous Detection of Bluetongue Virus Serotypes Using xMAP Technology." Microorganisms 8, no. 10 (October 11, 2020): 1564. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8101564.

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Bluetongue is an economically important disease of ruminants caused by the bluetongue virus (BTV). BTV is serologically diverse, which complicates vaccination strategies. Rapid identification of the causative BTV serotypes is critical, however, real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) can be costly and time consuming to perform when the circulating serotypes are unknown. The Luminex xMAP technology is a high-throughput platform that uses fluorescent beads to detect multiple targets simultaneously. We utilized existing BTV serotyping RT-qPCR assays for BTV-1 to BTV-24 and adapted them for use with the xMAP platform. The xMAP assay specifically detected all 24 BTV serotypes when testing reference strains. In all BTV-positive samples, the sensitivity of the BTV xMAP was 87.55% whereas the sensitivity of the serotype-specific RT-qPCR was 79.85%. The BTV xMAP assay allowed for the specific detection of BTV serotypes 1–24 at a lower cost than current RT-qPCR assays. Overall, the assay provides a useful novel diagnostic tool, particularly when analyzing large sample sets. The use of the BTV xMAP assay will allow for the rapid assessment of BTV epidemiology and may inform decision-making related to control and prevention measures.

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Ma, Jian-Gang, Xiao-Xuan Zhang, Wen-Bin Zheng, Ying-Tian Xu, Xing-Quan Zhu, Gui-Xue Hu, and Dong-Hui Zhou. "Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Bluetongue Virus Infection in Tibetan Sheep and Yaks in Tibetan Plateau, China." BioMed Research International 2017 (2017): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5139703.

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Bluetongue (BT), caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), is an arthropod-borne viral disease in ruminants. However, information about BTV infection in yaks in China is limited. Moreover, no such data concerning BTV in Tibetan sheep is available. Therefore, 3771 serum samples were collected from 2187 Tibetan sheep and 1584 yaks between April 2013 and March 2014 from Tibetan Plateau, western China, and tested for BTV antibodies using a commercially available ELISA kit. The overall seroprevalence of BTV was 17.34% (654/3771), with 20.3% (443/2187) in Tibetan sheep and 13.3% (211/1584) in yaks. In the Tibetan sheep group, the seroprevalence of BTV in Luqu, Maqu, Tianzhu, and Nyingchi Prefecture was 20.3%, 20.8%, 20.5%, and 19.1%, respectively. The seroprevalence of BTV in different season groups varied from 16.5% to 23.4%. In the yak group, BTV seroprevalence was 12.6%, 15.5%, and 11.0% in Tianzhu, Maqu, and Luqu counties, respectively. The seroprevalence in different seasons was 12.6%, 15.5%, 15.4%, and 9.0% in spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively. The season was the major risk factor concerning BTV infection in yaks (P<0.05). The date of the BTV seroprevalence in Tibetan sheep and yaks provides baseline information for controlling BT in ruminants in western China.

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Kundlacz, Cindy, Grégory Caignard, Corinne Sailleau, Cyril Viarouge, Lydie Postic, Damien Vitour, Stéphan Zientara, and Emmanuel Breard. "Bluetongue Virus in France: An Illustration of the European and Mediterranean Context since the 2000s." Viruses 11, no. 7 (July 23, 2019): 672. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11070672.

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Bluetongue (BT) is a non-contagious animal disease transmitted by midges of the Culicoides genus. The etiological agent is the BT virus (BTV) that induces a variety of clinical signs in wild or domestic ruminants. BT is included in the notifiable diseases list of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) due to its health impact on domestic ruminants. A total of 27 BTV serotypes have been described and additional serotypes have recently been identified. Since the 2000s, the distribution of BTV has changed in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin, with continuous BTV incursions involving various BTV serotypes and strains. These BTV strains, depending on their origin, have emerged and spread through various routes in the Mediterranean Basin and/or in Europe. Consequently, control measures have been put in place in France to eradicate the virus or circumscribe its spread. These measures mainly consist of assessing virus movements and the vaccination of domestic ruminants. Many vaccination campaigns were first carried out in Europe using attenuated vaccines and, in a second period, using exclusively inactivated vaccines. This review focuses on the history of the various BTV strain incursions in France since the 2000s, describing strain characteristics, their origins, and the different routes of spread in Europe and/or in the Mediterranean Basin. The control measures implemented to address this disease are also discussed. Finally, we explain the circumstances leading to the change in the BTV status of France from BTV-free in 2000 to an enzootic status since 2018.

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DeMaula, Christopher D., Mark A. Jutila, Dennis W. Wilson, and N. James MacLachlan. "Infection kinetics, prostacyclin release and cytokine-mediated modulation of the mechanism of cell death during bluetongue virus infection of cultured ovine and bovine pulmonary artery and lung microvascular endothelial cells." Journal of General Virology 82, no. 4 (April 1, 2001): 787–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-82-4-787.

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Bluetongue virus (BTV) infection causes a haemorrhagic disease in sheep, whereas BTV infection typically is asymptomatic in cattle. Injury to the endothelium of small blood vessels is responsible for the manifestations of disease in BTV-infected sheep. The lungs are central to the pathogenesis of BTV infection of ruminants; thus endothelial cells (ECs) cultured from the pulmonary artery and lung microvasculature of sheep and cattle were used to investigate the basis for the disparate expression of bluetongue disease in the two species. Ovine and bovine microvascular ECs infected at low multiplicity with partially purified BTV were equally susceptible to BTV-induced cell death, yet ovine microvascular ECs had a lower incidence of infection and produced significantly less virus than did bovine microvascular ECs. Importantly, the relative proportions of apoptotic and necrotic cells were significantly different in BTV-infected EC cultures depending on the species of EC origin and the presence of inflammatory mediators in the virus inoculum. Furthermore, BTV-infected ovine lung microvascular ECs released markedly less prostacyclin than the other types of ECs. Results of these in vitro studies are consistent with the marked pulmonary oedema and microvascular thrombosis that characterize bluetongue disease of sheep but which rarely, if ever, occur in BTV-infected cattle.

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Janowicz, Anna, Marco Caporale, Andrew Shaw, Salvatore Gulletta, Luigina Di Gialleonardo, Maxime Ratinier, and Massimo Palmarini. "Multiple Genome Segments Determine Virulence of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 8." Journal of Virology 89, no. 10 (March 11, 2015): 5238–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.00395-15.

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ABSTRACTBluetongue virus (BTV) causes bluetongue, a major hemorrhagic disease of ruminants. In order to investigate the molecular determinants of BTV virulence, we used a BTV8 strain minimally passaged in tissue culture (termed BTV8Lin this study) and a derivative strain passaged extensively in tissue culture (BTV8H) inin vitroandin vivostudies. BTV8Lwas pathogenic in both IFNAR−/−mice and in sheep, while BTV8Hwas attenuated in both species. To identify genetic changes which led to BTV8Hattenuation, we generated 34 reassortants between BTV8Land BTV8H. We found that partial attenuation of BTV8Lin IFNAR−/−mice was achieved by simply replacing genomic segment 2 (Seg2, encoding VP2) or Seg10 (encoding NS3) with the BTV8Hhomologous segments. Fully attenuated viruses required at least two genome segments from BTV8H, including Seg2 with either Seg1 (encoding VP1), Seg6 (encoding VP6 and NS4), or Seg10 (encoding NS3). Conversely, full reversion of virulence of BTV8Hrequired at least five genomic segments of BTV8L. We also demonstrated that BTV8Hacquired an increased affinity for glycosaminoglycan receptors during passaging in cell culture due to mutations in its VP2 protein. Replication of BTV8Hwas relatively poor in interferon (IFN)-competent primary ovine endothelial cells compared to replication of BTV8L, and this phenotype was determined by several viral genomic segments, including Seg4 and Seg9. This study demonstrated that multiple viral proteins contribute to BTV8 virulence. VP2 and NS3 are primary determinants of BTV pathogenesis, but VP1, VP5, VP4, VP6, and VP7 also contribute to virulence.IMPORTANCEBluetongue is one of the major infectious diseases of ruminants, and it is listed as a notifiable disease by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). The clinical outcome of BTV infection varies considerably and depends on environmental and host- and virus-specific factors. Over the years, BTV serotypes/strains with various degrees of virulence (including nonpathogenic strains) have been described in different geographical locations. However, no data are available to correlate the BTV genotype to virulence. This study shows that BTV virulence is determined by different viral genomic segments. The data obtained will help to characterize thoroughly the pathogenesis of bluetongue. The possibility to determine the pathogenicity of virus isolates on the basis of their genome sequences will help in the design of control strategies that fit the risk posed by new emerging BTV strains.

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Maan, S., Aman Kumar, A. K. Gupta, A. Dalal, D. Chaudhary, T. K. Gupta, N. Bansal, et al. "Concurrent infection of Bluetongue and Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus in small ruminants in Haryana State of India." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 65, no. 1 (January 24, 2017): 235–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12610.

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Georgiev, G., N. Nedelchev, and L. Polihronova. "Programme national bulgare de surveillance du virus de la fièvre catarrhale : études de terrain et évaluation du risque en 2009." Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 62, no. 2-4 (February 1, 2009): 155. http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/remvt.10063.

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Bluetongue is a non-contagious, arthropod-borne viral disease of both domestic and wild ruminants. Bluetongue virus (BTV) is endemic in some areas where cattle and wild ruminants serve as reservoirs for the virus. Some authors suggest that a fundamental change in the European ecosystem since 1998, mostly linked to climate change, may have influenced the introduction and survival of BTV in Europe. Genetic analyses of bluetongue viruses isolated in Europe during this period showed that six virus types (1, 2, 4, 8, 9 and 16) have entered the region since that period. The aim of this presentation was to summarize the results of the National BTV Surveillance Programme, field studies, and risk assessment of BTV entry into Bulgaria in 2009. As part of the Surveillance Programme of the disease in 2009, seroprevalence was performed in 19 sentinel BTV-seronegative animal herds, 7 of which were located in the western part of the country and the other 12 in the southern part, about 10 to 20 kilometres from the border. Each sentinel herd consisted of 10 large ear-tagged ruminants. The sentinel animals were tested every 30 days for the presence of BTV antibodies. Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (cELISAs) were used to determine the antibodies against the common group antigen. Fourteen Onderstepoort black light traps were set up for Culicoides surveillance and monitoring in southern and western border districts of the country after April 1, 2009. Catches of Culicoides were sorted by traditional identification keys. The risk of BTV invasion was assessed according to the World Organisation for Animal Health standards. The hazard identification, possibility of BT outbreaks, and assessment of the epidemiological situation in neighbouring countries were made based on other authors’ reports on the density of small and large ruminants, and economical and trade relations between countries. In addition, the BTV situation on a Greek Aegean Sea Island was closely monitored in 2008-09. During the 2009 serum surveillance period, 3340 serum samples from different species of ruminants were investigated, all with negative results for BTV antibodies; C. imicola was never detected in more than 12 years of Culicoides surveillance in Bulgaria. Analysis of 274 midges caught during 2009 showed that dominating Culicoides species were of the Obsoletus and Pulicaris complexes, well-known Palaearctic midges in Europe. The negative results from the Surveillance Programme supported the evidence of absence of active BTV circulation on the whole territory of Bulgaria during 2009. During the 2008-09 season, Greek Authorities reported several circulating BTV serotypes (1, 8, 16) on Lesvos Island. As the epidemiological situation on Greek islands in the Aegean Sea is complicated and not very clear, the risk of BTV entering Bulgaria ranges from high (in spring and summer) to moderate (in winter and autumn).

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MacLachlan, N. James, and Bennie I. Osburn. "Impact of bluetongue virus infection on the international movement and trade of ruminants." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 228, no. 9 (May 2006): 1346–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.228.9.1346.

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Sohail, Tayyebah, Tahir Yaqub, Tariq Abbas, Masood Rabbani, Jawad Nazir, Syeda Marriam Maqbool, Saima Yaqub, et al. "Seroprevalence of Bluetongue virus in small and large ruminants in Punjab province, Pakistan." Acta Tropica 189 (January 2019): 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.09.020.

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Yang, Jia-Ling, Lenny Hao-Che Yen, Well Chia-Wei Yen, and Fun-In Wang. "A SUBCLINICAL BLUETONGUE VIRUS INFECTION IN RUMINANTS WITH THREE UNIQUE AMINO ACID VARIATIONS ON VP7 CORE PROTEIN OF TAIWAN ISOLATES." Taiwan Veterinary Journal 45, no. 03 (August 30, 2019): 67–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s168264851950001x.

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Bluetongue is an arthropod-borne disease in domestic and wild ruminants caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), and it leads to great economic loss worldwide. Previous studies showed that BTV in ruminants in Taiwan was often subclinical infection. The aim of this study was to determine the current status (years 2016–2017) of BTV infection in ruminants in Taiwan, to compare it to the results of a large-scale study conducted in the year 2003, and to investigate whether new viral strains exist. Competitive ELISA tests of serum samples for anti-BTV-VP7 group-specific antibody revealed seropositive rates of 26.7% in cattle by head, similar to 32.7% in the year 2003, suggestive of a BTV-vector-host (cattle) dynamic balance. In goats, the seropositive rate was 18.6%, slightly increased from 8.2% in the year 2003, suggestive of a slow but active infection taking place. This notion was supported by the detection of VP1 gene nucleic acid from whole blood in six out of 29 seropositive goats by reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction. However, no new virus strain was isolated from embryonating chicken embryos (ECEs) inoculation. Alignment of VP7 amino acid sequences revealed that Taiwan and Japan isolates possessed three specific amino acids on sites No. 82 (arginine), No. 328 (aspartate), and No. 336 (glutamine), which are different from many countries. In a three-dimensional model, these amino acids were located closely on the middle lateral surface of VP7 trimers. Since VP7 is a major outer protein engaged in entry into insect cells and a strong T cell response inducer, these differences likely indicate the result of positive selection of local vectors and hosts in Taiwan.

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Ma, Jun, Xiang Gao, Boyang Liu, Hao Chen, Jianhua Xiao, and Hongbin Wang. "Epidemiology and spatial distribution of bluetongue virus in Xinjiang, China." PeerJ 7 (February 22, 2019): e6514. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6514.

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Bluetongue (BT) is a non-contagious disease affecting domestic and wild ruminants. Outbreaks of BT can cause serious economic losses. To investigate the distribution characteristics of bluetongue virus (BTV), two large-scale censuses of BTV prevalence in Xinjiang, China were collected. Spatial autocorrelation analysis, including global spatial autocorrelation and local spatial autocorrelation, was performed. Risk areas for BTV occurrence in Xinjiang were detected using the presence-only maximum entropy model. The global spatial autocorrelation of BTV distribution in Xinjiang in 2012 showed a random pattern. In contrast, the spatial distribution of BTV from 2014 to 2015 was significantly clustered. The hotspot areas for BTV infection included Balikun County (p< 0.05), Yiwu County (p< 0.05) and Hami City (p< 0.05) in 2012. These three regions were also hotspot areas during 2014 and 2015. Sheep distribution (25.6% contribution), precipitation seasonality (22.1% contribution) and mean diurnal range (16.2% contribution) were identified as the most important predictors for BTV occurrence in Xinjiang. This study demonstrated the presence of high-risk areas for BTV infection in Xinjiang, which can serve as a tool to aid in the development of preventative countermeasures of BT outbreaks.

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Yang, Jia-Ling, Yi-Chia Li, Shu-Chia Hu, Fan Lee, and Fun-In Wang. "RAPID DIAGNOSIS OF BLUETONGUE VIRUS SEROTYPES 2 AND 12 INFECTION BY REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION LOOP-MEDIATED ISOTHERMAL AMPLIFICATION." Taiwan Veterinary Journal 41, no. 03 (September 2015): 187–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1682648515500092.

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Bluetongue (BT), an arthropod-borne viral disease, is caused by the bluetongue virus (BTV), belonging to the genus Orbivirus of the family Reoviridae. Most species of ruminants are susceptible to BTV, but most infections go subclinical. These 'reservoir hosts' may potentially further increase the viral transmission and expansion of the disease; thus, detection of subclinical infection is important. To detect the BTV, a reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay was developed using primers targeted to six regions of the segment 5 (NS1) gene of the BTV2/KM/2003. The assay was completed in 1 h at a temperature 65°C, and the products were specifically digested with MboII enzyme presented in the target region. The in vitro sensitivity of the RT-LAMP was 100 copies, characterized by a qRT-PCR. The RT-LAMP did not cross-react with four tested common ruminant infectious agents, namely foot and mouth disease virus, goat pox virus, bovine herpesvirus 1, and Clostridium perfrigens. The RT-LAMP was applied to whole blood samples from 15 clinically healthy dairy cattle, and was able to detect BTV from 3/15 animals, and in particular 1 of the 3 animals was seronegative by cELISA. Positive RT-LAMP samples were reproducible. This RT-LAMP provides a simple, efficient, and sensitive method to specifically detect BTV and is suitable for the screening of field samples with a potential to pick up subclinical infection. The alignments of the outer primer region indicated matches of > 85% with 18 out of 26 BTV serotypes, implying its potential as universal primers.

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Lechmann, Julia, Mathias Ackermann, Vanessa Kaiser, and Claudia Bachofen. "Viral infections shared between water buffaloes and small ruminants in Switzerland." Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 33, no. 5 (June 24, 2021): 894–905. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/10406387211027131.

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Importation of exotic animals that may harbor infectious agents poses risks for native species with potentially severe impacts on animal health and animal production. Although the Asian water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis) population in Europe is steadily increasing, its susceptibility to viral infections and its role for interspecies transmission is largely unknown. To identify viral infections that are shared between exotic water buffaloes and native small ruminants, we collected blood samples from 3 Swiss farms on which water buffaloes were kept either without, or together with, sheep or goats. These samples were analyzed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) as well as by selected conventional tests, including PCR, ELISA, and in some cases a virus neutralization test. By NGS, a novel virus of the genus Gemykrogvirus (GyKV; Genomoviridae) was first detected in the buffaloes on one farm, and subsequently confirmed by PCR, and was also detected in the co-housed sheep. In contrast, this virus was not detected in buffaloes on the farms without sheep. Moreover, conventional methods identified a number of viral infections that were not shared between the exotic and the native animals, and provided evidence for potential roles of water buffaloes in the epidemiology of ruminant pestiviruses, especially bovine viral diarrhea virus, bluetongue virus, and possibly bovine alphaherpesvirus 2. Our results clearly indicate that water buffaloes are susceptible to interspecies viral transmission and may act as intermediate hosts, or even as reservoirs, for these viruses.

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Napp, Sebastian, S. Gubbins, P. Calistri, Alberto Allepuz, Anna Alba, I. Garcia-Bocanegra, A. Giovannini, and Jordi Casal. "Evaluation de la probabilité d'hivernage du virus de la fièvre catarrhale ovine par transmission horizontale chez les vecteurs, les ruminants ou les deux : application en Allemagne." Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 62, no. 2-4 (February 1, 2009): 160. http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/remvt.10068.

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Even though bluetongue virus (BTV) transmission is apparently interrupted during winter, bluetongue outbreaks often reappear in the next season (overwintering). Several mechanisms for BTV overwintering have been proposed, but to date their relative importance remains unclear. In order to assess the probability of BTV overwintering by horizontal transmission in vectors (long-lived Culicoides), ruminants (prolonged viraemia), or a combination of both, a quantitative risk assessment model was developed. Furthermore, the model allowed the role played by the residual number of vectors present during winter to be examined, and the effect of a proportion of Culicoides living inside buildings (endophilic behaviour) to be explored. The model was then applied to a real scenario: overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007. The results showed that the limited number of vectors active during winter seemed to allow the transmission of BTV during this period and that this transmission was favoured by the endophilic behaviour of some Culicoides. Even though transmission was possible, the likelihood of BTV overwintering by horizontal transmission in vectors, ruminants or in both seemed however too low to explain the observed re-emergence of the disease. Therefore, other overwintering mechanisms that were not considered in the model are likely to have played a significant role in BTV overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007.

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Djurić, Spomenka, Predrag Simeunović, Milorad Mirilović, Jevrosima Stevanović, Uroš Glavinić, Branislav Vejnović, and Zoran Stanimirović. "Retrospective Analysis of the Bluetongue Outbreak in Serbia." Macedonian Veterinary Review 40, no. 1 (March 1, 2017): 21–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/macvetrev-2016-0094.

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Abstract Bluetongue, a vector-born disease caused by the Bluetongue virus (BTV) and transmitted by Culicoides biting midges, is considered to be one of the most important diseases of domestic ruminants. The first outbreak of bluetongue in Serbia was reported in 2001, when BTV serotype 9 was identified in sampled materials. In 2014, outbreak of BTV-4 in Serbia caused considerable economic losses affecting sheep, cattle and goats. During this outbreak, BTV-4 was recorded in 644 outbreaks within 49 municipalities, part of 17 administrative regions. From the total number of sheep kept in areas affected by bluetongue (n=1 748 110), 2 083 cases (0.2%) were proven to be BTV-4 infected. Total of 206 infected cattle and 24 infected goats were reported during this investigation period, which represents 0.06% and 0.03% of the total number of cattle and goats kept in affected areas, respectively. The highest incidence of infected sheep, cattle and goats was recorded on the territory covered by veterinary institute of Nis. Recorded lethality in cattle, sheep and goats was 18.45% (n=38), 48.10% (n=1002) and 54.17% (n=13), respectively. The peak of the outbreak was in September and October when 94.43% of the confirmed positive cases, regardless of the species, was recorded. Monitoring of bluetongue disease in Serbia relies on active surveillance programmes aimed at: (i) identification and tracing of susceptible and potentially infected animals and (ii) detection, distribution and prevalence of insect vectors. Vaccination of sheep is planned to be implemented as a control measure against bluetongue in Serbia.

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Maksimović-Zorić, Jelena, Vesna Milićević, Ljubiša Veljović, Ivan Pavlović, Vladimir Radosavljević, Miroslav Valčić, and Mileva Glišić. "BLUETONGUE DISEASE - EPIZOOTIOLOGY SITUATION IN SERBIA IN 2015, DIAGNOSIS AND DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS." Archives of Veterinary Medicine 9, no. 1 (November 17, 2016): 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.46784/e-avm.v9i1.93.

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Bluetongue disease is non-contagious, vector borne, viral disease mainly of sheep but also of other domestic and wild ruminants. Bluetongue virus (BTV) belongs to the family Reoviridae, genus Orbivirus and is characterized by segmented double-stranded RNA. Virus is transmitted from one to another susceptible animal by hematophagous insects of the genus Culicoides. According to offi cial data, between 2002 and 2014, Serbia has belonged to BTV free countries. Aft er that, the fi rst outbreak occurred in August 2014. Th e last case was reported in December of the same year. During 2015, 74 samples were examined for exclusion of bluetongue disease: 8 in cattle, 65 in sheep and one in goat. In order to detect viral genome, 73 blood samples and one tissue sample were examined by reverse transcription - polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). None of tested samples was confi rmed to be BTV positive. Following the Instruction of the Ministry of Agriculture and Environmental Protection - Veterinary Directorate, monitoring program for Bluetongue disease in Serbia started from October 2015. The program consists of insect identifi cation and detection of viral genome in Culicoides spp. by RT-PCR assay. Of the 80 samples that were received during the program realization in 2015, only four, which were collected during late autumn, have contained insects of Culicoides spp. In none of them, BTV was detected. For diff erential diagnosis, 65 ovine blood samples were examined for the presence of viruses of contagious ecthyma, sheep and goat pox as well as eight bovine blood samples were tested for viruses of bovine viral diarrhea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis / pustular vulvovaginitis and malignant catarrhal fever. Th e samples were analyzed using molecular methods (PCR and RT-PCR). Only two bovine blood samples gave positive reaction for the presence of bovine viral diarrhea virus.

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Pourcelot, Marie, Rayane Amaral Moraes, Aurore Fablet, Emmanuel Bréard, Corinne Sailleau, Cyril Viarouge, Lydie Postic, Stéphan Zientara, Grégory Caignard, and Damien Vitour. "The VP3 Protein of Bluetongue Virus Associates with the MAVS Complex and Interferes with the RIG-I-Signaling Pathway." Viruses 13, no. 2 (February 2, 2021): 230. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v13020230.

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Bluetongue virus (BTV), an arbovirus transmitted by Culicoides biting midges, is a major concern of wild and domestic ruminants. While BTV induces type I interferon (alpha/beta interferon [IFN-α/β]) production in infected cells, several reports have described evasion strategies elaborated by this virus to dampen this intrinsic, innate response. In the present study, we suggest that BTV VP3 is a new viral antagonist of the IFN-β synthesis. Indeed, using split luciferase and coprecipitation assays, we report an interaction between VP3 and both the mitochondrial adapter protein MAVS and the IRF3-kinase IKKε. Overall, this study describes a putative role for the BTV structural protein VP3 in the control of the antiviral response.

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Bonneau, K. R., B. A. Mullens, and N. J. MacLachlan. "Occurrence of Genetic Drift and Founder Effect during Quasispecies Evolution of the VP2 and NS3/NS3A Genes of Bluetongue Virus upon Passage between Sheep, Cattle, andCulicoides sonorensis." Journal of Virology 75, no. 17 (September 1, 2001): 8298–305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.75.17.8298-8305.2001.

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ABSTRACT Bluetongue virus (BTV) is the cause of an insect-transmitted virus infection of ruminants that occurs throughout much of the world. Individual gene segments differ between field strains of BTV; thus, we hypothesized that key viral genes undergo genetic drift during alternating passage of BTV in its ruminant and insect hosts. To test this hypothesis, variation in the consensus sequence and quasispecies heterogeneity of the VP2 and NS3/NS3A genes of a plaque-purified strain of BTV serotype 10 was determined during alternating infection of vector Culicoides sonorensis and a sheep and calf. Consensus sequences were determined after reverse transcriptase-nested PCR amplification of viral RNA directly from ruminant blood and homogenized insects, and quasispecies heterogeneity was determined by the sequencing of clones derived from directly amplified viral RNA. Comparison of these sequences to those of the original BTV inoculum used to initiate the cycle of BTV infection demonstrated, for the first time, that individual BTV gene segments evolve independently of one another by genetic drift in a host-specific fashion, generating quasispecies populations in both ruminant and insect hosts. Furthermore, a unique viral variant was randomly ingested by C. sonorensis insects that fed on a sheep with low-titer viremia, thereby fixing a novel genotype by founder effect. Thus, we conclude that genetic drift and founder effect contribute to diversification of individual gene segments of field strains of BTV.

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Maan, N. S., S. Maan, K. Nomikou, and P. P. C. Mertens. "Identification de virus de la fièvre catarrhale ovine réassortis dans la région Ouest méditerranéenne." Revue d’élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux 62, no. 2-4 (February 1, 2009): 167. http://dx.doi.org/10.19182/remvt.10072.

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Bluetongue virus (BTV) is the species of the genus Orbivirus of the family Reoviridae. BTV can infect most ruminants, causing a severe haemorrhagic disease called bluetongue in sheep. BTV is transmitted among ruminant hosts by certain species of Culicoides (biting midges). The BTV genome is composed of ten linear double-stranded (ds) RNA genome segments, encoding seven structural and three non-structural proteins. The segmented nature of the genome allows different BTV strains infecting the same cell to exchange (reassort) genome segments. Nine BTV serotypes have been detected in Europe since 1998, including strains belonging to both eastern (BTV-1, 9, 16) and western lineages (BTV-1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 11). Live attenuated monovalent vaccine strains of BTV-2, 4, 8, 9 (western group) and BTV- 16 (eastern group) have also been used in the Mediterranean region, in attempts to minimise virus circulation. The release of these vaccine strains, some of which have persisted in the field (including BTV-2 and 16), has added further genetic diversity, generating an unprecedented mix of field and vaccine strain viruses. These events have provided unique opportunities for genome segment exchange (reassortment) between different BTV strains and topotypes. Indeed, a strain of BTV-2, derived by reassortment between vaccine strains of BTV-2 and 16 has been previously detected in Italy during 2002. Full genome sequence analysis of BTV-2 and BTV-4 isolates (1999-2004) from the Western Mediterranean region helped to identify multiple reassortant viruses, involving the exchange of several different genome segments. Reassortant viruses were identified as containing genes derived from different western field strains, from western field and vaccine strains, and from eastern field and western vaccine strains. The detection of these reassortant BTVs in Europe highlights concerns about the use of live BTV vaccines in the region.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Bluetongue virus; Ruminants'

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